exam 3 - chapter 7, 8, 9, 14
information processing model 2
connectionism - new information changes our neural networks by forming new pathways and or strengthening pathways
the big 5
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs instability), openness, extraversion
superego
develops around age 4-5, voice of our moral compass (conscience)
forgetting - storage decay
discarded memories not easily retrieved anymore ***old information interferes with new information*** think about changing a password
information processing model 1
encoding - storage - retrieval -
retrieving memories - context-dependent memories
encoding specificity principle - ideas and cues specific to the particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
explicit memories cont.
episodic memories: experienced events
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
components of creativity
expertise: develop expertise imaginative thinking skills: allow time for incubation, set aside time for the mind to roam freely venturesome personality: experience other cultures and ways of thinking intrinsic motivation creative environment
implicit memories
facts and experiences that we are not conscious of, cerebellum - ex. puff of air associations
explicit memories
facts and experiences that we consciously know. encoded through effortful processing
psychodynamic theory of personality
focus on the unconscious - our minds are mostly hidden, where unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories are stored importance of childhood experiences
fixation
getting "stuck" in an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
trait theories
gordon allport, Myers-briggs, Eysenck, cattel less focus on unconscious - "may plunge to deep", ignores more obvious aspects of how people behave more focus on stable, enduring behavior patterns - characteristic behaviors, conscious motives, concerned with describing behavior rather than explaining it
effortful processing strategies - chunking
grouping information in a way that makes them easier to remember
explicit memories cont.
hippocampus and frontal lobes: memory consolidation (supported by sleep)
obstacles to problem-solving - framing
how we pose or present an issue can affect decisions and judgements
recognition
identifying previously learned information (ex. multiple choice tests)
brain and language - aphasia
impairment of language, usually due to left hemisphere damage
the gist of humanistic theories - carl rogers
importance of unconditional positive regard when we are prized and accepted, we develop caring attitudes towards ourselves
obstacles to problem-solving - fixation
inability to see a problem from a new/fresh perspective - mental set: our tendency to approach problems with the same mind-set of what has worked for us previously
implicit memories cont. - infantile amnesia
language and memory, hippocampus one of last brain structures to mature
brain and language - wernicke's area
language comprehension (understanding)
brain and language - Broca's area
language expression (speaking)
relearning
learning something more quickly when you learn it a second time or at a later time
memory
learning that persists over time, information that has been acquired and stored and can be retreived
storing memories
long-term memory capacity is limitless memories are not stored in one specific spot but in several
freud's psychosexual stages of development - genital (puberty on)
maturation of sexual interests
thinking - concepts
mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas or people cup, chair - we form concepts by developing prototypes
retrieving memories - state-dependent memory
what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are in that state once again ex. wearing yellow when studying for a test and wearing the same thing on the day of the test can help recall information learned while studying mood congruent memories: gloomy moods may facilitate us recalling other bad times
recall
retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time (ex. fill in the blank tests)
ego: reality principle
satisfies id's desires in ways that will bring pleasure rather than pain, mediator between the id and superego
the gist of humanistic theories - Abraham maslow
self actualizing person self actualizing: the process of fulfilling our potential self transcendence: finding meaning and purpose beyond self
explicit memories cont.
semantic memories: facts and general knowledge
levels of processing
shallow processing deep processing
problem-solving - heuristics
simple thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems more efficiently - representativeness heuristic, availability heuristic
implicit memories - encoded through automatic processing
space, time, frequency
important effects to note
spacing effect - ex. breaking materials up when studying for an exam testing effect - personally meaningful -
problem-solving - algorithm
step by step instructions that guarantee a solution
emotions and memory
stress triggers Amygdala to initiate a memory trace significantly stressful events can form almost unforgettable memories flashbulb memories: clarify of surprising, significant events ex. 9/11
id: pleasure principle
strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, demanding immediate gratification
humanistic theories - Abraham Maslow
studied creative, healthy people what characteristics did these people share?
defense mechanisms
tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality: repression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, denial
representativeness heuristic
when we judge the likelihood of events by comparing them to our prototypes
assessing behavior
to predict behavior, social-cognitive psychologists often observe behavior in realistic situations the best predictor of future behavior is the person's past behavior patterns in similar situations
sensory memory
very brief recording of sensory information in the sensory system, iconic memory-visual, echoic memory-auditory
gist of social-cognitive theories
we learn many of our behaviors either through conditioning or by observing and imitating others (social) focus on how we interact with our environment, less about how our environment controls us, what we think about a situation affects our resulting behavior (cognitive)
obstacles to problem-solving - confirmation bias
we more eagerly seek evidence for our ideas than against them
freud's psychosexual stages of development - latency (6 to puberty)
a phase of dormant sexual feelings
problem-solving - insight
a sudden realization of a problem's solution - the aha moment
critical period for language
2 - 3 years no later than age 7 - hearing impaired/deaf children, age 9
language acquisition - productive language
4 months - babbling 12 months - one word stage (nouns) 18 months - 2 word (telegraphic) 24+ rapid production/complexity
language acquisition - receptive language
4 months - recognize speech, sounds, read lips 7 months - super syllable detectors
short-term memory capacity
7 +/-2 items at a time 3-12 seconds (without effortful processing)
neo-freudians
Alfred alder, karen Horney, carl jung
creativity - divergent thinking
ability to consider different options and to think in novel ways - aptitude (ability to learn)+++
effortful processing strategies - mnemonics
acronyms - roy g. bib acrostics - "Passing Exams Maybe Difficult At School" PEMDAS peg system - matching numbers to a list of memorized images image - mnemonic mind maps
forgetting - encoding failure
age declines no encoding effort (think apple logo, national coins)
thinking - cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
creativity - convergent thinking
an ability to provide a single answer - SAT
implicit memories cont.
basal ganglia: procedural memory
short-term memory
not just a brief storage space, it is an "active scratchpad", working memory
effortful processing strategies - hierarchies
organizing from general to specific
personality defined
our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting
obstacles to problem-solving - belief perseverance
our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence
obstacles to problem-solving - overconfidence
our tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge or judgment
humanistic theories - Carl Rogers
people are basically good we are naturally primed for growth - unless thwarted by our environment
freud's psychosexual stages of development - anal (18-36 months)
pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
freud's psychosexual stages of development - phallic (3-6 years)
pleasure zone in the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
freud's psychosexual stages of development - oral (0-18 months)
pleasures on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing
retrieving memories - serial position effect
primacy effect - first items on a list recency effect - last items on a list
forgetting - retrieval failure
proactive interference retroactive interference: old learning does not always interfere can facilitate new learning - positive transfer
long-term memory
relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system (knowledge, skills, and experiences)
getting to the unconscious
thematic apperception test, rorschach inkblot test, implicit tests
the gist of humanistic theories
theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth
memory models continued
three-stage model: sensory memory short-term memory long-term memory