exam 4-psy

altruism

Engaging in behavior to help another, despite the cost or potential risk to self

reciprocal altruism

Engaging in what appears to be prosocial behaviors with the expectation of getting something in return.

pluralistic ignorance

error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do

Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective

evaluated favorably for its emphasis on the role of cognitive processes operating at a conscious level of awareness to influence how individuals make decisions to express their personality. The perspectives of Bandura, Rotter, and Mischel have provided empirical evidence in support of their ideas about the operation of personality. Concerns regarding the social-cognitive perspective include a lack of attention to the emotional elements of personality as well as little information on the developmental aspects of personality

biological- behavioral genetics

examines the degree to which contributions from certain inherited biological factors (i.e., our genes) interact with environmental factors (i.e., our family environment or socioeconomic status) to determine the expression of certain personality characteristics in different groups Twin studies concordance rate-The degree to which a characteristic, trait, or disease that occurs in one twin similarly occurs in the second twin.

biological- neurological perspective

examines the extent to which various physiological factors (e.g., hormones and neurotransmitters) and brain activity (e.g., arousal and inhibition) determine the expression of certain personality characteristics. testorone-associated with dominance, aggression, persistance, sensation-seeking, high risk behaviors. serotonin- lower levels of assocated with willingness of individual to engage in thrill seeking activities. high sensation seekers experience a much faster reduction rate in arousal to that same stimulus over time. (explains why high-sensation seekers take higher and high risks) Ascending Reticular Activating System- netowkr of structures in the midbrain that regulates arousal in the brain.- linked to intro vs extroversion. Introverts have a higher level of cortical activity. extraverts lower. The tendency for introverts to be more socially withdrawn seems to reflect their desire to reduce the additional stimulation of being around others. vice versa with extras.

fundamental attribution error

explains how we assign attributes to others. Based on the FAE, we attribute the behavior of others to dispositional (internal) causes rather than environmental (external) causes (Ross, 1977)

the trait perspective- traits are the building blocks of personality.

factor analysis to identify 35 major dimensions of personality which was reduced to 16.= 16PF questionaire. Factor analysis is a statistical technique that uses pattern association to group together many items in a personality test based on their similarity in content. 2 major trait theories are eysnecks trait theory and the 5 factor model

specific phobia

fear of objects or specific situations or events

the role of anxiety

feelings of anxiety serve as a warning sign of possible danger to the ego Reality anxiety informs the ego of real danger Moral anxiety notifies the superego that the ego is considering violating a moral code individuals unconsciously employ a variety of defense mechanisms to keep from expressing anxiety in bad ways

compliance methods

foot in the door- initial request is small, so people willingly participate door in the face- the initial request is large and met with rejection, so a smaller request is made and then accepted. lowballing- initial offer seems great, and you are committed to the purchase, but then the deal gets worse.

freuds psychodynamic perspective

freud- personality is a function of internal processes and conflicts over which individuals have little or no conscious awareness or personal control.

trichotillomania

hair pulling

freuds psychosexual stages

labeling of these stages reflects the conflict between the expression of the id's desire to seek immediate pleasure and society's demands to restrict it. Each stage is associated with a major biological function corresponding to a specific erogenous zone According to Freud, the unsuccessful resolution of these conflicts may result from conditions where the child receives too little or too much pleasure. Such setbacks can result in the person being fixated Later in life, when the person is under stress, they may regress (or return) to this period of development to resolve earlier sources of frustration or relive a time of excessive gratification of their needs. oral- birth-2yrs- mouth anus- 2-3- aus phalic-3-6-genitals latency-7-11-none genital-11-adult-genitals

neurodevelopmental disorders

neurologically based disorders that are revealed in a clinically significant way during a child's developing years

Nuremberg code

set of ethical guidelines that were put forth after the gruesome revelations of the mass genocide of millions of people and the horrific experiments done on unwilling men, women, and children

Kelly's Covariation Model

single exposure to a person is insignif to form attribution. 3 factors are needed 1. consistency- sam across time 2. distincivness- diff across time 3. consensus

jungs archetypes

specific to core elements of personality: persona- tendency for people to develop a certain pattern of behavior when in public to get along with others, similar to Freud's superego shadow-dark and more primitive side of personality, similar to Freud's id self- serves to unite all other aspects of the individual's personality, much like Freud's ego story archetypes: sage-wise holy figure rebel-has disregard for rules hero-path from ego to self jester- intellect,chaos.moral ambiguity caregiver- love home nurture monster-evil destruction works against hero shadow of doppelganger- evil twin, part of self that is kept hidden

humanistic perspective

the expression of personality is motivated by the internal desire for self-improvement and self-enhancement, which operates at the conscious level of awareness. Humanism focuses on the individual's perspective and addresses the uniqueness of each person. This personality perspective became an active area of investigation in response to the focus on the unconscious impulses in psychoanalytic theory and the limited focus on behavior in behaviorism. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are the two most influential people in the development of the humanistic perspectives.

3 distinct elements of personality

uniqueness- Personality traits are specific to each person consistency- How an individual behaves over time in similar situations. explanation- an inherited tendency (clarification for uniqueness and tendency)

schizo symptoms

+ delusions hallucinations disorgthink adnormmotormovements - dimished emotional expressions (flat affect) avolition (decreased motivation) a

interpreting the behavior of others

1. attribution theory 2. fundamental attribution error 3. impression formation 4. self-fulfilling proh

trait- eysencks trait theory- the 3 factor theory

1. extroversion 2. intro 3. neoroticism-emotional stability= more neurotic is associated with increased levels of activity in the sympathetic nervous system. psychoticism- tendency to be impulsive, cold, aggressive, unconcerned about the rights and welfare of others, and antisocial. Eysenck proposed that variation in the expression of the aggressive-impulsive nature of psychoticism was linked to high levels of testosterone and low levels of monoamine oxidase, or MAO (Eysenck, 1990). this is where ARAS activity comes into play

neofreuds

1. jung- archetypes 2. adler- striving for superiority 3. horney- move toward away against

5 perspectives

1. psychodynamic 2. humanistic 3. social cognitive 4. biological 5. trait

defense mechanisms

1. repression- ego trying to forget/ignore threatening impulse from conscious awareness. (sexual assault victim forgets details of attack) 2. reactionformation- unacceptable thoughts are expressed as opposites (gay person is homophobic) 3. projection- attributing ones own unacceptable things onto others (cheating is ok because you think everyone else is also cheating) 4. regression- acting with a responsecharacteristic of early development (acting like a baby when coworkers dont agree with you) 5. sublimation- transforming inapproprate motives into socially acceptable ones (becoming a scientist who studies deviant sex behavior to satisfy your own sex desires) 6. denial- refusal to believe in a painful fact or situation (alcoholic does not admit to having a drinking prob) 7. rationalization- creating an acceptable explanation to a true but threatening behavior (a theif steals from work because and says its because his salary is unfair) 8. displacement- shifting unwanted impulse from a threatening person to a non threatening one (instead of yelling at your mean boss, you yell at your kids) An effective response to a buildup of anxiety would be to take direct action to resolve the conflict and restore a sense of psychic balance. In contrast, an ineffective response would be to continue to use the defense mechanism to avoid conflict, thereby increasing levels of anxiety.

personality assement methods

1. standardized tests 2. personal interviews 3. obervational assessment 4. objective self report 5. indirect projective test

Deinstitutionalization

A movement to reduce admissions to psychiatric hospitals, shorten lengths of stay, and improve the treatment that admitted individuals received.

bystander effect

A person in need is less likely to receive help as the number of people who are present increases. highest levels of helping behavior were in Latin American and Hispanic cultures, including the following countries: Brazil, Costa Rica, Mexico, and El Salvador (Levine et al., 2001). Researchers isolated a common cultural script across these countries that included the notion of simpatia (in Spanish) or simpatico (in Portuguese). Although there is no English equivalent, Levine and colleagues described simpatia/simpatico as "a range of amiable social qualities—to be friendly, nice, agreeable, and good-natured (i.e., a person who is fun to be with and pleasant to deal with)"

Eugenics

A philosophical argument that seeks to improve human society by encouraging reproduction by people with 'desirable' qualities (positive eugenics) and discouraging reproduction by people with 'undesirable' qualities (negative eugenics). movement for negative eugenics, which proposed sterilization of individuals considered to be mentally inferior.

the psychoanalytic iceberg

According to Freud, to understand personality it is necessary to expose and gain access to the content of the unconscious mind. Failing to allow the expression of this content results in the building up of pressure in the unconscious that, if not released, would appear in the form of hysterical reactions, such as paralysis of the legs. to gain access to the unconscious mind Freud used: 1. free association- required the individual to say whatever came to their mind without considering how meaningless or threatening it might seem 2. dream analysis- manifest content is what the dreamer remembers (disguised content) and latent content is an expression of the unconscious mind(reflection of a person's true feelings) id- a core component of personality located in the unconscious mind. present at birth. operates on the pleasure principle. takes care of basic human needs for survival (eros- sexual impulses, Thanatos- unrestrained aggression) ego- in healthy adults, this subdues the id's sexual and aggressive impulses to wait for the right time and place. the ego develops after 1 year of birth and operates across all 3 levels of consciousness. The principal purpose of the ego is to meet the needs of the id within the constraints of the real world. the ego operates on the reality principle, meaning it satisfies the needs of the id in socially acceptable ways. superego- represents a sense of right and wrong. Like the ego, the superego exists at all three levels of conscious awareness and is based on a sense of morality reflecting family values, official laws, social conventions, religious beliefs, and a personal moral code. regulated by the ego ideal(pride in doing something right) and the conscience(shame in doing something wrong). According to Freud's psychoanalytic perspective, the uniqueness in the expression of personality reflects how the ego serves to mediate between the demands and desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego in a consistent manner across time

social cognitive perspective

According to the social-cognitive perspective, principal processes by which people develop certain cognitions (i.e., thoughts, feelings, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions, expectations) about themselves are based on noting the consequences of their behavior and observing the behavior of others across a variety of situations. From this perspective, it is the unique expression of these cognitions that creates individual differences in personality.

Discrimination

Adverse behaviors directed at groups towards which one holds negative and prejudicial beliefs.

false consensus effect

An overestimation regarding the extent that others share our beliefs.

stereotypes

Attitudes and opinions about people based on their group affiliation.

self-serving bias

Attributing one's successes to internal causes and one's failures to external causes (helps preserve self-esteem).

U.S. Army and the Department of Veterans Affairs collaborated to document the psychological distress seen in active servicemen and veterans, which prompted the World Health Organization (WHO) to include a section on mental disorders in the sixth edition of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-6), which was published in 1949. This edition included 10 categories for psychoses and seven categories for disorders of intelligence, behavior, and character. The DSM was conceptualized as an attempt to develop a classification of mental disorders specifically for use in the United States.

Axis I: Major mental disorders Axis II: Underlying personality or intellectual disorders that are resistant to change Axis III: Medical conditions that may influence the mental disorder (e.g., obesity, type 2 diabetes, multiple sclerosis) Axis IV: Psychosocial stressors that may influence the mental disorder (e.g., homelessness, interpersonal violence) Axis V: Global assessment of functioning (

observational assessment techniques

Behavioral observation involves recording actual behaviors as they occur Self-monitoring techniques involve individuals recording the frequency they engage in particular behavior Thought sampling techniques require individuals to record the nature and frequency of the thoughts they have in certain situations, such as having difficulties when meeting new people at a party

personality disorders

Cluster A: Odd and Eccentric Behaviors Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, and Erratic Behaviors Cluster C: Anxious and Fearful Behaviors

collectivist cultures

Cultures that place emphasis on the group instead of the individual.

social cog- the delay of gratification- the power of willpower- walter mischel

Delay of gratification is the willingness to forgo a smaller but immediate reward for a larger reward in the future. mployed the "marshmallow test" to test a child's ability to delay gratification. In a typical example of this test, a child (aged 3-5 years) is told that their adult caretaker has to leave the room but will return. Before leaving, the adult leaves a marshmallow on the table for the child. If the child could wait until the adult returns, they would get a reward: the opportunity to eat several marshmallows. If the child could not wait, they could eat just the one marshmallow. Children who displayed better abilities to control their impulses tended to have better physical health and reduced rates of substance abuse, and they were less likely to engage in criminal offenses and some had higher sat scores and better maturity levels as said by their parents replicated the study with a larger more diverse sample size - ifference between this new study and the ones that came before is that when Watts and colleagues analyzed their data, they took variables like children's socioeconomic status into consideration. The results of this new study suggest that there is limited support for the hypothesis that delayed gratification is responsible for future success. Instead, results indicate that the child's social and economic background predict both the ability of a child to hold out for a larger reward in the marshmallow test and success later in life.

vicarious trauma and stress

Experienced by watching, listening to, or reading about someone else doing something.

social cog - rotters social learning perspective

For Julian Rotter (1966, 1990), the core element of personality is based on one's locus of control—a person's belief in the extent to which they control what happens to them. Individuals with an external locus of control have the general expectation that they lack control over the events in their lives, whereas people with an internal locus of control believe that they control what happens in their current life as well as their future. An external locus of control also seems to be a contributing factor to feelings of learned helplessness, a sense of hopelessness in which individuals believe their ability to prevent unpleasant events in life is outside of their control (

Freud's Psychoanalytic Perspective

Freud made increasing connections between problems people were experiencing in their everyday lives that seemed to have emotional bases—even if people were unaware of them He focused his attention on the unconscious.

prosocial behaviors

Helping others without the expectation of anything in return.

reciprocity norm

dictates that if others help us, then we should provide something in return

Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective

In contrast to the psychodynamic perspectives, the humanistic perspectives present a more positive view of human nature operating on a more conscious level of awareness to make decisions and take action to seek self-improvement. However, there are inconsistencies in the support for some of the core humanistic ideas. In support of Rogers' core concept of unconditional positive regard, individuals who feel they are intrinsically liked and accepted for who they are exhibit less defensive attitudes, creating the possibility of providing a "more secure base from which to live one's life" (Schimel et al., 2007, p. 49). In contrast, because Maslow did not specify a timetable for meeting each level in the hierarchy of needs, it is difficult for researchers to know when to assess meaningful changes in the individual's progression within the hierarchy (Muchinsky, 1983). In addition, there are plenty of examples where individuals operate in a manner inconsistent with the ordering of the needs by sacrificing lower physiological and safety needs for the expression of higher ideals, such as hunger strikers, political protesters, soldiers, and first responders.

diffusion of responsibility

In the context of the bystander effect, as the number of people present increases, the relative level of accountability of each person decreases. When only one person is present, they assume 100% of the responsibility.

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions When attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent, a state of unease is felt, which the individual is then motivated to reduce.

neofresudian- jungs analytical perspective

Jung proposed the collective unconscious which he believed was interconnected through past experiences to other individuals across generations and locations around the world. Contained in this region of the mind was a universal set of common thoughts, feelings, behaviors, beliefs, rituals, emotions, experiences, images, and symbols inherited from all of those who came before us over time, including animals. Examples of such universal knowledge and tendencies include a fear of the unknown, the search for novelty, a desire for social order, and the need for emotional contact with others. Jung believed that all of this inherited universal knowledge was stored in the collective unconscious in the form of archetypes (universal thought patterns and behavior ritual that can be triggered by situatins)

social scripts

Learned behaviors that are expected across a variety of situations.

prejudice

Learned, negative attitudes or opinions that a person has towards certain groups. inherently negative

stereotype threat

Occurs when a person or group experiences significant fear of confirming negative expectations about one's own social group, which ultimately adversely affects performance

Stanford Prison Experiment

Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty.

facitious disorder

Previously known as Munchausen syndrome, factitious disorder describes a condition in which individuals knowingly and deliberately cause themselves to be physically ill or injured.

The American Psychological Association encourages the use of person-first language in verbal and written communications when referring to individuals diagnosed with a psychological disorder (Dunn & Andrews, 2015). This is a deliberate way of communicating and may initially appear to be unnatural or cumbersome. For example, referring to an individual as a person with schizophrenia instead of a schizophrenic implies that the individual is, in fact, a person and possesses attributes in addition to a condition.​

Proponents of identity-first language argue that a disorder is an important part of an individual's makeup, and integrating the disorder with identity can be affirming and validating. While there are strong arguments on both sides, the important thing seems to be respect of the individual.

PTSD symptoms

Re-experiencing symptoms: Avoidance symptoms: Cognitive and mood symptoms Arousal and reactivity symptoms

mutual interdependence

Refers to the need for individuals or groups to work together toward a common goal.

reliability and validity in personality tests

Reliability is the consistency of a measure validity of a measure represents the measure's accuracy and assesses whether you are measuring what you think you are measuring. psychometrician-one who knows about reliability and validity Predictive validity- concientiousness test for job hires pre hire concurrent validity- test given while o the job

Asch Conformity Study

Standard line/comparison line. People went along with the majority instead of sticking to their gut

escalation of commitment

The more time one remains in an interpersonal relationship or as a member of a group, despite experiencing increasingly negative outcomes, the more difficult it is to leave the relationship/group

confirmation bias

The tendency to pay attention to information consistent with one's existing beliefs and ignore or discard information inconsistent with their beliefs.

primacy effect

The initial information learned about another person has the strongest effect on impression formation, which is most pronounced with the initial information is negative.

social cog- banduras self esteem

The self-system is a set of cognitions that people use to observe, evaluate, and regulate their behavior in different situations. For example, a shy student notices that at a specific pub on game day, those wearing a home-team ball cap seem to have an easier time striking up conversations with others than those not wearing one. As a result, he now wears the ball cap when going to the pub on game day. An important process in the development of an individual's self-system is observing and evaluating the consequences of others' behaviors. Using these cognitions, individuals develop the ability to self-regulate. The self-system helps guide individual behavior choices by cognitively processing the complexity of different situations, including the various potential consequences of different behaviors. Self-efficacy is the belief about one's ability to successfully perform in a given situation. High levels of self-efficacy occur when a person feels confident in their ability to excel in a variety of situations. Those with low levels of self-efficacy lack the confidence necessary to perform in different contexts; expectations of failure result in an individual's overall lack of effort, which decreases the likelihood of success and reinforces the belief that they are incapable. bobo the doll observational learning theory 1. attention 2. retention 3. producstion 4. motivation

attitudes

Variations in thoughts, ideas, and opinions. 1. cognitive-thoughts about something 2. affective-feelings about the attitude in question 3. behavioral- actions taken

interpersonal attraction

Walster and colleagues found that 100% of those on a blind date chose to go on a second date based solely on physical attractiveness. Research over time supports the importance placed on physical attractiveness in dating. This is also true in online dating. One of the most compelling characteristics that determines whether others select a profile is appearance. mere exposure efect- Another factor that affects who we like is proximity, or physical nearness. In the context of liking others, we are more likely to meet and befriend those who live close to us.

self-fulfilling prophecy

When expected outcomes regarding the actions of others are more likely to occur because individuals unwittingly act in ways to bring about the behavior.

obedience to authority

When people perceived as authority figures are capable of getting high levels of cooperation in tasks designed to directly harm others or cause severe pain in another without the use of coercion.

Autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

catatonia

affects behavior and motor functions like being in paralysis

What is personality?

an enduring set of internally based characteristics that produce uniqueness and consistency in the expressions of a person's thoughts and behaviors, along with an explanation to account for these characteristics.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Realistic conflict theory

another explanation for hatred across minorities, based on the idea that there are few desirable jobs available, so the competition for these limited resources creates conflict.

4Ds of abnormality

deviance, distress, dysfunction, danger

biological perspective

assume that certain biological factors and processes serve to influence the underlying operation and expression of personality. 1. behavioral genetics 2. neurological 3. evolutionary

environmental factors strongly influence displays of violence and aggression bandura

behavior modeling social learning bobo the doll

dysfunctional behavior

behaviors, thoughts, and feelings are disruptive to one's regular routine or interfere with day-to-day functioning.

dangerous behaviors

behaviors, thoughts, and feelings may lead to harm or injury to self or others.

Distress

behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that are upsetting and cause pain, suffering, or sorrow,

In urban areas, minority groups have high levels of prejudice and target discrimination at other minorities. The reason for high degrees of discrimination and hate between minorities is based on the concept of a scapegoat

channeling their rage at another minority group with even less power.

Jonestown Massacre

cult movement in South America where a mass suicide led by Jim Jones resulted in 918 deaths.

Deviance

describes a departure from what is normal or usual, and in terms of psychological disorders it refers to behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that are not in line with generally accepted standards Deviance can be measured against statistical standards or cultural views

humanist- maslows motivation perspective- the hierarchy of needs

desire for individuals to seek a state of self-actualization—the tendency to strive for self-improvement and self-enhancement to ultimately achieve one's fullest potential. Maslow (1970) proposed a hierarchy of needs to conceptualize the process of need fulfillment, where individuals must meet their basic biological needs before proceeding to higher-order needs 1. physiological 2. safety 3. love/belonging 4. esteem 5. self-actualization Maslow estimated that less than 1% of all people operate at the self-actualization level

evolutionary perspective

differences in personality are adaptive responses to the two fundamental challenges of evolution: survival and reproductive success. survival= 1. conscientoiusness which makes individuals more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviors and avoid risks. 2. optimism which makes indiciduals more likely to have fewer symptoms and recover from medical concerns quickly. characteristics negatively associated with longevity are the hostile personality and neuroticism. individuals with this pattern suppress feelings of emotional distress, frustration, and anger which effects their overall health which can lead to substance abuse. neurotics can be moody, unstable, and overly anxious which contributes to general state of hyperarousal and tension. reproductive= 1. EP emphasizes characteristics associated with functionally infertile individuals (FII). high FII in females this characterizes as harm avoidance which means less sexual intercourse, low cooperativeness, creating difficulties with potential sex partners, higher measures of depression and anxiety. they have negative feelings about sex. low FII in males includes self-confidence, extraversion, social assertiveness. suggests that bolder low FII males are confident in approaching sex partners creating more oppurtunity for intercorse.

axis old

dsm 1. major psych disorders 2. personality or intellectual disorders that wont change 3. medical coditions contributing to disorders 4. psychosocial stressors 5. overall assessment of functioning

agression

instrumental- Violent behavior that is purposeful and is a means to achieve some goal . hostile- Violent behavior whose sole purpose is inflicting harm on another living creature (human or animal).

traits

internally based characteristics are referred to as personality traits

projective techniques

involve asking an individual to respond to ambiguous test items that do not appear to have any clear or specific meaning association technique- rorschach inblot test construction techniques- individual creating something, such as a story, from the test stimuli- thematic apperception test

psychophysiological assessment techniques

link various bodily responses with an assortment of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to examine individual differences in the expression of different dimensions of personality. Electrophysiological measures involve linking certain bodily processes, such as heart rate, muscle tension, and skin conductance An example of this technique would be comparing the heart rate of individuals who had previously scored high or low on a measure of test anxiety while taking the same test. Biochemical measures involve linking an assortment of biochemical processes, such as neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetic characteristics, to different dimensions of personality. Cortical measures involve linking certain levels of electrical activity in different regions of the brain with different dimensions of personality

objective self-report techniques

linking the responses individuals provide to a series of standardized items contained in personality tests. individuals are to respond to a fixed format of alternatives. For example, one personality test might have a true-false fixed format eysenck personality questionaire for 3 traits neo-pi for 5 traits 16pf most widely used and extensively researched multidimensional personality test is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-10 trait-like clinical dimensions of personality and contains 567 test questions to which individuals must respond in a fixed format by selecting from three response alternatives: true, false, or cannot say. The MMPI was originally designed to help diagnose individuals suffering from major psychological disorders mmpi= 1. hypochondriasis 2. depression 3. hysteria 4. psychopathic deviate 5. masculinity-feminity 6. paranoia 7. psychasthenia 8. schizophrenia 9. hypomania 10. social introversion mmi2 also has validity scales= 1. cannot say scale 2. lie scale 3. infrequency scale 4. correction scale

bipolar

manic vs depressive episode Hypomania is a less intense experience of mania that features the same increased energy and activity levels without the same impairment in functioning. bipolar 2 is a debilitating condition

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective

methods have been criticized as being inadequate means of testing the quality of his ideas since he developed a theory based on "unhealthy personalities." he did correctly note that we seem to have limited access to the operation of what goes on in our minds. In addition, although contemporary research has provided some evidence to support Freud's ideas of defense mechanisms, they seem to operate more at the conscious level of awareness as a deliberate strategy to protect our self-image than as an unconscious response to weaken threatening impulses It should be noted, however, that this influence seems to be stronger in academic departments outside of psychology than within psychology (Cohen, 2007), and there has been a general decline in his appeal within the scientific community (

Milgram Experiment

obedience; electrical shocks to incorrect answers; learners were paid actors.

The sexual orientation disturbance category was replaced with ego-dystonic homosexuality, suggesting that individuals identifying as homosexual may experience anxiety and internal conflict regarding their sexual orientation

one's sexual orientation was no longer considered a mental disorder.

trait- 5 factor model

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, or OCEAN The FFM is associated with occupational choice, such as rock musicians tending to score high on openness while high-scoring extraverts are more likely to start a business

psychosexula stages examples

oral- When Miquel was weaned from breastfeeding, his parents did this is in consistent and gradual fashion. He learned a willingness to delay gratification because his needs were met eventually, in a consistent matter. Conflict could have arisen in this stage if Miquel was weaned too harshly from breastfeeding or weaning was too lax, this could have resulted in development of oral personality outcomes later in life. Miquel may indulge in oral-related coping strategies, such as overeating or excessive drinking. anal-associated with toilet training. Miquel learned that achievement of pleasure is associated with the release of such bodily tension is restricted to specific location (e.g., the restroom). If potty training was overly punitive for Miquel, he would have developed difficulties interacting with society, due to a tendency to act inappropriately. He would have also developed anal-related strategies, such as becoming anal expulsive. This might entail making a mess of things at work or sharing his emotions very openly. Conversely, it could have resulted in him developing an anal retentive personality. This might have resulted in him being overly concerned with order and neatness. pahlic-competition with the same-sex parent for the affection of the opposite-sex parent. This is termed the Oepipus complex for males and Electra complex for females. Miquel learned to identify with his father, resolving his Oepipus conflict. This helped him understand the appropiate sex-role behavioral pattern and developed a healthy superego by incorporating values of society as expressed by their parents. Conflict could have arisen in this stage if Miquel struggled to identify with his father or accept his father's position of authority. latency-practicing sex-role behaviors during interaction with same-sex peers. Since Miquel resolved his Oedipus complex, he had libinal energy to devote to developing himself and practice the skills necessary to execute complex sex-role behaviors. If conflict was not resolved in the previous stage, Miquel may have shown overly stereotyped sex-role behavior. genital-expression of emotional feelings and establishing meaningful relationships with members of the opposite sex. Due to proper conflict resolution throughout his early development, Miquel is comfortable offering affection and is capable of forming healthy romantic relationships. Conflict could be apparent if Miquel was unable to form intimate relationships and experienced a sense of isolation.

psychosexual life lessons simplified

oral- willingness to delay gratification anal-there is a right place and a right time phallic- learn to get along with those more powerful than you latency- it is good to know youre not alone genital- to get pleasure you must give pleasure

evaluating biological perspectives

personality dimensions have an inherited tendency; developing a greater appreciation of the role of hormones, neurotransmitters, and brain structures in the expression of personality; and linking the specific study of personality to the more universal principles of evolutionary theory. needs to create more specific explanations of just how certain bio processes are associated directly with particular personality apsects.

neofreud- andlers individual perspective

proposed that a striving for superiority, operating at the conscious level, was the primary motivational source of personality. Striving for superiority does not mean that we strive to be superior or better than others. Instead, it means trying to become a better person in an effort to overcome real or imagined feelings of inferiority developed earlier in life through interactions with parents, siblings, and peers. belief that striving for superiority should be guided by the principle of social interest. With social interest (Adler, 1939), the goal of becoming a better person should be to make society better as you make yourself a better person. For example, a high school science teacher volunteers at the local science museum on the weekends to learn more about science and be a better teacher for her students while also helping to keep the museum open on the weekends so more community members can visit to better their knowledge and interest in science in their own efforts toward striving for superiority. uniqueness of the individual is based on the selection of specific strategies used when striving for superiority.

Attribution theory

provides a framework to understand the reasons behind the actions of others. 1. dispositional/interna. causes = behavior due to personality 2. situational/external= behavior due to environment

Diminished emotional expression, also known as flat affect, is reduced expression of emotions through facial expressions, tone of voice, or body language. avolition, a decreased motivation to start or follow-through on activities such as school, work, or self-care, and alogia, a reduction in speech output. In conversation, an individual will reply sparsely, if at all.

schizophrenia- ​Schizophrenia is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome, meaning there are many different ways the disorder presents. ognitive symptoms in schizophrenia can be subtle and are often undetectable without neuropsychological testing. These symptoms affect memory and thought processes. Executive functioning describes the mental skills we use to make decisions based on the information we are presented with. ognitive symptoms in schizophrenia can be subtle and are often undetectable without neuropsychological testing. These symptoms affect memory and thought processes. Executive functioning describes the mental skills we use to make decisions based on the information we are presented with. Negative psychotic symptoms are behaviors typically observed in healthy individuals that an individual experiencing psychosis does not do. Positive psychotic symptoms are behaviors that were not present before the onset of the disorder.

humanism- rogers self theory

self-concept, which refers to how someone perceives his or her unique set of characteristics, skills, qualities, and abilities. Self-esteem is how positively or negatively a person evaluates him- or herself based on life experiences. An individual's self-esteem is high when self-evaluation is consistent with thoughts and actions. believed that the motivational source of personality was based on the fundamental tendency of the individual to develop a personal sense of self-awareness and self-acceptance within the self-concept. Rogers was a psychotherapist who assessed the current state of being (actual self) as well as the ideal level that one would like to achieve (ideal self). As the discrepancy between these two measures increases, self-esteem and self-worth decrease. The process of self-fulfillment can be hindered or helped by our relationships with others, depending on whether significant others offer approval, acceptance, and love. Conditional positive regard serves to stifle personal growth by placing limits on the acceptance people give to others that the way in which you can help others reach self-fulfillment is by treating them with unconditional positive regard Rogers used his views regarding conditions hindering personal growth to help account for the sense of emotional distress motivating individuals to seek the assistance of a psychotherapist. Rogers believed that the expression of unconditional positive regard by the therapist toward the client would help to create the therapeutic relationship necessary for the person to begin to make the decisions required for a more healthy sense of self

Horney's Interpersonal Perspective

the motivational force underlying the expression of personality was the search for social security, a sense of feeling safe and loved in our relationships with others. When individuals feel unsafe, unloved, and powerless in their relationships, they develop feelings of basic anxiety. Feelings of basic hostility begin to emerge along with the belief that significant others are not helping to create a secure environment. three basic strategies individuals use to reduce feelings of basic anxiety and establish a sense of safety: 1. moving toward people, in which the individual does and says certain things in the hopes that others will like and take care of them 2. moving away from people, in which the individual withdraws emotionally in the hopes that others will not be able to harm them 3. moving against people, in which the individual tries to harm others first in the hopes of preventing others from considering doing harm to them. operational process serving as the principal motivating source for the expression of personality involves attempting to reduce feelings of basic anxiety and feelings of insecurity

Groupthink

the need for conformity and consensus is so high that diverging ideas and differing opinions are strongly discouraged and excluded in the group's decision-making process 1.overestimating the group 2. closed-mindedness 3.pressure for uniformity

abnormal psychology

the study of psychological disorders

sex typed

traditionally masculine (e.g., ambitious, assertive, strong) and traditionally feminine (e.g., compassionate, affectionate, loves children) characteristics.

actor-observer bias

we are more likely to assign internal attributions to others and external attributions when explaining our own behavior.

Doomsday Cults

wenty years before the People's Temple, a cult built by Dorothy Martin grew around her reported communications with extraterrestrial beings and prophecies of the world's destruction. Numerous doomsday cults predicting the world's destruction have existed over time.