Fallacies

Poisioning the Well

involves trying to discredit what a person might later claim by presenting unfavorable information (be it true or false) about the person

Fallacy of Composition

when a person reasons from the characteristics of individual members of a class or group to a conclusion regarding the characteristics of the entire class or group (taken as a whole)

Relativist/Subjectivist Fallacy

when a person rejects a claim by asserting that the claim might be true for others but is not for him/her.

Straw Man

when a person simply ignores a person's actual position and substitutes a distorted, exaggerated or misrepresented version of that position

Spotlight

when a person uncritically assumes that all members or cases of a certain class or type are like those that receive the most attention or coverage in the media.

Ad Homineum

"attack on the man" claim/ arguement that is rejected based on personal traits of its speaker (his charachter, circumstances or actions)

Appeal to Emotions

1) Favorable emotions are associated with X. 2) Therefore, X is true.

Appeal to Popularity

1) Most people approve of X. 2) So, I should approve of X, too. 3) Since I approve of X, X must be true.

Appeal to Common Practice

1) X is a common action. 2) Therefore X is correct/moral/justified/reasonable, etc.

Appeal to Flattery

Also known as: Apple Polishing The basic idea behind this fallacy is that flattery is presented in the place of evidence for accepting a claim.

Appeal to Pity/ Ad Misericordiam

An Appeal to Pity is a fallacy in which a person substitutes a claim intended to create pity for evidence in an argument.

Appeal to Novelty

Appeal to Novelty is a fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is new.

Begging the Quesiton

Circular Reasoning, Reasoning in a Circle, Petitio Principii Begging the Question is a fallacy in which the premises include the claim that the conclusion is true or (directly or indirectly) assume that the conclusion is true. ex. Interviewer: "Your resume looks impressive but I need another reference." Bill: "Jill can give me a good reference." Interviewer: "Good. But how do I know that Jill is trustworthy?" Bill: "Certainly. I can vouch for her."

Hasty Generalization

Fallacy of Insufficient Statistics, Fallacy of Insufficient Sample, Leaping to A Conclusion, Hasty Induction This fallacy is committed when a person draws a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is not large enough

Fallacy of Division

The fallacy of Division is committed when a person infers that what is true of a whole must also be true of its constituents and justification for that inference is not provided.

Ad Homineum Tu Quoque

This fallacy is committed when it is concluded that a person's claim is false because 1) it is inconsistent with something else a person has said or 2) what a person says is inconsistent with her actions.

The Appeal to the Consequences of a Belief

This line of "reasoning" is fallacious because the consequences of a belief have no bearing on whether the belief is true or false

Appeal to Belief

This line of "reasoning" is fallacious because the fact that many people believe a claim does not, in general, serve as evidence that the claim is true.

Circumstancial Ad Hominem

a fallacy in which one attempts to attack a claim by asserting that the person making the claim is making it simply out of self interest. In some cases, this fallacy involves substituting an attack on a person's circumstances (such as the person's religion, political affiliation, ethnic background, etc.).

Appeal to Spite

a fallacy in which spite is substituted for evidence when an "argument" is made against a claim.

Genetic Fallacy

a perceived defect in the origin of a claim or thing is taken to be evidence that discredits the claim or thing itself.

Two Wrongs Make A Right

a person "justifies" an action against a person by asserting that the person would do the same thing to him/her, when the action is not necessary to prevent B from doing X to A.

Special Pleading

a person applies standards, principles, rules, etc. to others while taking herself (or those she has a special interest in) to be exempt, without providing adequate justification for the exemption

Gambler's Fallacy

a person is assuming that some result must be "due" simply because what has previously happened departs from what would be expected on average or over the long term.

Prudential Reason to Believe

a reason to accept the belief because of some external factor (such as fear, a threat, or a benefit or harm that may stem from the belief) that is relevant to what a person values but is not relevant to the truth or falsity of the claim.

Peer Pressure

a threat of rejection by one's peers (or peer pressure) is substituted for evidence in an "argument.

Misleading Vividness

a very small number of particularly dramatic events are taken to outweigh a significant amount of statistical evidence.

Appeal to Authority

also called Fallacious Appeal to Authority, Misuse of Authority, Irrelevant Authority, Questionable Authority, Inappropriate Authority, Ad Verecundiam When the person in question is not an expert and thus the reasoning is flawed because the fact that an unqualified person makes a claim does not provide any justification for the claim

Appeal to Fear

also known as: Scare Tactics, Appeal to Force, Ad Baculum 1) Y is presented (a claim that is intended to produce fear). 2) Therefore claim X is true (a claim that is generally, but need not be, related to Y in some manner).

Appeal to Ridicule

also known as: Appeal to Mockery, The Horse Laugh The Appeal to Ridicule is a fallacy in which ridicule or mockery is substituted for evidence in an "argument." This line of "reasoning" has the following form: 1. X, which is some form of ridicule is presented (typically directed at the claim). 2. Therefore claim C is false.

Guilt By Association

also known as: Bad Company Fallacy, Company that You Keep Fallacy a person rejects a claim simply because it is pointed out that people she dislikes accept the claim.

Ignoring a Common Cause

also known as: Questionable Cause This fallacy is committed when it is concluded that one thing causes another simply because they are regularly associated

Confusing Cause and Effect

also known as: Questionable Cause, Reversing Causation This fallacy is committed when a person assumes that one event must cause another just because the events occur together.

Red Herring

also known as: Smoke Screen, Wild Goose Chase an irrelevant topic is presented in order to divert attention from the original issue.

Burden of Proof/ Ad Ignorantiam

also known as: appeal to ignorance Burden of Proof is a fallacy in which the burden of proof is placed on the wrong side. ex. "You cannot prove that God does not exist, so He does."

False Dilemna

also known as: black and white thinking 1. Either claim X is true or claim Y is true (when X and Y could both be false). 2. Claim Y is false. 3. Therefore claim X is true.

Appeal to Tradition

also known as: ppeal to the Old, Old Ways are Best, Fallacious Appeal to the Past, Appeal to Age Appeal to Tradition is a fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is older, traditional, or "always has been done."

Personal Attack

also known as:Ad Hominem Abusive when the attack is directed at the person making the claim and not the claim itself

Middle Ground Fallacy

also known as:Golden Mean Fallacy, Fallacy of Moderation This fallacy is committed when it is assumed that the middle position between two extremes must be correct simply because it is the middle position.

Post Hoc

also known as:Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc, False Cause, Questionable Cause, Confusing Coincidental Relationships With Causes This fallacy is committed when it is concluded that one event causes another simply because the proposed cause occurred before the proposed effect

Biased Generalization

also known as:iased Statistics, Loaded Sample, Prejudiced Statistics, Prejudiced Sample, Loaded Statistics, Biased Induction, Biased Generalization A sample is biased or loaded when the method used to take the sample is likely to result in a sample that does not adequately represent the population from which it is drawn.

Slippery Slope

aso known as: The Camel's Noose 1. Event X has occurred (or will or might occur). 2. Therefore event Y will inevitably happen.

fallacy

error in reasoning

Rational Reason to Believe

evidence that objectively and logically supports the claim.