exp ch. 11
Why is the cross-sectional method more common than the longitudinal method? A. The results are obtained relatively quickly and it is less expensive. B. The developmental change is observed directly among the same group of people. C. The differences among groups of different ages reflect developmental age changes. D. The results observed are based on comparisons among different cohorts of individuals.
A. The results are obtained relatively quickly and it is less expensive.
Which of the following best describes a longitudinal study on children's development? A. The same children are tested at 1, 3, 5, and 10 years of age. B. Children belonging to the age groups 1, 3, 5, and 10 are tested simultaneously. C. Some children are tested at 1, 3, and 5 years of age while other children are tested at 3, 5, and 10 years of age. D. The children tested at 3 years of age are compared with those tested at age 5.
A. The same children are tested at 1, 3, 5, and 10 years of age.
What is the difference between true experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs? A. True experimental designs use random assignment, whereas quasi-experimental designs do not. B. True experimental designs use control groups, whereas quasi-experimental designs do not. C. Quasi-experimental designs use random assignment, whereas true experimental designs do not. D. Quasi-experimental designs use control groups, whereas true experimental designs do not.
A. True experimental designs use random assignment, whereas quasi-experimental designs do not.
A quasi-experimental design attempts to: A. approximate the control features of true experiments. B. create natural conditions in the laboratory. C. control all extraneous variables after subjects have been randomly assigned. D. measure changes in the manipulated variable.
A. approximate the control features of true experiments.
A way to improve the interrupted time series design is to use a _____ design. A. control series B. reversal series C. multiple baseline D. single-case
A. control series
Regression toward the mean refers to the fact that: A. extreme scores tend to change toward the less extreme mean. B. statistical regression results from changes that occur systematically over time. C. participants should be selected based on extreme scores taken at one time. D. mean scores of pretest and posttest measures will be the same after manipulation.
A. extreme scores tend to change toward the less extreme mean.
Events that occur between the first and second measurement period but are not part of the manipulation are called _____ effects. A. history B. maturation C. testing D. cohort
A. history
A multiple baseline design is often used when: A. it is impossible or unethical to effect a reversal of treatment. B. random assigning of subjects to groups was done incorrectly. C. the researcher wants to correlate several behaviors with the one of interest. D. the chances are high there will be a high mortality rate among the participants.
A. it is impossible or unethical to effect a reversal of treatment.
In order to study personality development, a researcher studies the same individuals at 7, 14, 21, and 30 years of age. In this case, the researcher is using the _____ method. A. longitudinal B. sequential C. cross-sectional D. time analysis
A. longitudinal
The use of existing natural groups of participants often results in: A. nonequivalent groups. B. regression toward the mean. C. many independent variables. D. equal numbers of males and females.
A. nonequivalent groups.
A compromise between the longitudinal and cross-sectional methods is the _____ method. A. sequential B. multiple baseline C. single-case D. reversal
A. sequential
In a _____ design, a subject's behavior is measured over time during a baseline control period. A. single-case B. control series C. propensity score D. nonequivalent control group
A. single-case
Developmental psychologists often study the ways that individuals change as a function of _____. A. experience B. age C. culture D. growth
B. age
An advantage of the ABAB reversal design over the ABA design is that it: A. is less expensive. B. allows for fewer alternative explanations for the results. C. can be used in clinical research. D. is less time consuming.
B. allows for fewer alternative explanations for the results.
A researcher assesses participants' attitude toward marijuana, presents them with a persuasive communication favoring liberalization of marijuana laws, and then reassesses their attitude toward the drug. However, between assessment 1 and assessment 2, the President also advocates liberalization of marijuana laws. If the researcher doesn't use a control group, any differences that he or she observes are likely to be caused by _____ effects. A. maturation B. history C. regression D. testing
B. history
A control series design is a(n) _____ design with a comparison group. A. true experimental B. interrupted time series C. outcome series D. multiple baseline
B. interrupted time series
A researcher asks students to record in a journal the emotions they experience every hour. She finds that over time, the descriptions become shorter and less detailed. What may be responsible for this change in performance? A. Regression toward the mean B. Cohort effect C. Instrument decay D. Selection bias
C. Instrument decay
A human resources psychologist is interested in the effect of work schedule on job satisfaction. She compares satisfaction scores of workers who work five 8-hour shifts with workers who work four 10-hour shifts. Which of the following types of design has the manager employed? A. One-group pretest-posttest design B. Nonequivalent pretest-posttest design C. Nonequivalent control group design D. One-shot case study
C. Nonequivalent control group design
If exposure to an earlier assessment affects behavior when a participant is assessed a second time, which of the following types of effects might the researcher suspect is the cause? A. History B. Instrument decay C. Testing D. Maturation
C. Testing
A researcher wants to test the effect of alcohol on driving performance. Participants first drive through an obstacle course before drinking any alcohol. The participants then drink 8 ounces of alcohol and drive the course again. After each trial, the number of traffic cones hit is recorded. The researcher finds that the number of traffic cones hit is greater before rather than after the participants drank the alcohol. What may best account for the change in performance? A. Maturation B. History C. Testing effect D. Instrument decay
C. Testing effect
Which of the following is true of a nonequivalent control group design? A. The design does not include a separate control group. B. The two groups in the experiment are the result of random assignment. C. The problem of selection differences is likely to arise in this design. D. The same group of people is observed at different points in time as they grow older.
C. The problem of selection differences is likely to arise in this design.
What is the advantage of the pretest in the nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design? A. The pretest accustoms the participants to the procedures of the study. B. Participants who experience a pretest generally score higher on a posttest. C. When groups are not equivalent, researchers can look at changes from pretest to posttest scores. D. If the pretest scores are different, the study can be discontinued immediately.
C. When groups are not equivalent, researchers can look at changes from pretest to posttest scores.
In developmental research, a cohort is: A. someone who shares an individual's living quarters. B. someone who has many similar characteristics as the individual under study. C. a group of people born at about the same time, exposed to the same events in a society. D. a group of people who lived apart, influenced by different demographic trends.
C. a group of people born at about the same time, exposed to the same events in a society.
In an ABAB reversal design, the second "B" period is necessary to rule out: A. carry-over effects. B. correlational variables. C. chance fluctuations. D. baseline changes.
C. chance fluctuations.
A park ranger records the daily number of individuals visiting a park six months before and six months after an admission fee is imposed. During the same time period, he compares the number of visits to two comparable parks that have no admission fee. This quasi-experimental design would be an example of a(n): A. nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design. B. interrupted time series design. C. control series design. D. reversal design.
C. control series design.
Ronan goes to several elementary schools where he tests students who are in the first grade, third grade, and sixth grade to examine the effect of age on a reasoning ability task. In his research, Ronan has used a _____ method. A. longitudinal B. sequential C. cross-sectional D. time analysis
C. cross-sectional
Single-case experiments were developed from a need to: A. have a design that examines a measurement at only one point in time. B. measure only a single dependent variable. C. determine whether a manipulation has an effect on a single research participant. D. overcome selection differences that occur in nonequivalent control group design.
C. determine whether a manipulation has an effect on a single research participant.
In the context of reversal designs, the ABAB design: A. provides a second withdrawal period. B. does not account for chance fluctuations. C. ends with the treatment rather than the withdrawal of treatment. D. tests the effect of the treatment a third time.
C. ends with the treatment rather than the withdrawal of treatment.
The interrupted time series design involves: A. making an observation immediately before and immediately after a treatment is instituted. B. using time as the independent variable. C. making observations over an extended period of time before and after a treatment is instituted. D. comparing treatment and control groups over an extended period of time.
C. making observations over an extended period of time before and after a treatment is instituted.
A restaurant is interested in examining the effect of increasing the price of hamburgers on its sales. During the first six months of the year, it measures the number of hamburgers sold each day. It then increases the price and records the number of hamburgers sold each day for the last six months of the year. This quasi-experimental design would be an example of a(n): A. nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design. B. interrupted time series design. C. control series design. D. nonequivalent control group design.
B. interrupted time series design.
A study is conducted in which the attitudes of the staff of a rehabilitation center are assessed; then the staff is exposed to an attitude-change manipulation, and attitudes are assessed again. Another rehabilitation center of similar size is also chosen; attitudes there are measured, and then assessed again after manipulation. This quasi-experimental design is called a _____ design. A. Solomon four-group B. nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest C. interrupted time series D. control series
B. nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest
In the context of one-group pretest-posttest design, maturation effects occur when: A. taking a pretest changes the participant's behavior. B. participants change over time and become bored or fatigued. C. a confounding event occurs at the same time as the experimental manipulation. D. the basic characteristics of the measuring instrument change over time.
B. participants change over time and become bored or fatigued.
Selection differences are less likely to occur when researchers: A. use pre-existing groups found in natural settings. B. randomly assign participants to groups. C. allow participants to assign themselves to groups. D. use nonequivalent control group design.
B. randomly assign participants to groups.
In a multiple baseline across situations design, _____. A. several different behaviors of a single subject are measured over time B. the same behavior is measured in different settings C. the behavior of several subjects is measured over time D. all subjects are exposed to a particular situational variable
B. the same behavior is measured in different settings
Which of the following is a variation of the multiple baseline design? A. Across subjects B. Across treatments C. Across effects D. Across experiments
A. Across subjects
A researcher wants to investigate the effect of weather on college students' study habits. On a sunny day, the researcher sits in the quad and records the number of minutes each student puts into studying. The researcher finds that the mean number of minutes of study is 39.8. This is an example of a: A. one-shot case study. B. one-group pretest-posttest design. C. sequential method. D. random group design.
A. one-shot case study.
The serious flaw associated with the nonequivalent control group design is that ____ occur. A. selection differences B. data variances C. participant dropouts D. maturation effects
A. selection differences
In the context of one-group pretest-posttest design, testing effects occur when: A. taking a pretest changes the participant's behavior. B. participants become bored or fatigued. C. a confounding event occurs at the same time as the experimental manipulation. D. the basic characteristics of the measuring instrument change over time.
A. taking a pretest changes the participant's behavior.
In order to study the effects of watching violent programs on children's aggressiveness, a researcher observes children's behavior after they watch 30 minutes of violent programs on television. The researcher concludes that television violence causes aggressiveness. A problem in this research is that: A. there is no control group. B. the children's behavior is not observable. C. the researcher should have had the children watch at least 60 minutes of violent programs on television. D. there is no independent variable.
A. there is no control group.
A researcher wants to study the effect of weather on college students' study habits. On a sunny day, the researcher sits in the quad and records the number of minutes of study per student. Identify the crucial element missing in this design. A. An experimental group B. A control group C. An independent variable D. A dependent variable
B. A control group
Amelia realized that her 7-year-old daughter, Violet, was especially motivated by money. Amelia began a reinforcement program whereby Violet earned 5 cents every time she brushed her teeth. A month later, Amelia instituted a payment schedule of 10 cents every time Violet went to bed on time without complaining. Once these behaviors were firmly established, Violet began earning money for every book she read. What kind of single-subject design did Amelia employ? A. Across subject multiple-baseline design B. Across behaviors multiple-baseline design C. Across situations multiple-baseline design D. Across subject ABA design
B. Across behaviors multiple-baseline design
_____ in quasi-experimental designs is more difficult than in true experiments because quasi-experimental designs lack the important features of true experiments such as random assignment to conditions. A. Construct validity B. Causal inference C. Propensity score matching D. Statistical regression
B. Causal inference
When asked if he would like to have some fruits along with his breakfast, Milo declines. He then attends an all-day presentation on the nutritional benefits of eating fruits. At the end of the presentation, Milo is again offered some fruits to eat and he accepts. What effect may be responsible for the change in Milo's response? A. History B. Maturation C. Regression toward the mean D. Testing
B. Maturation
A researcher studies one group of children when they are 3, 6, and 9 years old and another group of children when they are 9, 12, and 15 years old. In the context of developmental research designs, the researcher has used the _____ method. A. control series B. sequential C. multiple baseline D. panel study
B. sequential
In a multiple baseline design, in order to conclude that a treatment is effective, a behavior change must be observed: A. with multiple participants. B. under multiple circumstances. C. when a treatment is removed and reintroduced multiple times. D. before the manipulation is introduced.
B. under multiple circumstances.
Which of the following is a reversal design? A. Pretest-posttest design B. Interrupted time series design C. ABAB design D. Quasi-experimental design
C. ABAB design
In the context of one-group pretest-posttest design and the associated threats to internal validity, any changes that occur systematically over time are called _____ effects. A. regression B. testing C. maturation D. history
C. maturation
A study by Orth and colleagues (2010) was conducted to study the development of self-esteem over time. They were interested in changes in self-esteem at various ages and over time. They identified six different age cohorts (25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55-64, 65-74, 75+) and examined their self-esteem ratings from 1986, 1989, 1994, and 2002. This type of design is best classified as a(n) _____. A. cross-sectional method B. interrupted time series design C. sequential method D. longitudinal study
C. sequential method
. _____ designs address the need to study the effect of an independent variable in settings in which the control features of true experimental designs cannot be achieved. A. Single-case experimental B. Multiple baseline C. Interrupted time series D. Quasi-experimental
D. Quasi-experimental
A graduating college student takes the Graduate Record Exam and scores high marks. Six months later the student retakes the exam after completing all undergraduate coursework, but scores relatively low. Other than the boring coursework, what is most likely to account for the lower scores? A. Maturation B. Testing C. Instrument decay D. Regression toward the mean
D. Regression toward the mean
_____ usually occurs when participants who form the two groups in an experiment are chosen from existing natural groups. A. History effect B. Regression toward the mean C. Cohort effect D. Selection bias
D. Selection bias
In a cross-sectional study, a difference among groups of different ages may reflect developmental age changes; however, these differences may result from _____ effects. A. regression B. nonequivalent C. propensity D. cohort
D. cohort
A researcher records the number of motorcycle fatalities before and after the implementation of a mandatory helmet law. During the same period, she compares this number to the number of motorcycle fatalities of three states that do not have mandatory helmet laws. This research design would be an example of a(n) _____ design. A. true experiment B. single case C. interrupted time series D. control series
D. control series
Selection differences in the nonequivalent control group design are: A. essential to the design because they enhance the independent variable. B. essential to the design because they allow greater differences than the dependent variable. C. problematic because they challenge the external validity of the study. D. problematic because they challenge the internal validity of the study.
D. problematic because they challenge the internal validity of the study.
In one-group pretest-posttest design, which of the following will occur whenever researchers gather a set of extreme scores taken at one time and compare them with scores taken at another point in time? A. Regression toward the mean B. Propensity score matching C. Selection differences D. Testing effects
A. Regression toward the mean
Sophia finds that her son Alex enjoys lemon candy. Sophia encourages Alex when he displays courteous behavior at home. She then starts reinforces this behavior at school, relatives' homes, and church. What type of single-case design does Sophia employ? A. Across situations multiple-baseline design B. Across behaviors ABA design C. Across subjects multiple-baseline design D. Across subjects ABA design
A. Across situations multiple-baseline design
A researcher pretests a group of participants to determine their attitudes toward the use of alternative energy sources to replace crude oil. The researcher then initiates a program to convince them that they should invest in such alternatives. During this time, the price of gasoline rises $.50 per gallon. At the end of the program, the researcher retests and finds that the participants are much more positive in their attitudes. What threat to internal validity most likely accounts for this change? A. History B. Maturation C. Testing D. Regression toward the mean
A. History
A school administrator wants to examine the effect of student lockers on class tardiness. He compares tardiness records of a school with no lockers to a school with lockers. What type of research design is this? A. Nonequivalent control group B. One-group pretest-posttest C. One-shot case study D. Pretest only
A. Nonequivalent control group
Which of the following is a threat to the internal validity of studies using one-group pretest-posttest design? A. Cohort effects B. Statistical regression C. Propensity score matching D. Selection bias
B. Statistical regression
Which of the following is true of propensity score matching? A. It is a technique that uses random assignment. B. It allows individuals in the treatment and the control group to be matched on multiple variables. C. It allows researchers to study persons of different ages at only one point in time. D. It occurs whenever participants are selected because they score extremely high or low on some variable.
B. It allows individuals in the treatment and the control group to be matched on multiple variables.
Teachers at School A were given a substance abuse knowledge test. During the next four months, the teachers attended training sessions on substance abuse. They were then given the knowledge test again. Similarly, teachers at School B were given the substance abuse knowledge test, and four months later they were given the test again. What kind of design was used in this research? A. Pretest-posttest true experimental design B. Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design C. Interrupted time series design D. Multiple baseline design
B. Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design
A researcher administers a reading test to a group of fourth graders at the beginning of the school year. During the year, the students receive an intensive program designed to improve reading skills. At the end of the year, the reading test is given again and a large improvement in test scores is discovered. Identify the type of study. A. One-shot case study B. One-group pretest-posttest design C. Nonequivalent control group design D. Interrupted time series design
B. One-group pretest-posttest design
Professor Aaron finds that when he smiles and makes eye contact with Jeanne, she becomes more responsive to his questions. He tries the same behavior on David, Chris, and B.J. and finds that it also influences their responses to his questions. What type of single-case design did Professor Aaron employ? A. Across situations ABA design B. Across behaviors multiple-baseline design C. Across subjects multiple-baseline design D. Across subjects ABA design
C. Across subjects multiple-baseline design
Which of the following is true of single-case designs? A. The procedures for use with a single subject cannot be replicated with other subjects. B. The results are presented as group data with overall means. C. Complex statistical analyses are not required. D. Early interest in single-case designs in psychology came from research on classical conditioning.
C. Complex statistical analyses are not required.
Which one of the following is NOT a quasi-experimental design? A. Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design B. Interrupted time series design C. Correlated groups design D. Control series design
C. Correlated groups design
If a researcher wants to use an interrupted time series design to examine whether lowering the legal limit of blood alcohol level (BAL) for driving under the influence affects the frequency of arrests, the researcher would: A. compare a state with a higher BAL to one with a lower BAL. B. measure the number of arrests just before and immediately after a law lowering BAL. C. measure an extended period of time before and after a law lowering BAL. D. correlate the amount of alcohol consumed by an individual and the number of times they have been arrested.
C. measure an extended period of time before and after a law lowering BAL.
Kazbour and Bailey (2010) conducted a study to evaluate an intervention to increase the use of designated drivers in a bar. First, the researchers tracked the number of patrons serving as or being with a designated driver. The researchers then implemented a treatment to increase the use of designated drivers, and finally measured how many bar patrons used a designated driver after the intervention was removed. This is an example of a _____. A. developmental research B. cross-sectional study C. reversal design D. one-shot case study
C. reversal design
A study conducted by Ryan and Hemmes (2005) investigated the impact of rewarding college students with points for submitting homework. Their results suggested that overall, course points served as an incentive for submitting homework. However, some individual participants submitted homework even when no points were assigned. Because the researchers used a _____ design, they were able to quickly identify individual differences. A. developmental B. control series C. single-case D. cross-sectional
C. single-case
To examine how a reward influences a desired behavior, a mother first counts the number of times her son makes his bed over a two-week period. For the next two weeks, she gives him a reward every time he makes his bed. Following this period, she stops rewarding him and again counts the number of times he makes his bed. This procedure would be an example of a(n) _____ design. A. pretest-posttest B. baseline treatment C. control series D. ABA
D. ABA
One method used to demonstrate the reversibility of the effect of the independent variable is a(n): A. quasi-experimental design. B. interrupted time series design. C. control series design. D. ABA design.
D. ABA design.
Which of the following are two general methods for studying individuals of different ages? A. Multiple baseline and single-case experimental designs B. Quasi-experimental and nonequivalent control group designs C. Interrupted time series and control series designs D. Cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs
D. Cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs
Dr. Jayden is studying the effect of exercise on cholesterol level. He first measures his patients' cholesterol level before recommending an exercise program and after one month of participating in an exercise program, he measures their cholesterol level again. What type of research design has Dr. Jayden employed? A. Between groups design B. One-shot case study C. Missing control group design D. One group pretest-posttest design
D. One group pretest-posttest design
Which of the following describes a sequential design? A. Studying a group of 5 year olds over a 10 year period B. Comparing reasoning abilities of 5, 8, and 10 year-olds C. Measuring motor abilities of a child when she is 2 years old and then measuring her abilities again when she is 5 years old D. Studying groups of 10- and 15-year-olds, and then studying these individuals 2, 4, and 6 years later
D. Studying groups of 10- and 15-year-olds, and then studying these individuals 2, 4, and 6 years later
In the context of reversal designs, the ABABAB design: A. ends with the withdrawal of the treatment. B. is sometimes called the nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design. C. is the basic reversal design. D. allows the effect of the treatment to be tested a third time.
D. allows the effect of the treatment to be tested a third time.
Over time, human observers may become fatigued or change the standards on which observations are based. When this change in measurement occurs over time, a researcher might attribute it to _____. A. history effects B. regression toward the mean C. testing effects D. instrument decay
D. instrument decay
Clara examines the number of traumatic head injuries that occurred in California for five years before and after the passage of a law that made it mandatory for riders to wear a helmet. Clara's research design would be classified as a(n): A. nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design. B. nonequivalent control group design. C. control series design. D. interrupted time series design.
D. interrupted time series design.
From an ethical viewpoint, the ABAB design is preferred over the ABA design because: A. the ABAB design more powerfully rules out chance fluctuations and coincidental events. B. the ABAB design is less expensive and less time-consuming. C. a single reversal, in most cases, tends to be an extremely powerful evidence for the effectiveness of the treatment. D. it does not seem right to end the design with the withdrawal of a treatment that may be beneficial to the participant.
D. it does not seem right to end the design with the withdrawal of a treatment that may be beneficial to the participant.
The Terman Life Cycle Study began in 1921 and tracked California schoolchildren with particular intelligent scores. This study measured aspects of the individuals' cognitive and social development until their death. This is an example of a(n) _____. A. cross-sectional study B. interrupted time series design C. control series design D. longitudinal study
D. longitudinal study
At the beginning of the term, researchers measured the attitudes of students taking a class in cross-cultural communication. At the end of the term, the students' attitudes were measured again. This is an example of a(n) _____ design. A. nonequivalent control group B. independent groups C. one-shot case study D. one-group pretest-posttest
D. one-group pretest-posttest
Ethan has developed a scale to measure a person's fear of earthquakes. After the occurrence of an earthquake, he surveys 1000 individuals and finds the mean score to be 7.8 out of a possible 10 (the higher the score, the greater the fear). Ethan concludes that fear increases after people experience an earthquake. This study is an example of a: A. true experiment. B. one group pretest-posttest design. C. control group design. D. one-shot case study.
D. one-shot case study.