Exceptional Learners Chapters 1-4

Support for RTI Identification Models

Advocates of an RTI identification model claim that it reduces the number of students referred to SPED. As a result of high-quality instruction at every level, RTI helps to determine whether a student has a disability or has been subjected to poor or missing instruction. Another benefit of RTI is the implementation of early intervention services.

Board of Education of Hendrick Hudson v. Rowley (1982)

appropriate education doesn't necessarily mean that which achieves maximum achievement.

Accommodations

changes in instruction that don't significantly change the content or conceptual difficulty level of the curriculum.

Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM)

common form of progress monitoring that involves students' responses to their usual instructional materials; it entails direct and frequent samples of performance from the students' curriculum. CBM measures are commonly used as a way to determine students' responsiveness to RTI; however, the ways in which teachers use these data differ.

Outcome Measures

compare a student's performance with other students, or compare a state's or district's performance with other states or districts.

Ethnic Group

has a common historic origin and a shared identity, heritage, and tradition. It has value orientations, behavioral patterns, and often political and economic interests that differ from those of other groups in the larger society. May be a majority or a minority of people in a given country or region.

Partial Participation

having students with disabilities participate, on a reduced basis, in virtually all activities experienced by all students in the gen ed classroom.

Inclusion/Integration

inclusion of exceptional learners in ordinary classrooms with their nonexceptional peers. At start of 2000s, inclusion controversy sharpened, especially by the higher standards expected of all students.

Adaptations

more significant modifications of instruction than accommodations.

Hospital or homebound instruction

most often required by students who have physical disabilities, although it's sometimes an option for those with emotional or behavioral disorders or other disabilities when no alternative is readily available. Typically, the youngster is confined to the hospital or the home for a relatively short time, and the hospital or homebound teacher maintains contact with the general classroom teacher.

Peer-mediated Instruction/Peer Tutoring and Peer Confederates

Peer-mediated instruction—peer tutoring, the use of peer confederates in managing behavior probs, or any other arrangement in which teachers deliberately recruit and train peers to help teach an academic or social skill to a classmate.

Prevalence

percentage of pop or number of individuals having a particular exceptionality. Many factors make it difficult to state number of exceptional individuals with great accuracy or confidence (vagueness of definitions, frequent changes in definitions, and role of schools in determining exceptionality). Over 6.7 million students (8.7%) between 6-21 years receive SPED services in schools.

Normalization

philosophy that we should use means which are as culturally normative as possible in order to establish and/or maintain personal behaviors and characteristics which are as culturally normative as possible. With normalization, barriers to participation of people with disabilities in normal life are broken down.

SPED in the Context of the Common Core State Standards Initiative

State and federal policymakers have been concerned about what they perceive as a general decline in students' educational achievement and, as a result, have emphasized "standards-based" reforms. These reforms involve setting standards of learning that are measured by standardized tests. The reformers believed that teachers' expectations have been too low and that all students should be held to higher standards. Failure to teach students with disabilities the same things that are taught in gen ed has been interpreted to mean that expectations for these students are lower, resulting in their low achievement and failure to make a successful transition to adult life. In the early stages of the movement, states developed standards and created benchmark tests.

Assessment Issues

Students with disabilities, with some exceptions, are included in the assessments of educational progress demanded of all students. NCLB required that the average scores of various subgroups of students be reported and that all groups, including students with disabilities, show progress. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), signed into law by President Obama in 2015, which replaced NCLB, also requires that students with disabilities participate in these assessments. The assessments in which students with disabilities are expected to participate in order for these comparisons to be made are considered outcome measures.

Issues in the Identification of Special Gifts and Talents

The extraordinary abilities of students of color or other ethnic difference and students with disabilities are overlooked because of bias or ignorance on the part of those responsible for assessment. Alternative methods for identifying students for gifted and talented programs are being invested. Importance of being aware of culturally relevant gifts and talents and recognizing and valuing the abilities of minority students.

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESSA)

Under Bush, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) became major factor in focus of public schooling, including SPED. NCLB was attempt to improve the academic performance of all students. Under NCLB and its successor, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESSA), most students with disabilities are to take standard tests of academic achievement and achieve at level equal to students without disabilities. NCLB included requirement that all teachers be "highly qualified," a designation that left much to interpretation. Some note that NCLB requirements weren't reasonable or achievable, particularly with ref to SPED.

Exceptionality Group

a group sharing a set of specific abilities or disabilities that are especially valued or that require special accommodation within a given subculture. Thus, a person may be identified as exceptional in 1 ethnic group but not in another.

Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP)

a legal doc that describes the services that the child will receive. Similar to IEP for older kids, but it broadens the focus to include the fam as well as the kid. The family must be involved in the development of the IFSP based on fed regulations. IFSP can be written for kids up to 6, but is usually written for infants and kids up to 3, with IEP being more common for kids 3 and up.

Modifications

amended materials or assignments and differ from changes in curricula or instructional strategies.

Parent Organizations

primarily comprise parents who have kids with exceptionalities. Serve 3 functions: to provide an informal group for parents who understand one another's probs and needs and help one another deal with anxieties and frustrations, to provide info regarding services and potential resources, and to provide the structure for obtaining needed services for their kids. Examples: ARC, National Association for Gifted Children, Learning Disabilities Association of America, Autism Society of America, and the Federation of Families for Children's Mental Health.

Day Schools

provide an all-day special placement for exceptional learners who need this level of specialization or dedication to their needs. The day school usually is organized for a specific category of exceptional students and may contain special equipment necessary for their care and education. These students return to their homes during non-school hours.

Resource Teacher

provides services for students and teachers in a single school. The students served are enrolled in the general education classroom and work with the specially trained teacher for a length of time and at a frequency determined by the nature and severity of their particular problems. The resource teacher continually assesses the needs of the students and their teachers and usually works with students individually or in small groups in a special resource room, where special materials and equipment are available. Typically, the resource teacher also serves as a consultant to the classroom teacher, advising on how to instruct and manage the student in the classroom and perhaps demonstrating instructional techniques. The flexibility of the plan and the fact that the student remains with nondisabled peers most of the time have traditionally made this a particularly attractive and popular alternative.

Response to Intervention (RTI)

refers to a student's change/lack of change in academic performance or behavior as a result of instruction. In an RTI identification model, a student must first receive quality instruction in the gen ed classroom before being given a formal evaluation for special ed services. Teachers gather data to determine whether the student is benefiting from that instruction. If student is nonresponsive to quality, research-based instruction by a gen ed teacher, then a formal evaluation to SPED would occur. RTI associated with learning disabilities and academic learning but has implications for student with any disability—can be applied to social behavior as well.

Classwide peer tutoring (CWPT)

research-validated teaching strategy that may be particularly useful in helping elementary school kids who aren't proficient to learn English more efficiently. Because it necessitates that students work together, it offers opportunities for teachers to pair students to maximize appropriate interethnic interaction. Evidence also suggests that peer tutoring is effective for improving important reading skills of Hispanic students and social interactions.

Parents' Reactions--A Stage Theory Approach

traditionally, researchers and clinicians have suggested that parents go through a series of stages after learning that they have a child with a disability. Some of these stages parallel the proposed sequence of responses that accompany a person's reactions to the death of a loved one. A rep set of stages includes shock and disruption, denial, sadness, anxiety and fear, anger, and finally adaptation. An argument against this strict stage model comes from the fact that many parents report that they don't engage in denial—in fact, they're often the first to suspect a prob. Although parents may not go through these reactions in a rigid fashion, some do experience some or all of these emotions at 1 time or another. Commonly reported reactions are grief, loss, and especially guilt.

Co-teaching

the general and special educators might co-teach, with each providing instruction and the special educator emphasizing instruction of the exceptional student(s). Co-teaching/cooperative or collaborative teaching: between general and special educators and means 2 or more pros delivering substantive instruction to a diverse, or blended, group of students in a single physical space. Must work cooperatively and collaboratively. Most common form of co-teaching is 1 teacher instructing and the other assisting in some way. Sometimes works well and other times it can be a great challenge. Research on how to ensure co-teaching works is scarce.

Family Systems Theory

understanding the individual's behavior in the context of the fam and understanding the family's behavior in the context of other social systems. One model developed specifically with people with disabilities in mind includes 4 interrelated components: fam characteristics, fam interaction, fam functions, and fam life cycle.

Culture

values and typical behavior, languages or dialects, nonverbal communication, awareness of one's cultural identity, worldviews or general perspectives.

Disability

the inability to do something/ a diminished capacity to perform in a specific way/ an impairment. All disabilities are an inability to do something but not every inability to do something is a disability. Disability: an inability to do something that most people, with typical maturation, opportunity, or instruction, can do.

Exceptional Learners

those who require special education and related services to realize their full human potential. They require SPED because they differ from most in 1 or more of the following ways: intellectual disabilities, learning or attention disabilities, emotional or behavior disorders, physical disabilities, disorders of communication, autism, traumatic brain injury, impaired hearing, impaired sight, or special gifts or talents. 2 important concepts of this def are diversity of characteristics and need for SPED. Students with exceptionalities are a very diverse group in comparison to gen pop, and few generalizations apply to all exceptional learners. Exceptionalities can involve sensory, physical, cognitive, emotional, or communication abilities or any combo of these. Exceptionalities may vary greatly in cause, degree, and effect on educational progress, and the effects may vary depending on age, gender, and life circumstances

Endrew F. v Douglas County School District (2017)

US Supreme Court ruled that an educational program must provide "more than de minimus." Ruled in favor of a higher standard of education for children with disabilities.

Expectations for All Educators

All teachers are expected to make maximum effort to accommodate individual students' needs, participate in the RTI process, make an effort to meet the needs of exceptional individuals, flexibility, adaptation, accommodation, special attention, evaluate academic abilities and disabilities, report specifically and precisely how students can and can't perform in all academic areas, refer for evaluation, participate in eligibility conferences, participate in writing IEPs, communicating with parents/guardians, participating in due process hearings and negotiations, and collaborating with other pros in identifying and making maximum use of exceptional students' abilities, high level of professional competence and ethical judgment, and thorough knowledge of child development and expertise in instruction.

Elizabeth Farrell and the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)

Elizabeth Farrell, a teacher in NY in early 1900s, was instrumental in development of SPED as a profession. She, along with other special educators from across the US and Canada, founded the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), which is still the primary professional organization of special educators.

Transition Plans

Federal laws, including IDEA, require attention to transition plans for older students, and these must be incorporated in students' IEPs. Transition services include a coordinated set of outcome-oriented activities that promote movement from school to postsecondary education, vocational training, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation. IDEA requires that each student's IEP contain a statement of needed transition services, when the student is 16 years of age and annually thereafter. The IEP must include a statement of the linkages and/or responsibilities of each participating agency before the student leaves the school setting.

History and Origins of SPED

In 1829, Samuel Gridley Howe created the first residential school for students who were blind (focused on instruction in traditional reading, writing and math and the development of students' individual interests and abilities. In early 1800s, 1st systematic attempts made to educate "idiotic" and "insane" kids (those with intellectual disabilities and emotional or behavioral disorders or emotional disturbance). Most historians trace beginnings of SPED as we know it to Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, a French physician who was an authority on diseases of the ear and education of students who are deaf. Case of the wild child/wild boy of Aveyron. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet established 1st American residential school (American School of the Deaf) for students who were deaf in Hartford, CT 1817. Gallaudet University in DC, the only liberal arts college for deaf students was named in his honor. Emergence of psychology and sociology and the widespread use of cognitive tests in early 1900s had enormous implications for the growth of SPED. Much progress achieved by collective efforts of pros and parents. Pro groups formed beginning in the 1800s, and effective national parent organizations have existed in the US since c. 1950. President JFK's sister, Eunice Kennedy Shriver, originated the Special Olympics. Their sister Rosemary had an intellectual disability. Legislation and litigation.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): ensures right of individuals with disabilities to nondiscriminatory treatment in other aspects of their lives; it provides protections of civil rights in specific areas of employment, transportation, public accommodations, state and local government, and telecommunications.

Expectations for Special Educators

Instructing students with learning problems, using evidence-based practices. Patience and hope. Have the technical skill to present academic tasks so that students with disabilities will understand and respond appropriately. Managing serious behavior problems. Understanding and empathy. Master techniques to draw out withdrawn students, control those who are hyperaggressive and persistently disruptive, and teach critical social skills. Implement positive, proactive behavior intervention plans. Evaluate tech advances. Know SPED law. Offer good instruction that is highly individualized, intensive, relentless, urgent, and goal directed.

Wraparound Service Systems

Involve using not only educational services but available community services (e.g., mental health, social welfare, juvenile justice, and so forth) in order to meet the individualized needs of children and their families. These services are "wrapped around" the fam so that service providers give attention to as many of the family's needs as possible.

How Effective are RTI Identification Models?

Little research evidence is available to determine whether RTI is effective. Only a few school districts in the country have used it on a wide scale and few large-scale systematic studies have been conducted. Variability in RTI models makes it difficult to study its efficacy. Some argue that although RTI is defensible way of improving early intervention and instruction for struggling learners, its use as a means of identifying disabilities is questionable. RTI is complex and more research is needed to determine how it should be implemented in schools.

The Importance of Abilities

Many people with disabilities have abilities that go unrecognized because their disabilities become the focus of concern and distract from what the individual can do.

Prereferral Interventions and Multidisciplinary Teams

Prereferral interventions developed by a multidisciplinary team may help prevent an inaccurate placement in SPED. Purpose of prereferral interventions is to ensure that students receive evidence-based instruction before they're evaluated for SPED. Typically, when a teacher observes that a child is struggling, a multidisciplinary team (parents/guardians, SPED teacher, gen ed teacher, counselor, administrators, school psychologist) is convened to identify alternative, evidence-based educational strategies for the student before making a referral for SPED evaluation. The team reviews the info about the student and develops a plan for prereferral interventions that are implemented before a formal evaluation is conducted. If the student continues to struggle, they're referred for a full evaluation to determine eligibility for SPED. Many states have followed a systematic method of prereferral called response to intervention (RTI), particularly for identifying students with learning disabilities. Distinctions of RTI from earlier processes are: universal screening, evidence-based interventions, multiple tiers of intervention that are increasingly more intense, frequent progress monitoring, and fidelity of implementation.

Progress Monitoring

Progress monitoring assessments are frequent, quick, and easy measures that teachers administer at regular intervals and that provide info on whether a student is learning as expected. Purpose is to determine whether current instructional practices are appropriate for individual students and to identify instructional needs. Common type= CBM.

Collaborative Consultation

SPED teacher or psychologist acts as an expert who provides advice to the gen ed teacher. The special educator might suggest changes to instruction or additional supports, such as behavior plans or school-home notes.

Mastering the Maze: The SPED Process

See IEP Team Member Roles (page 7), IEP Process (pages 10-22), and Environmental, Cultural, and/or Economic Concerns (pages 19-20, 184-185)

The Effects of a Child with a Disability on the Fam

Some have likened impact for some families to that of PTSD. For families who have a child with a disability, the everyday routines that most families take for granted are frequently disrupted—alterations in housing, household maintenance schedules, changing of parents' career goals.

Screening

Teachers or school psychologists use screening instruments to identify those student who may be at increased risk of school failure. Screening instruments are usually administered to an entire group of students and may be given to a large number of students in a short period of time. School personnel use results of the screening administrations to identify students for whom additional progress monitoring and Tier 2 instruction are required.

Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142), Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142) is landmark fed law passed in 1975 which was amended in 1990 to become the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The law was amended again in 1997 and in 2004 when it became the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) (but we still refer to it as IDEA since basic requirements of the law haven't changed). IDEA ensures that all kids/youths with disabilities have the right to a free, appropriate public education. Main provisions of IDEA: identification, free appropriate public education (FAPE), due process, parent/guardian surrogate consultation, least restrictive environment (LRE), individualized education program (IEP), nondiscriminatory evaluation, confidentiality, personal development, in-service. IDEA and PL 94-142 mandate FAPE for every youth between 3-21 and provides incentives for states to develop early intervention programs.

Common Core State Standards Initiative (2012) and Common Core State Standards (CCSS)

The Initiative called for all states to accept a common set of standards. CCSS: cover English language arts and math for K-12. That is, the standards cover the competencies that students are expected to have at each grade in these areas. At this point, all but a handful of states have signed on to the Common Core Standards Initiative. The Initiative promotes the idea that students with disabilities should be held accountable regarding the general education curriculum. However, it notes that these students might need to have instructional supports, engaging students by presenting material in multiple ways and allowing for multiple modes of expression and accommodations, such as changing materials and procedures that do not alter the content of the general education curriculum. The CCSS mentions that students with severe cognitive deficits will need substantial supports and accommodations in order to access certain standards. Concerns about the CCSS have been raised by several practitioners, researchers, and policymakers in the special education community. Although the Initiative has involved special educators in the development of the standards and the assessments, some are fearful that the standards will not be in the best interests of many students with disabilities. The standards-based reform movement and the CCSS have brought with them a heavy emphasis on access to the general education curriculum for students with disabilities. However, some special educators have questioned whether too much emphasis on the general education curriculum is at the expense of students learning skills such as study skills, daily living skills, and intensive reading instruction. Numerous questions arise: Should all standards apply to all students, regardless of disability? Under what circumstances are alternative standards appropriate? Under what circumstances should special accommodations be made in assessing progress toward a standard? Answering questions like these requires professional judgment in the individual case, and such judgment is required by law. Moreover, expecting all students with disabilities to score the same, on average, as students without disabilities is expecting the impossible.

Assessment Practices in an RTI Model

The basic purposes of assessment in an RTI model are to identify students who may be at increased risk of school failure and to collect data to determine the effectiveness of instruction so that appropriate instructional decisions can be made. 2 most common forms of assessment in an RTI process: screening and progress monitoring.

SPED Law and Individualized Education for Students with Disabilities

The primary intent of the special education law passed in 1975 and the subsequent reauthorizations has been to require educators to focus on the needs of individual students with disabilities to ensure that they receive appropriate educational services. A multidisciplinary team that includes school or agency personnel as well as the parents and the individual, when appropriate, determines the services that an individual receives. The individualized education program (IEP) is the primary aspect of this focus; it spells out how a school plans to meet an exceptional student's needs. In addition to the IEP, the individualized family service plan (IFSP) for young children and the transition plan for adolescents are important aspects of providing appropriate individualized services to children and youth with disabilities.

Evaluation and Identification of Exceptional Learners

To provide students with disabilities the appropriate educational services in the setting that maximizes their potential (LRE), schools must employ effective practices in identifying exceptional learners. A longstanding debate continues on how to best identify students who are exceptional learners. Regardless of the specific method of identification, the federal law requires that specific steps be followed in the process.

Litigation

Today, courts must interpret laws that define school attendance as right of every child, regardless of disability. Litigation focuses on ensuring that every kids receives an education that's appropriate for their individual needs. § Litigation may involve legal suits primarily filed for 2 reasons: because SPED services aren't being provided for students whose parents believe their children deserve them OR because students are being assigned to SPED when parent believe the assignment is unwarranted. Much SPED litigation involved controversy over use of intelligence (IQ) and other standardized testing to determine students' eligibility for SPED.

Multicultural Education

aims to change educational institutions and curricula so they'll provide equal educational opportunities to students regardless of their gender, social class, ethnicity, race, disability, or other cultural identity. Seeks to socialize students to a multicultural norm: acceptance of and respect for those whose culture differs from one's own and knowledge of our shared history. Multiculturalism also involves the specter of collective vs individual pride and guilt in behavior.

Subculture

culture that's associated with or part of a larger culture; a culture that isn't the entire culture of a nation or other entity. Sometimes called "microculture," but a subculture isn't necessarily small or a minority of a larger culture. Some are voluntary (religion, political party, etc.) and some are involuntary (skin color, gender, etc.). The number of subcultures represented in US schools has increased because of the variety of immigrants from other countries and because of greater recognition of and sensitivity to subcultures, such as those represented by age, disability, religion, sexual orientation, etc. Students from some subcultures in U.S. society do extremely well in school, but others don't. The factors accounting for the school performance of subcultures are complex, and social scientists are still searching for the attitudes, beliefs, traditions, and opportunities that foster the success of specific cultural groups. Although considerable evidence indicates that various ethnic minority communities have a positive influence on students' achievement and school behavior, we offer a couple of cautions. First, we need to guard against stereotypes—assumptions that one's cultural identity is sufficient to explain academic achievement or economic success. Second, the fact that some minority communities may have a strong influence on school success doesn't relieve schools of the obligation to provide a multicultural education. All students need to feel that they and their cultural heritage are included in the mainstream of American culture and schooling. The general purposes of multicultural education are to promote pride in the positive aspects of one's own cultural heritage, encourage understanding of cultures that differ from one's own, foster positive attitudes toward cultural diversity, and ensure equal educational opportunities for all students. These purposes cannot be accomplished unless students develop an understanding and appreciation of their own cultural heritage, as well as an awareness and acceptance of cultures different from their own.

High-Incidence and Low-Incidence Disabilities

disabilities occur with relatively high frequency and are called high-incidence disabilities—learning disabilities, communication (speech and lang) disorders, emotional disturbance, and mild intellectual disabilities. Other disabilities (blindness, deafness, severe intellectual disabilities, and traumatic brain injury) occur relatively rarely and are considered low-incidence disabilities. Some low-incidence categories have increased dramatically, like autism or autistic spectrum disorder, traumatic brain injury (TBI), orthopedic impairments, and other health impairments (OHI). Increases in TBI and orthopedic impairments because of increases in spinal cord injury and in survival of severe physical trauma due to better medical care. Increase in OHI due to increase in ADHD. Increase in diagnosis of autism because of improved identification procedures and identification of milder cases of autism.

Handicap

disadvantage imposed on an individual. A disability might or might not be a handicap and a handicap might or might not be caused by a disability.

Tiered Assignments

example of an adaptation--teachers provide choices of varying difficulty for assignments on a single topic.

Residential School

exceptional students receive 24-hour care away from home, often at a distance from their communities. This is the highest level of specialization or dedication on the continuum of alternative placements required by IDEA. These students might make periodic visits home or return each weekend, but during the week they're residents of the institution, where they receive academic instruction in addition to management of their daily living environment.

Self-contained Classroom

most visible—and, in recent years, controversial—service alternatives is the special self-contained class. Such a class typically enrolls 15 or fewer exceptional students with particular characteristics or needs. The teacher ordinarily has been trained as a special educator and provides all or most of the instruction, assisted by a paraeducator. The students assigned to such classes usually spend most or all of the school day separated from their nondisabled peers. Often, students with disabilities are included with nondisabled students during part of the day (perhaps for physical education, music, or some other activity in which they can participate well).

Deinstitutionalization

movement of the 1960s and 70s to move people out of institutions and back into closer contact with the community. Today, smaller facilities within local neighborhoods are common and transitional living homes/halfway houses exist for people with emotional difficulties. But, much still needs to be done to improve quality of life for some people with disabilities—many people who formerly would've been in institutions are now homeless or in jail.

Instruction in Multicultural and Bilingual SPED

o A major objective of multicultural education is ensuring that all students are instructed in ways that don't penalize them because of their cultural diffs and that capitalize on their cultural heritage. o The methods used to achieve this objective are among the most controversial topics in education today. All advocates of multicultural education are concerned with the problem of finding instructional methods that help to equalize educational opportunity and achievement for all cultural groups—that is, methods that break down the inequities and discrimination that have been part of the U.S. public education system and that IDEA seeks to eliminate. Yet considerable debate continues over the question of what instructional methods are most effective in achieving this goal. If students' differences are ignored, then students will probably receive instruction not suited to their needs. They will likely fail to learn many skills, which will in turn deny them power and opportunity in the larger culture. However, the solution isn't necessarily recognition of students' diffs, because instruction that's geared to individual students' subculture might teach only skills that are valued by the subculture. Because the larger or more general culture doesn't value these skills, the students' diffs will be perpetuated. o Important considerations: effective teaching for all and improving instruction for lang minority students.

Assessment Issues in Multicultural and Bilingual SPED

o Assessment: process of collecting info about individuals or groups for the purpose of making decisions. Ordinarily refers to testing, interviewing, and observing students. Serves various purposes, including screening (quick measurement to determine who may need further assessment and possible intervention), diagnosis (measurement to identify specific problems), identification for special education services, progress monitoring (frequent measurement to help guide instruction), and evaluating outcomes (measurement to determine the effectiveness of educational programming). Clearly, assessment often results in important decisions about people's lives; therefore, great concern for accuracy, justice, and fairness in educational assessments is widespread in the United States. o Unfortunately, the accuracy of many educational assessments, especially those involving special education, is open to question. Particularly when ethnic subcultures are involved, traditional assessment practices have frequently violated the U.S. ideals of fairness and equal opportunity regardless of ethnic origin, gender, or disability. That is, the assessment practices of educators and psychologists have frequently come under attack as being biased, resulting in misrepresentation of the abilities and disabilities of ethnic minorities and exceptional students, which may then result in classification and overrepresentation in special education rather than improved educational programming. o Fortunately, methods to monitor students' response to interventions have become more common as a result of legislation (e.g., IDEA, NCLB, ESSA). The increase in informal measures to assess student progress is particularly beneficial to students from diverse populations; progress monitoring assessments are typically less biased than traditional standardized tests. For example, curriculum-based measurement (CBM), which entails direct and frequent samples of performance from the curriculum in which students are being instructed, is more useful for teachers than traditional testing and decreases the likelihood of cultural bias. o Standardized tests are often implemented to document students' achievement of annual goals, as well as for issues of accountability. These tests may be biased because many of the test items draw on specific experiences that students from different subcultures may not have had. o Testing accommodations are provided to students with disabilities and students with limited English proficiency for the purpose of assessing student knowledge on an equal basis with students without disabilities and for whom English is a first language. Accommodations should not give an advantage to students but should provide students an equal opportunity to demonstrate knowledge and skills. Testing accommodations for English language learners should reduce the language barriers that may interfere with assessment results. The most common accommodations include administration modifications (e.g., extended time and small-group and individual administration) and the use of a bilingual dictionary. Other accommodations include translation of tests to the student's native language and bilingual versions of tests, but these are not as common. Unfortunately, empirical evidence isn't available on the efficacy of these accommodations.

Family-Centered Model

o At one time, most early intervention programs for families operated according to the philosophy that the pros had the expertise and the families needed that expertise to function. o However, most authorities today advocate a family-centered model: pros encourage the families to make their own decision with respect to services, while mobilizing resources and formal and informal supports for the fam's goals. The pros work for the family. This approach leads to positive outcomes for families. Recognizes parents as equal partners in the development of treatment and educational programs for their kids. When pros don't just provide direct services but also encourage the parents to help themselves and their kids, the parents assume control over their own lives and avoid the dependency that's sometimes associated with typical professional-fam relationships. Successful parent involvement focuses on the notion that parents' interaction with their kids is critical. o Interviews with parents have resulted in these recommendations: be direct, but don't tell us what to do. Tell the truth and be honest but also be hopeful and encouraging. Be knowledgeable, but admit when you don't know the answer. Don't overwhelm, but don't hold back info.

Parents' Reactions--Role of Guilt

parents of kid with a disability frequently wrestle with the feeling that they're in some way responsible for their kid's condition. High prevalence of guilt is prob linked to fact that the primary cause of so many disabilities is unknown.

IDEA Requirements for Special Education Identification

o Child Find: requirement for states to identify and evaluate all kids who may have a disability. Each state's obligation to have a reasonable plan to locate kids in the state even if they don't attend public schools. Once identified, the kid is referred for SPED evaluation. o Referral: school personnel (gen ed teacher usually) or a parent may make the referral or request for evaluation. Parents must give verbal or written consent before child is evaluated. o Evaluation: within 60 days of parental consent, the district must provide a full evaluation of the child. Results of the evaluation help to determine the student's eligibility for SPED and related services. o Eligibility Determination: to determine whether a student is eligible for services, a multidisciplinary team meets to determine if student has a disability, and if they need SPED or related services as a result of the disability. If parents disagree with decision, they may seek an outside evaluation.

Parents' Adjustment

o Evidence shows that parents of kids with disabilities undergo more than the average amount of stress mostly due to the accumulation of daily responsibilities related to child care. o Parental Reaction to Stress: stress isn't always linked to the severity of the kid's disability. Stress appears to be more prevalent in parents with kids who exhibit poor social skills and behavior probs, especially if the problems involve socially offensive and disruptive behaviors. The factors that seem to be the most predictive of how parents will cope with the stress are their prior psychological makeup and marital happiness, and the quality and degree of informal support they receive from others. Social support that parents receive from each other, extended fam members, friends, and others can be critical in helping parents cope with stress (support can be physical or psychological). o Changing Views of Parental Adjustment: at one time, most pros assumed parents were destined for a life of stress and misery. Although we now know this is largely invalid, research shows that parents, especially mothers, of kids with disabilities have an undeniably greater likelihood of depression. But evidence does indicate that this depression tends to diminish as the kid grows older. Role of the father can be an important factor in helping reduce the degree of depression the mom experiences—moms are less likely to exhibit depression if the dad is actively involved in child-care activities. When dads are involved in child rearing and financial obligations of raising the kid, positive effects are evident in infants as young as 6 months.

Correcting Misconceptions about Exceptional Learners

o Fed legislation specifies that to receive fed funds, every school system must provide a free appropriate public education (FAPE) for every student, regardless of any disabling condition. o In most cases, the causes of disabilities aren't known, although progress is being made in why disabilities occur. More is known about the treatment of most disabilities than about their causes. o No 2 people are alike, and people with disabilities are unique individuals. A disability is a characteristic not shared by most people. Important that disabilities are recognized for what they are, but people with disabilities should be seen as having many abilities—other characteristics that they share with the majority of people. o Disability= inability to do something/lack of a specific capacity. Might or night not be a handicap. o Handicap= disadvantage imposed on an individual that are sometimes needlessly imposed on people with disabilities.

Siblings' Adjustment

o Kids, like parents, can adapt well or poorly to having fam members with disabilities, but there isn't much research on this topic. The little solid research evidence that exists in the area of intellectual disabilities suggests that although siblings are at a slightly elevated risk, they're at lower risk than parents of experiencing depression and anxiety. As is the case with parents, some people report having benefited from having a sibling with a disability. Why some siblings respond negatively whereas others don't isn't understood fully. Some evidence suggests that birth order, gender, and age differences between siblings have some bearing on adjustment. An excellent resource for providing info and support to siblings are sibshops, workshops specifically designed to help siblings of kids with disabilities.

Effective Teaching for All

o Many educators call for instructional practices that are culturally sensitive or culturally responsive, attuned to the particular cultural characteristics of learners. The assumption underlying many assertions about culturally sensitive or culturally responsive instruction is that students with different cultural backgrounds need to be taught differently/that certain aspects of cultural heritage determine how students learn best. o We might hypothesize that certain methods of instruction are equally effective for all students in a culturally diverse group. Some instructional approaches (direct instruction, cooperative learning, classwide peer tutoring (CWPT), and cross-age grouping) allow teachers to provide culturally sensitive instruction to all members of a diverse group at once. Rather than seeking effective methods specific to specific ethnic groups, perhaps educators should focus on ensuring that minorities have access to effective instruction validated with students regardless of ethnicity. In addition to creating an atmosphere of acceptance of cultural diffs, teachers should use instructional practices that have proven effective for students from a variety of backgrounds. Researchers found that effective instruction for students who're struggling or who have been identified for SPED rests on individualization. o A viable multicultural curriculum can't be created and simply handed out to teachers. Effective implementation of a multicultural curriculum requires teaching strategies that are involvement oriented, interactive, personalized, and cooperative. o When thinking about behavior, 2 critical considerations: relationship between the teacher's approach to classroom discipline and the parents' child-rearing practices, and the teacher's sensitivity to cultural diffs in responses to discipline.

Siblings' Reactions

o Much less info on siblings than parents, but research indicates that siblings can and do experience the same emotions (fear, anger, guilt) that parents experience. Siblings are prone to exhibit anxiety about their bro or sis. Siblings might initially have more difficult time than parents in coping with feelings, especially when they're younger. Being less mature, they might have trouble putting some of their negative thoughts into proper perspective and might be uncomfortable asking their parents the questions that bother them. These questions usually vary according to the type of disability and the age of the sibling.

Correcting Misconceptions about Learners with Disabilities

o Much variability exists in how response to intervention (RTI) is implemented. This variation has contributed to the fact there's little research on the effectiveness of RTI. o Least restrictive environment (LRE) means that students are to be educated in the least separate setting given the student's individual learning, behavioral, and physical needs. o Research comparing special vs gen education placement is inconclusive because most studies have been methodologically flawed. Researchers are now focusing on ways to make inclusion work more effectively. o Co-teaching can be successful, but it's a complicated model, and much research still needs to be done to determine how best to make it generally effective. o Some believe that tech should be sued cautiously because it can lead people with disabilities to become too dependent on it. Some pros believe that people with disabilities can be tempted to rely on tech instead of developing their own abilities. o Most students with disabilities will be included in standardized tests used in Common Core State Standards (CCSS), but some students will require adaptations of the testing procedure to accommodate their specific disabilities. Students with disabilities, however, can no longer be automatically excluded from participating in standardized assessment procedures.

Ethnicity and Exceptionality

o Multicultural SPED must focus on 2 objectives that exceed the general purposes of multicultural education: 1) ensure that ethnicity isn't mistaken for exceptionality/disability, and 2) increase understanding of the subculture of exceptionality/disability and its relationship to other cultures. o Ethnicity can be mistaken for exceptionality when one's own ethnic group is viewed as setting the standard for all others. Members of each ethnic group must realize what they perceive as deviant or unacceptable in their own group might be normal and adaptive in another ethnic group. We must not mistakenly conclude that students have a disability or are gifted just because they're different. o Students from 3 ethnic minority groups are disproportionately identified for SPED: American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and African American. o Overrepresentation of African Americans has been blamed on bias in tests used, prejudice in teachers toward Black students. Also, poverty puts kids at risk for having disabilities and that some ethnic minorities have higher poverty rates. o The disproportional placement of ethnic minority students in SPED suggests that in some cases, students are misidentified and wrongly placed (and stigmatized and segregated) in SPED, whereas in other cases, ethnic minority students' disabilities are ignored and the students are therefore denied appropriate education.

Correcting Misconceptions about Multicultural and Bilingual Aspects of SPED

o Multicultural education seeks to help kids of all ethnic groups appreciate their own and others' cultural heritages—plus our common American culture that sustains multiculturalism. o Educators and others struggle with how to construct a satisfactory multicultural curriculum and create multicultural instructional methods. It's controversial—which cultures to include, how much attention to give to each, and what and how to teach about them. o Ethnicity is typically the focal point of discussions of multiculturalism, but ethnicity is sometimes a point of controversy if it's defined too broadly. Besides ethnic groups, other groups and individuals need consideration in a multicultural curriculum. o Some ethnic minorities are still underrepresented or overrepresented in certain SPED categories. For example, African American students, especially males, are overrepresented in programs for students with emotional disturbance and underrepresented in programs for gifted and talented students. o Some assessments, especially standardized ones, are culturally biased. Testing accommodations can reduce this bias, and RTI is a promising method for culturally unbiased identification. o Conversational English isn't the same as the formal and technical lang used in academic curriculum and classroom instruction. Educators must ensure that students understand the lang used in teaching, not just informal convo.

Multitiered Model for Identification

o RTI approach is based on a multitiered model of prevention. No model is universally accepted; however, RTI typically provides for 3 progressively more intensive tiers of instruction for students who experience difficulties. o Tier 1: universal screening to identify students who may be at risk of academic failure; implementation of quality, research-based instruction; and weekly monitoring of student progress. Teacher monitors progress in curriculum and in relation to peers and provides differentiated instruction. If student's achievement improves, no other action taken but if doesn't improve, moves to Tier 2. o Tier 2: student receives small-group instruction by a teacher or highly trained assistant 3 or 4 times a week with a research-validated program in the areas of difficulty. Takes place for about 6-8 weeks. If performance doesn't improve, a multidisciplinary team convenes to determine whether student has a disability and qualifies for Tier 3, which is SPED. o Tier 3: SPED. More intensive intervention provided by a special educator in an appropriate placement to be determined by the student's IEP.

Inclusion

teaching students with disabilities in the same environment as their age peers who don't have disabilities. Most educators favor some degree of integration of students with nondisabled students.

Correcting Misconceptions about Parents and Families of Persons with Disabilities

o Pros now believe that the family (including extended fam) as well as friends should be included in intervention programming for kids with disabilities. o Parents can influence their kid's behavior but kids can affect how their parents behave. Some kids with disabilities are born with difficult temperaments, which can affect parental behavior. o Parents may experience some, or all, of emotions but not necessarily in any order. o Parents frequently suspect that something's wrong with their baby but are told by pros not to worry, that the child will outgrow the prob. Then they seek another opinion. o Although frequently ignored by researchers and experience less stress than moms, dads can play a critical role in the fam dynamics. o Some parents experience high degrees of disruption and stress, but over time many come to learn to cope and some gain unanticipated benefits from having a child with a disability. o Siblings often experience same emotions as parents, and their lack of maturity can make coping with these emotions more difficult. o Pros should help parents become more involved in making decisions for the fam. o Fam demographics changing rapidly. In many families, both parents work outside of the home, and the numbers of single-parent families and families living in poverty have increased. o Although it's desirable for parents to be involved, it's sometimes very difficult form them to do so because of their commitments to other family functions. o Informal sources of support (extended fam and friends) are often more effective than formal sources of support, such as pros and agencies, in helping families adapt to a fam member with a disability. o Teachers should initiate some kind of contact with parents asap, so that if a prob such as a serious behavior infraction does occur, some rapport with the parents will already have been established.

Reasons for Optimism in SPED

o Teachers and other professionals who care o Scientific advances on causal factors, which can lead to the reduction in some disabilities, prevention of some disabilities, and advances towards cures and treatments o Scientific advances in learning and teaching

Use of New Technologies

o Tech advances can have implications for people with disabilities. Advances in 3 techs are particularly important: medical treatment, human reproduction, and communication. Some of these advances, especially in the first 2, are controversial. o Pros of tech: expand abilities of people with and without disabilities to access info, communicate, travel, and accomplish everyday tasks. Allow some to function like those who don't have disabilities. o Cons: dependence on tech and problem of reliability. Just because we can do something doesn't mean that we should do something.

Implementing Effective Reading Instruction

o Reading instruction should be based on the best scientific evidence. o Federal funding has provided extensive research on teaching reading skills to English language learners. Researchers have been examining whether methods that are effective with monolingual students at risk for reading disability are also effective for non-English speakers. Found that comprehensive interventions (explicit instruction in phonemic awareness, alphabetic principle, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension) produced significant improvements for these students and less comprehensive interventions didn't produce significant results. o For young kids especially, research points to importance of an environment in which kids have the opportunity to listen to reading, examine books, engage in activities such as saying nursery rhymes, writing, and seeing and talking about printed materials. This means encouraging such literacy-related activities in the home, which can't occur unless teacher is competent in addressing cultural diffs among families. o Reading Rockets provides resources for teaching reading, including to English Language Learners.

Improving Instruction for Language-Minority Students

o Students for whom English is a second language face the simultaneous demands of learning a new language and mastering traditional subject matter. Those who also have disabilities encounter a third demand of coping with the additional hurdles imposed by their exceptionalities. Bilingual special education is therefore particularly controversial, presenting difficult dilemmas and paradoxes. Moreover, some federal and state policies demand that students who aren't fluent in English must score, on average, the same as those who are fluent in English. o One approach to teaching language-minority students is to emphasize use of their native languages. In this approach, teachers initially provide all academic instruction in each student's native language and teach English as a separate subject. Later, when the students demonstrate adequate fluency in English, they make the transition to instruction in English in all academic subjects. Students are taught for most of the day in their native languages and later make a transition to English. o Another approach is to offer content-area instruction in English from the beginning of the student's schooling but at a level that is "sheltered," or constantly modified to make sure the student understands it. The goal of this approach is to help the student learn English while learning academic subjects as well. In this sheltered-English approach, students receive instruction in English for most of the school day from the beginning of their schooling. o The question as to which approach is better for students with disabilities has not been answered, although it's clear that changing from one approach to the other when students change schools creates particular difficulties. No matter which approach is used, teachers need to be explicit and systematic in their instruction and attentive to the bilingual child's need for practice and repetition in their second language. Another issue for language-minority instruction is whether an emphasis on the natural uses of language or, alternatively, on skills such as vocabulary and pronunciation is most effective. However, this controversy might be based on a false dichotomy. What students need is an effective balance between skill building and language that is meaningful and relevant to their lives and interests. Moreover, instruction of lang-minority students must be consistent with effective teaching.

Teaching Tolerance and Appreciation of Differences

o Teachers also need to address what can be done to educate all students about an understanding and appreciation for differences of all kinds. Overcoming prejudice and teaching students to appreciate those who're diff from themselves isn't easy. Moreover, this isn't an area in which research can provide definitive guidelines. Yet proposed methods for how teachers can help students learn self-esteem and tolerance of diff are promising—incorporating diversity by design or organizing anti-bias clubs

Providing SPED--Placement

o The gen ed teacher who's aware of the individual needs of students is skilled at meeting them may be able to acquire appropriate materials, equipment, and/or instructional methods. This level might not require the direct services of specialists; the expertise of the gen ed teacher might meet the students' needs. o Alternatively, the general education teacher might need to consult with a special educator or other professional (e.g., the school psychologist) in addition to acquiring the special materials, equipment, or methods. The special educator might train or coach the general education teacher, refer the teacher to other resources, or demonstrate the use of materials, equipment, or methods.

Professionals' Changing Views of Parents and Families

o Today, pros recognize that families and not just parents are crucial for successful outcomes for persons with disabilities. When we talk about family, we mean it in the broadest sense—siblings, relatives, in-laws, and close friends who play roles identical to/similar to those of family members. o Although educators now recognize the crucial importance of considering the concerns of parents and families in treatment and educational programs for individuals who're disabled, this wasn't always the case. In the resent past, some pros labeled parents as the primary cause of the child's problems or blamed parents when practitioners' interventions were ineffective. o For at least 3 reasons, educators now know that automatically holding parents responsible for their kid's probs is inappropriate: 1) research has shown that the direction of causation between child and adult behavior is a 2-way street—sometimes the parent changes the behavior of the child/infant but sometimes the reverse is true. Research over several years confirmed that parents' behavior toward their kids can be affected by the behaviors of the kids. 2) researchers have found that many parents of kids with a disability are adept at adjusting their interactions with their kids to maximize positive development. 3) authorities are now less likely to view the purpose of early intervention as training parents to assume the role of quasi-therapist/teacher and instead, many pros believe goal of early intervention should be to develop and preserve the natural parent-child relationship as much as possible. o Recognizing the importance of the fam, Congress has passed several fed laws stipulating that schools make a concerted effort to involve parents and families in the education of their kids. Current law mandates that schools attempt to include parents in crafting the kid's IEP. In the case of infants and toddlers from birth-2 years, schools must involve parents in developing individualized family service plans (IFSPs), which address the needs of the kid and focuses on the kid's fam by specifying which services the fam needs to enhance the kid's development. o Teachers and families have a symbiotic relationship—they can each benefit from the other. o Unfortunately, parents don't always feel valued in their child's IEP meeting. They report pros use jargon and don't take time to seek or to listen to their opinions. The disconnect between parents and pros is even more pronounced for families from ethnic minorities.

RTI in Multicultural and Bilingual SPED

o Traditional standardized testing has limitations: they don't take cultural diversity into account, they focus on deficits in the individual alone, and they don't provide info useful in teaching. o RTI practices may have advantages for students who are culturally and linguistically diverse; however, the research that supports its use is based on monolingual students. The effective interventions on which RTI is based, particularly for students with reading disability, have been validated only with monolingual, English-speaking students. Although educators have concerns about the current evidence base for using RTI with culturally and linguistically diverse learners, there are sensible reasons for thinking it is appropriate. Because RTI models are supposed to rely on quality instruction before identification, they may prevent students from falling behind and thus being identified for special education. In addition, RTI relies more heavily on curriculum-based measurement and less on standardized tests, which may contain cultural bias. Like other areas of assessment and instruction, more research is needed to determine whether RTI methods are appropriate for use with English language learners and other minority populations.

The US and Multiculturalism

o We must renew our efforts to achieve social justice and take specific steps to understand and appreciate one another's cultures. In doing so, we must pledge our loyalty to common cultural values that make diversity a strength. o Education that takes full advantage of the cultural diversity in our schools and the larger world requires much critical analysis and planning. It can be difficult for all cultural or ethnic groups to find common satisfaction in any specific curriculum, even if they're all seeking what they consider the multicultural ideal. Moreover, some argue that the more important goal is finding the common American culture and ensuring that our children have a common cultural literacy. Of particular concern to special educators is how exceptionalities are related to cultural diversity and the way in which SPED fits within the broader gen ed context in a multicultural society. Cultural diversity presents particular challenges for special educators in 3 areas: assessment of abilities and disabilities, instruction, and socialization

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

o a legal term referring to the fact that exceptional kids must be educated in as normal an environment as possible. Intervention should be consistent with individual needs and not interfere with individual freedom any more than is absolutely necessary. o Although placement of exceptional students in the LRE is laudable, the def isn't as simple as it seems. Cruickshank (1977), a pioneer in SPED, pointed out that the greater restriction of the physical environment doesn't necessarily mean greater restriction of psychological freedom or human potential (some students could be more restricted in the long run in a gen ed class where they're rejected by others and fail to learn necessary skills). o Considerable variation exists in placement of kids from state to state and among school systems, but most exceptional students are educated in the gen ed classroom.

Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC)

over a dozen states have formed the SBAC, which has created online assessments for English and math for grades 3-8 and high school aligned to the CCSS.

Family Characteristics

o include basic info about the fam, such as type and severity of the disability, the family's size, cultural background, socioeconomic status, coping styles, and special conditions (spousal abuse, maternal depression, etc.). Help to determine how fam members interact with each other and those outside of the fam. Teachers should be attentive to the expanding ethnic diversity in the US, which results in a wider mismatch between the ethnicities of teachers and students, especially students in SPED. Remember that parents from diverse backgrounds don't have any 1 particular way of interacting with teachers or other pros—some may think of pros as the experts and others may mistrust school personnel. Other changes in families include increases in the umber of families in which both parents work outside of the home, single-parent families, same-sex unions, and families living in poverty. Families particularly vulnerable to the stresses of raising a kid with disabilities are those facing additional struggles arising from poverty or single-parent status. Unfortunately, a higher prevalence of disabilities exists in single-parent families and families in poverty. Another group whose numbers are on the rise and who face considerable challenges raising kids with disabilities is military families. Uncertainties regarding economic conditions over the past years have increased stress on families. Pros need to remember that successful approaches for 2-parent families might not be suitable for single parents. Pros need to understand that today's parents are living under increasing stress and might find it difficult to devote time and energy to working on behalf of their kids.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

o legal document that describes the educational services a student receives. o IEPs vary greatly in format and detail from 1 child to another and from 1 school district to another. Today, most schools, states, and districts have an online IEP management system. In addition, states typically have sample IEP documents that cover the federal and state guidelines. Check your state's department of education website for resources specific to your state. o Federal and state regulations don't specify exactly how much detail must be included in an IEP, only that it must be a written statement developed in a meeting of a representative of the local school district, the teacher, the parents or guardian, and (whenever appropriate) the child, and that it must include certain elements. The IEP that is written in most schools contains much information related to the technical requirements of IDEA in addition to the heart of the plan: its instructional components. o When writing an IEP, the team should develop a document that is clear, useful, and legally defensible. The relationships among IEP components must be clear and explicit in order to maintain the focus of the individualized program—special, individually tailored instruction to meet unique needs. In IEP, student's needs must be carefully assessed, a team of pros and the parents have worked together to design a program of education to best meet the student's needs, and goals and objectives are stated clearly so that progress in reaching them can be evaluated. The decisions made regarding the child's IEP determine the child's ultimate outcomes. The legal IEP is written after evaluation and identification of the student's disabilities and before a placement decision is made: Educators first determine what the student needs and then make a decision about placement in the least restrictive environment in which the needed services can be provided. Too often, we see the educationally wrong (and illegal) practice of basing the IEP on an available placement; that is, a student's IEP is written after available placements and services have been considered.Another common error in writing the IEP is a reliance on state standards. A "standards-based" IEP is one that focuses on outcomes based on state standards rather than on individual student needs.

Parents' Reactions--Dealing with the Public

o parents can feel vulnerable to criticism from others about how they deal with their kid's probs. Parents of kids with disabilities sometimes sense that others are scrutinizing their decisions about such things as their kid's treatment, educational placement, and discipline techniques. The public can sometimes be cruel in their reactions to people with disabilities. Parents often assume the burden of responding to inappropriate or cruel reactions. Many fear that when they aren't around, their kids will undergo mistreatment and ridicule with no one to defend them.

Parents' Reactions--Dealing with the Kid's Feelings

o parents face the delicate task of talking with their child about their disability. Parents don't want to alarm the kid or make the lid more concerned about the disability than necessary. At the same time, they should avoid sugarcoating the probs the kid faces. Parents should wait for the kid to ask specific questions rather than lecture about generalities. Parents should talk honestly with the kid at as early an age as possible, especially before the teenage years.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

o to make learning accessible to more students in inclusionary programs. With modifications of representation (materials), expression (methods of communication), and engagement (how students respond to curriculum), teachers can include a much wider range of students in typical classroom instruction. Will prob still need to customize for certain individuals. o Access to the Internet by people with disabilities has significant implications for design. Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act requires that federal agencies ensure equal access by those with and without disabilities to new information technology as well as information and services. Furthermore, IDEA urges educators to consider the use of assistive technology in servicing students with disabilities, to allow a greater diversity of students to be accommodated in typical classrooms. o Making things usable by more people goes beyond the Internet. For example, teachers can design materials that increase accessibility for more students by creating them in ways that can be adjusted by the user (e.g., making the print larger, providing captions on videos, or creating PDF files that are in accessible formats). Accessible formatted PDF files can be used with a Brailler for individuals who are blind. Another example of making materials accessible is using a teaching microscope that projects the image on a large display, rather than having students with low vision use a standard microscope.

Parents' Reactions--Dealing with Extended Fam Members' Feelings

often overlooked but they're important because extended fam can play critical role in providing comfort and support to the immediate fam.

Testing Accommodations

some students with disabilities who are included in standardized measures of achievement are entitled to receive testing accommodations. Testing accommodations= ensure equitable assessment access for students with disabilities. Although testing accommodation may involve altering the administration procedure or format of a test, the construct that's being measured doesn't change. Accommodations for evaluation procedures might involve altering the setting, the presentation format, or the response format. The nature of the accommodation is based on the specific need of the student. Setting or scheduling accommodations alter the situation or time of the assessment, such as small-group administration and extended time. Presentation accommodations alter the way the assessment is presented to the student, such as having problems and directions read aloud. Response accommodations alter the way in which the student answers questions on the assessment, such as oral or typed responses. Testing to determine outcomes is necessary if we want to know whether programs are working. Testing is useful only if you make the right comparisons. When it comes to SPED, it's wrong to compare outcomes for students with disabilities to outcomes for students without disabilities. Right comparisons are contrasting students with disabilities who receive SPED to those who don't and comparing students with disabilities before and after they receive SPED.

Special Education

specifically designed instruction that meets unusual needs of an exceptional student and that requires special materials, teaching techs, equipment, and/or facilities. Related services might be necessary for SPED to be effective. Goal of SPED is finding and capitalizing on exceptional students' abilities.

Cooperative Learning

students work together in heterogenous small groups to solve problems or practice responses.

The Study of Exceptional Learners

study of diffs and similarities. Exceptional learner differs in some way from the average. Such a person may have probs or special talents in thinking, seeing, hearing, speaking, socializing, or moving and more often than not, they have combo of special abilities or disabilities. Exceptional individuals aren't different from the average in every way—most are average in more ways than they aren't. More attention to what exceptional and nonexceptional learners have in common—to similarities in their characteristics, needs, and ways of learning

Classwide peer tutoring (CWPT)

when whole class is involved/all students in the gen ed classroom routinely engage in peer tutoring for particular subject matter.

Important, Innovative Ideas of SPED Founders

§ Individualized Instruction: child's characteristics, rather than prescribed academic content, provide basis for teaching techs. § Carefully sequenced series of educational tasks: beginning with tasks the child can perform and gradually leading to more complex learning. § Emphasis on stimulation and awakening of the child's senses to make the child more aware of and responsive to educational stimuli. § Meticulous arrangement of the child's environment so structure of environment and child's experience of it lead naturally to learning. § Immediate reward for correct performance: providing reinforcement for desirable behavior. § Tutoring in functional skills to make child as self-sufficient and productive as possible in everyday life. § Belief that every child should be educated to the greatest extent possible because every child can improve to some degree.