exam 3 - chapter 7, 8, 9, 14

information processing model 2

connectionism - new information changes our neural networks by forming new pathways and or strengthening pathways

the big 5

conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs instability), openness, extraversion

superego

develops around age 4-5, voice of our moral compass (conscience)

forgetting - storage decay

discarded memories not easily retrieved anymore ***old information interferes with new information*** think about changing a password

information processing model 1

encoding - storage - retrieval -

retrieving memories - context-dependent memories

encoding specificity principle - ideas and cues specific to the particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

explicit memories cont.

episodic memories: experienced events

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

components of creativity

expertise: develop expertise imaginative thinking skills: allow time for incubation, set aside time for the mind to roam freely venturesome personality: experience other cultures and ways of thinking intrinsic motivation creative environment

implicit memories

facts and experiences that we are not conscious of, cerebellum - ex. puff of air associations

explicit memories

facts and experiences that we consciously know. encoded through effortful processing

psychodynamic theory of personality

focus on the unconscious - our minds are mostly hidden, where unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories are stored importance of childhood experiences

fixation

getting "stuck" in an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

trait theories

gordon allport, Myers-briggs, Eysenck, cattel less focus on unconscious - "may plunge to deep", ignores more obvious aspects of how people behave more focus on stable, enduring behavior patterns - characteristic behaviors, conscious motives, concerned with describing behavior rather than explaining it

effortful processing strategies - chunking

grouping information in a way that makes them easier to remember

explicit memories cont.

hippocampus and frontal lobes: memory consolidation (supported by sleep)

obstacles to problem-solving - framing

how we pose or present an issue can affect decisions and judgements

recognition

identifying previously learned information (ex. multiple choice tests)

brain and language - aphasia

impairment of language, usually due to left hemisphere damage

the gist of humanistic theories - carl rogers

importance of unconditional positive regard when we are prized and accepted, we develop caring attitudes towards ourselves

obstacles to problem-solving - fixation

inability to see a problem from a new/fresh perspective - mental set: our tendency to approach problems with the same mind-set of what has worked for us previously

implicit memories cont. - infantile amnesia

language and memory, hippocampus one of last brain structures to mature

brain and language - wernicke's area

language comprehension (understanding)

brain and language - Broca's area

language expression (speaking)

relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second time or at a later time

memory

learning that persists over time, information that has been acquired and stored and can be retreived

storing memories

long-term memory capacity is limitless memories are not stored in one specific spot but in several

freud's psychosexual stages of development - genital (puberty on)

maturation of sexual interests

thinking - concepts

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas or people cup, chair - we form concepts by developing prototypes

retrieving memories - state-dependent memory

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are in that state once again ex. wearing yellow when studying for a test and wearing the same thing on the day of the test can help recall information learned while studying mood congruent memories: gloomy moods may facilitate us recalling other bad times

recall

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time (ex. fill in the blank tests)

ego: reality principle

satisfies id's desires in ways that will bring pleasure rather than pain, mediator between the id and superego

the gist of humanistic theories - Abraham maslow

self actualizing person self actualizing: the process of fulfilling our potential self transcendence: finding meaning and purpose beyond self

explicit memories cont.

semantic memories: facts and general knowledge

levels of processing

shallow processing deep processing

problem-solving - heuristics

simple thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems more efficiently - representativeness heuristic, availability heuristic

implicit memories - encoded through automatic processing

space, time, frequency

important effects to note

spacing effect - ex. breaking materials up when studying for an exam testing effect - personally meaningful -

problem-solving - algorithm

step by step instructions that guarantee a solution

emotions and memory

stress triggers Amygdala to initiate a memory trace significantly stressful events can form almost unforgettable memories flashbulb memories: clarify of surprising, significant events ex. 9/11

id: pleasure principle

strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, demanding immediate gratification

humanistic theories - Abraham Maslow

studied creative, healthy people what characteristics did these people share?

defense mechanisms

tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality: repression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, denial

representativeness heuristic

when we judge the likelihood of events by comparing them to our prototypes

assessing behavior

to predict behavior, social-cognitive psychologists often observe behavior in realistic situations the best predictor of future behavior is the person's past behavior patterns in similar situations

sensory memory

very brief recording of sensory information in the sensory system, iconic memory-visual, echoic memory-auditory

gist of social-cognitive theories

we learn many of our behaviors either through conditioning or by observing and imitating others (social) focus on how we interact with our environment, less about how our environment controls us, what we think about a situation affects our resulting behavior (cognitive)

obstacles to problem-solving - confirmation bias

we more eagerly seek evidence for our ideas than against them

freud's psychosexual stages of development - latency (6 to puberty)

a phase of dormant sexual feelings

problem-solving - insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution - the aha moment

critical period for language

2 - 3 years no later than age 7 - hearing impaired/deaf children, age 9

language acquisition - productive language

4 months - babbling 12 months - one word stage (nouns) 18 months - 2 word (telegraphic) 24+ rapid production/complexity

language acquisition - receptive language

4 months - recognize speech, sounds, read lips 7 months - super syllable detectors

short-term memory capacity

7 +/-2 items at a time 3-12 seconds (without effortful processing)

neo-freudians

Alfred alder, karen Horney, carl jung

creativity - divergent thinking

ability to consider different options and to think in novel ways - aptitude (ability to learn)+++

effortful processing strategies - mnemonics

acronyms - roy g. bib acrostics - "Passing Exams Maybe Difficult At School" PEMDAS peg system - matching numbers to a list of memorized images image - mnemonic mind maps

forgetting - encoding failure

age declines no encoding effort (think apple logo, national coins)

thinking - cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

creativity - convergent thinking

an ability to provide a single answer - SAT

implicit memories cont.

basal ganglia: procedural memory

short-term memory

not just a brief storage space, it is an "active scratchpad", working memory

effortful processing strategies - hierarchies

organizing from general to specific

personality defined

our characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting

obstacles to problem-solving - belief perseverance

our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

obstacles to problem-solving - overconfidence

our tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge or judgment

humanistic theories - Carl Rogers

people are basically good we are naturally primed for growth - unless thwarted by our environment

freud's psychosexual stages of development - anal (18-36 months)

pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

freud's psychosexual stages of development - phallic (3-6 years)

pleasure zone in the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings

freud's psychosexual stages of development - oral (0-18 months)

pleasures on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing

retrieving memories - serial position effect

primacy effect - first items on a list recency effect - last items on a list

forgetting - retrieval failure

proactive interference retroactive interference: old learning does not always interfere can facilitate new learning - positive transfer

long-term memory

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system (knowledge, skills, and experiences)

getting to the unconscious

thematic apperception test, rorschach inkblot test, implicit tests

the gist of humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

memory models continued

three-stage model: sensory memory short-term memory long-term memory