Final CRMJ

Pollack and his assumptions about female criminality

"the criminality of women reflects their biological nature in a given cultural setting" "masked" or "hidden" nature of women's criminality relative weakness of women which makes deceit necessary as a defense

Low self-control theory or the General Theory of Crime, its researchers (Gottfredson and Hirschi, etc.), components/contentions, findings and critiques of

A General Theory of Crime: Low Self-Control Low Self-Control Theory Hirschi & Gottfredson, also known as the general theory of crime, self-control must be established by age 10, if not individuals will forever exhibit low self-control People can take a degree of control over their own decisions and within certain limitations "control" themselves Psychological aspects of Low Self-Control Low self-control: Due to emotional disposition Low self-control: Low levels of anticipated shame and high levels of perceived pleasure Physiological Aspects of Low Self-Control Chronic offenders: Greater arousal towards danger and risk taking than toward punishment Physiological mechanisms reward risk-taking activities by releasing "pleasure" chemicals in the brain These individuals have low levels of internal sanctions Overall for the physiological aspects, a select group of people appear to derive physiological and psychological pleasure from engaging in risky behaviors while simultaneously being less likely to be inhibited by internal emotional sanctions

bourgeoisie

A class or status Marx assigned to the dominant, oppressing owners of the means of production; believed to create and implement laws that helped retain their dominance over the working class

utilitarianism

A philosophical concept that relates to the idea of the greatest good for the most people

money laundering

A process whereby funds, obtained through illegal activities, are "cleansed". The illegally obtained monies are placed into the financial system; these monies are layered, or processed, through the system, usually internationally, and subsequently intermingled with legal monies; finally, the monies are turned and reintegrated into the legitimate economy

Moffit's developmental theory: types of offenders, assumptions, policy implications, critiques; know what life course persistent offenders suffer from, according to Moffitt; know which group (adolescent or persistent offenders) make up most of the general public

A theoretical perspective proposing that criminal behavior is caused by 1) adolescence-limited offenders and 2) life-course persistent offenders Life-course persistent offenders suffer from: an interaction between neurological problems and the disadvantaged or criminological environments in which they were raised Adolescence-limited offenders make up most of the general public and include all persons who committed offenses when they were teenagers or young adults. Critiques: not enough research on individuals before the age of 12

Anderson - The Code of the Streets - main arguments, findings, policy implications

Another sub-cultural theory posited by Elijah Anderson Code of the street: Maintain one's reputation and demand respect Disparities of Race in Regard to Subculture Theories of Crime Race and crime relationship has been consistent over time Supports existence of strong subculture of black youth; reinforcing Anderson's concept of subcultures that lead to higher propensity for crime Result of increased racial residential segregation (the relative frequency of black interracial assault to black interracial assault increased)

Trends and history of drug use and abuse and the state response to it (particularly Prohibition and the modern Drug War)

Anthropologists: Earlier cultures learned, through a process of trial and error Grain-derived alcohol may have been a reason why wandering hunter-gatherer tribes of Old Stone Age established villages Drug use is woven into the history of civilization For the Europeans and the British, drinking was an integral aspect of life Early History of Cocaine and Opioid Addiction US Civil War and opioid addiction. Soldiers given morphine for injuries and to relieve effects of dysentery. Became dependent and were addicted by the time they were back home. Bayer Company developed heroin in 1898 and doctors prescribed it heavily before they realized how addictive it was, soon 1 mil Americans were addicted ^Caused the creation and passing of Pure Food and Drug Act 1906, and Harrison Act 1914 - required doctors to be licensed to prescribe narcotics Freud conceded that cocaine should not be used for morphine addiction Prohibition Era National prohibition and the Eighteenth Amendment (no alcohol in US, ratified Jan. 16, 1920) Two operative sections: no manufacture, sale, or transportation; congress and states have concurrent power to enforce article During Prohibition era, American's drinking patterns changed: Drop in consumption among working class Distilled liquor became popular Twenty-First Amendment: Ratified Dec. 5, 1933 repealing 18th Amendment "Reefer Madness" Early 1900s act of smoking weed was considered a social problem in US Marihuana Tax Act in 1937 Did not criminalize weed or its preparations Made it impossible for a person to have any involvement with weed The 1960s and the Baby Boomers Baby-boom generation Increase in birth rates following World War II The counterculture movement Drugs were interwoven in various facets of this cultural movement The "War on Drugs" Era Public concern about drugs in 1980s Media coverage of drug use in the US Just say No campaign Drug use in pregnancy and crack babies Current Trends Regarding Drug Use US faces national crisis: Misuse of and addiction to opioids Growing concern over designer drugs Considered to be for recreational use Spice, Bath Salts

Duties of the Coast Guard, Secret Service

Coast Guard: primary responsibility was to enforce the country's maritime laws, interests and environment. Only military organization within the DHS. Has 6 new security roles (pg. 414) Secret Service: created in 1865 to suppress counterfeit currency. After President William McKinley was assassinated in 1901 their sole responsibility became the protection of the president.

Neutralization Theory by Sykes and Matza (its components, techniques, findings and criticisms of)

Associated with techniques of neutralization (Gresham Sykes & David Matza) and drift theory (Matza) Social learning influences delinquent behavior Criminals are partially committed to the dominant social order People justify and rationalize behavior through "neutralizing" Techniques of Neutralization: Allow people to neutralize their criminal and delinquent acts Denial of responsibility Denial of injury Denial of the victim Condemnation of the condemners Appeal to higher loyalties Excuses that white-collar criminals use: Defense of necessity: individual should not feel shame or guilt about doing something immoral as long as the behavior is perceived as necessary Metaphor of the ledger: individual/group has done so much good that they are entitled to a "pass" for doing something illegal Reaction to Neutralization Theory Researchers have improperly measured the acceptance of neutralization technique Researchers noticed temporal ordering problem: criminals may use techniques of neutralization prior to committing a criminal offense

Bandura and his findings on learning

Bandura's Theory of Intimidation/Modeling: "Monkey see, monkey do" phenomenon people learn much of their attitudes and behavior from simply observing the behaviors of others

The focuses and assumptions of learning and control theories

C.J. Jeffery included the concept: People can be conditioned to behave in certain ways Differential reinforcement theory: Emphasizes various types of social learning Operant conditioning: association between an action and feedback Modeling/Imitation: Social learning takes place via imitation or modeling of behavior Classical Conditioning Animals and people learn through associations between stimuli and responses Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment Gabriel Tarde's imitation theory: People imitate one another Three laws of imitation: People imitate one another in proportion as they are in close contact Often the superior is imitated by the inferior When two mutually exclusive methods or approaches come together, one method can be substituted for another Learning theories, control theories, and the difference between them Learning theories: concerned with why individuals are socialized into criminal activity Control theories: concerned with why individuals are not socialized into conforming behavior

Differential Reinforcement Theory (its components, findings and validity)

C.J. Jeffery included the concept: People can be conditioned to behave in certain ways Differential reinforcement theory: Emphasizes various types of social learning Operant conditioning: association between an action and feedback Modeling/Imitation: Social learning takes place via imitation or modeling of behavior Elements of Differential Reinforcement Theory (TABLE ON PAGE 238) Prepositions of DRT^ No different than rational choice theory: Focuses on punishments and reinforcements. However, DRT assumes that individuals are born with a blank slate (tabula rasa) DRT is more deterministic than rational choice theory. Based almost entirely on the assumption that individuals do indeed have the ability to make their own choices and tend to make calculated decisions based on circumstances

Corporate criminals, who they are, what they do, how they are treated, how much crime do they cause as compared to street crime, increases and decreases

Corporate criminals: CEOs and celebrities Street crime cost at close to $17 billion for the year 2002, Corporate crime, Enron alone, cost $60 billion Total economic cost from white-collar crimes each year is about $500 billion, about 30 times as much as the total combined street crimes. Amount of people that die each year for corporate crime at least 105,000 people

Cultural theories of crime

Cultural and Subcultural Theories of Crime Unique groups in society: Socialize their children to believe that certain activities that violate conventional law are good and positive ways to behave Early Theoretical Developments and Research in Cultural/Subcultural Theory Ferracuti and Wolfgang (1967) primary conclusion: violence is a culturally learned adaptation to deal with negative life circumstances No subculture can be totally different from or totally in conflict with the society Cultural/Subcultural theory Miller's theoretical model (based on Sub-culture theory): Entire lower class had its own cultural value system Six focal concerns within Miller's theory: Fate, autonomy, trouble, toughness, excitement, and smartness Another sub-cultural theory posited by Elijah Anderson Code of the street: Maintain one's reputation and demand respect Disparities of Race in Regard to Subculture Theories of Crime Race and crime relationship has been consistent over time Supports existence of strong subculture of black youth; reinforcing Anderson's concept of subcultures that lead to higher propensity for crime Result of increased racial residential segregation (the relative frequency of black interracial assault to black interracial assault increased) Cultural/Subcultural Theories of crime assume that there are unique groups in society that socialize their children to believe that certain activities that violate conventional law are good and positive ways to behave.

subculture

Culture/Subculture theory a perspective on criminal offending that assumes that many offenders believe in a normative system distinctly different from and often at odds with conventional norms if there are subcultural groups in our society, they seem to make up a small percentage of the population, which somewhat negates the cultural/subcultural perspective of criminality

Damage to the brain and chromosomal defects and the crime connection from these and cognition studies

Cytogenetic Studies: The XYY Factor Focus on genetic makeup of individuals Males having XYY are at least 13 times likely to have behavioral disorders Male and Female hormones during the chromosomal mutation and the likeliness of committing crimes (the more 'male' the individual is in terms of chromosomes, the more likely he or she will be to engage in criminal behavior) Random abnormalities in an individual's genetic makeup and influence on criminality Hormones and Neurotransmitters: Chemicals That Determine Criminal Behavior Testosterone and estrogen carry chemical signals Hormonal changes in females can cause criminal behavior High levels of testosterone and other androgens tend to 'masculinize' the brain (with people doing better on spatial and math tests) Hormones have a profound effect on individuals thinking and environment (verbal/reading tests) Neurotransmitters: Chemicals in the brain and body, help transmit electric signals from one neuron to another Dopamine: Neurotransmitter most commonly linked to feeling good Serotonin: Important in virtually all information processing Brain Injuries The brain is responsible for almost all criminal acts Trauma to certain portions of the brain Damage to the frontal lobe have the most consistent associations with criminal offending Temporal lobe are highly related to the memory and emotional structures of the brain Central and Autonomic Nervous System Activity CNS: consists mostly of the brain and spinal column, which are largely responsible for what we as individuals choose to do Brain wave patterns of chronic offenders are abnormal Four types of brain wave patterns: Delta, Theta, Alpha, and Beta Polygraph measures: Capitalize on the inability of individuals to control physiological responses to anxiety (found under ANS section in text) ANS: Portion of the nervous system that consists of our anxiety levels Stimulus hunger: Individuals with low level of ANS arousal constantly seek out experiences and stimuli Children with ADHD have a higher likelihood of becoming criminal

Types of drugs (and alcohol) and their effects.

Depressants Depressants: Slow down the activity of the central nervous system Alcohol An issue related to alcohol use is binge drinking Barbiturates Induces mild sedation or coma Tranquilizers Help individuals with anxiety Narcotics (refers to opiates or opioids) Morphine Relieves severe physical pain Heroin Chemically modified form of morphine Other Synthetic Narcotics Produced entirely within the laboratory Stimulants Stimulant drugs: Create a sense of energy, alertness, talkativeness, and well-being Common forms of stimulant Caffeine and nicotine Cocaine Appears in the leaves of various species of plants Amphetamine Boosts the body's functioning Onset is slower and duration longer Methamphetamine Can take the form of a white, odorless powder and dissolves in water Other Drugs Cannabis/Marijuana Cannabis plant contains hundreds of psychoactive chemicals, the leaves and flowers can be dried into marijuana Steroids Synthetically produced variations of testosterone Inhalants Volatile substances that produce chemical vapors Hallucinogens Alter one's thought processes

Developmental Theories: pregnancy, interventions and their effects on development and delinquency, policies that seem to work, assumptions of, life-course research Also make sure to go over Sampson and Laub's developmental model

Developmental Theories: perspectives of criminal behavior that emphasize the evolution of individuals' criminality over time, with the individual as the unit of analysis Pregnancy: policies emphasizing the prenatal and perinatal stages of life; the most significant and effective interventions can occur during this time. If policymakers hope to reduce early risk factors for criminality, they must insist on universal health care for pregnant women, as well as for their children through the first few years of life. Sampson and Laub's developmental model: emphasized the importance of certain events and life changes that can alter an individual's decisions to commit (or not commit) criminal actions. Include transitions (life events important in altering trajectories toward or away from crime, such as marriage and employment), trajectories (paths people take in life, often due to life transitions).

Sutherland and Differential Association Theory (its components, research findings and critiques of)

Differential Association Theory (Edwin H. Sutherland) Emphasizes association with significant others Gabriel Tarde's imitation theory: People imitate one another Three laws of imitation: People imitate one another in proportion as they are in close contact Often the superior is imitated by the inferior When two mutually exclusive methods or approaches come together, one method can be substituted for another Elements of Differential Association Theory Sutherland believed that there was something abnormal or different about criminals Crime is learned through interactions with individuals The theory is deterministic Same as earlier theories in that they emphasize biological factors or psychological factors Primary distinction: social interaction and learning are emphasized as primary factors in causing criminality Classical Conditioning Animals and people learn through associations between stimuli and responses Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment Reaction to Differential Association Theory Sutherland's theory is concerned only with associations between criminals Coined the term white collar crime Another criticism is that if criminal behavior is learned, and people are born with a blank slate (tabula rasa), then who first committed the crime if no one taught that person the motives and techniques?

Environmental crimes: history, deaths (how many deaths and injuries are caused by), labor violations

Environmental crimes took turn for the worse during the Industrial Revolution (mid-1700s to mid-1800s). Countless numbers of factories and plants were built, and this resulted in unprecedented dumping of deadly chemicals and waste products into bodies of water, toxins being released from endless streams of smoke from factory chimneys, and massive destruction of majestic forests and natural resources. Led to the establishment of EPA in 1970s. OSHA almost never pursues criminal charges; between 1970 and 2002, OSHA referred only 151 cases to DOJ for prosecution despite finding tens of thousands of violations each year. Of these 151 cases, only 11 resulted in prison sentences. A comprehensive analysis of 170,000 workers killed during the 20-year period from 1982 to 2002 revealed that OSHA investigated only about 24% of cases.

Pathways research: assumptions, research on, gender responsive programming

Explores experiences of women in the criminal justice system typically collects data, usually through interviews, at a particular point in time to provide retrospective inquiry as to an individual's life and life experiences Some feminists have argued that this perspective has provided researchers with a greater understanding of how a woman's offending is influenced by the social conditions of her life as well as her being a woman in a patriarchal society Gender-specific programming: Programs targeted to juvenile girls Observation made by intake officials: Gender, class, and race influence lives of female juveniles Effects of gender responsive programming Gendered pathways = Positive response

Arson and when and why it was added as an index crime

FBI added arson to part I/Index crime in 1978 because they realized that the incidents of arson had increased more than 3,100% since 1951

Thornberry and his Interactionalist Theory: combination of social control and social learning theories, predictions of delinquency Must know which theories he combined to develop the interactional model

First to emphasize reciprocal, or feedback, effects in the causal modeling Combined social control and social learning models Incorporates 5 primary theoretical constructs Commitment to school, attachment to parents, belief in conventional values (social control and bonding theory) Adoption of delinquent values Association with delinquent peers (social learning and differential association-reinforcement theory) Different variables have greater effects at certain times Engaging in crime leads to hanging out with other delinquents (reciprocity or feedback loops) Weakening of the bond to conventional society: Initial cause of delinquency

Feminist theories of crime: history (including waves of feminism), researchers (e.g. Meda Chesney-Lind and Kathleen Daly), components, assumptions, critiques of, negative beliefs about and characterizations of women Make sure to know the types of feminist theories (e.g., multiracial feminism, liberal feminist perspective, socialist feminism, etc.)

First wave of feminism Started in the mid- 19th century, when women demanded the right to vote Second wave of feminism Developed in the 1960s, when other marginalized groups were also challenging the status quo (e.g., in the civil rights movement and the prisoners' rights movement). Feminists of this wave argued that to be fully liberated, women needed to have equal access to economic opportunities and sexual freedoms as well as civil liberties Third wave of feminism Began around the late 1980s; was an extension of as well as a response to the shortcomings of the second wave Liberal feminism One of the areas of feminist theories of crime that emphasizes the assumption that differences between males and females in offending are due to the lack of opportunities for women in education, employment, etc. compared with men Multiracial feminism An intersectional framework that includes such defining social characteristics as race, class, gender, sexuality, nationality, and age Socialist feminism Refers to feminist theories that moved away from economic structure (e.g., Marxism) and focused on control of reproductive systems, stating that women should take control of their own bodies and reproductive functions via contraceptives Traditional or conservative perspective Causes of gender inequality are due to biological sex differences, and social behavior is based on the biological sex differences; does not offer any strategies for social change, since men's and women's behaviors reflect evolutionary adaptations of sex differences Radical feminism Emphasizes the importance of personal feelings, experiences, and relationships; gender is a system of male dominance, and women's biology is the main cause of patriarchy Postmodern feminism A perspective that says women as a group cannot be understood, even by other women, because every person's experience is unique; therefore, there is no need to measure or research such experiences Marxist feminism A perspective of crime that emphasizes men's ownership and control the means of economic production; similar to critical or radical feminism but distinguished by its reliance on the concept of economic structure Add women and stir When one uses an existing theoretical perspective based on males and "adds" women Kathleen Daly and Meda Chesney-Lind: Women should be at the center of intellectual inquiry, not peripheral, invisible, or appendages to men Systems of knowledge reflect men's views of the natural and social world; the production of knowledge is gendered Gender and gender relations order social life and social institutions in fundamental ways

The Peace Builders Program, its components and results (see page 227)

Focuses on children in early grades and was shown to foster: gains in conflict resolution, the development of prosocial values, and reductions in aggression, and a follow-up showed that these attributes were maintained over time. There are effective programs out there that promote prosocial norms and culture.

Tarde and Imitation Theory (the three laws and findings)

Gabriel Tarde's imitation theory: People imitate one another Three laws of imitation: People imitate one another in proportion as they are in close contact Often the superior is imitated by the inferior When two mutually exclusive methods or approaches come together, one method can be substituted for another

Gun control and opinions on it: Know what has happened to the support for control in the U.S. over the 25 past years

Gun control very broad. Can refer to restricting the types of firearms that can be sold and bought, who can possess or sell them, and where and how they can be stored or carried. Over the past 25 years, Americans have revealed less support for stricter gun control.

Terrorism: types of, goals of Homeland Security, financing

Gus Martin named 8 terrorism typologies: The New Terrorism, State Terrorism, Dissident terrorism, Religious terrorism, Ideological terrorism, International terrorism, Criminal Dissident Terrorism, Gender-Selective terrorism Goals of Homeland Security: Prevent and disrupt terrorist attacks; protect American people, critical infrastructure, and key resources; respond to and recover from incidents that do occur; continue to strengthen the foundation to ensure long-term success

What "harm reduction" is and why people are concerned about it with treatment and intervention strategies.

Harm Reduction Policy: Incorporates a public health approach to lessen the risks Health officials have a responsibility to the general public to reduce risks Attempts to incorporate a public health approach to lessen the risks and harms associated with illegal drug use Some would argue that providing the service (providing clean needles) may encourage intravenous drug use. Time, money, and effort to implement needle exchange programs could be more productively used for treatment programs.

Hate crime, motivations and what is prohibited by: the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, and the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990, the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009

Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 Develop guidelines and collect data about crimes that manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 Amended Hate Crime Statistics Act. Enhanced penalties for offenses that involved a motivation bias Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 From Jan 95 to Jan 97, 328 acts of fires, bombings, attempted bombings - 138 attacks were houses of worship, mainly at African American institutions Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 Amends Higher Education Act of 1965 Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009. Unlawful to willfully cause bodily injury, or attempt to do so, with a dangerous weapon when the offense is committed because of the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability of any person.

proletariat

In Marx's conflict theory, the oppressed group of workers exploited by the bourgeoisie; they never profit from their own efforts because the upper class owns and controls the means of production

Urbanization, suburbization, rural areas and their effects on crime

In the early to mid-1800s, many large US cities had no formal social agencies to handle problems of urbanization Resulted in normlessness as Durkheim predicted when urbanization and industrialization occurred to rapidly One of the manifestations of the total breakdown of social control was gangs, specifically children roaming the streets in gangs Chicago needed theoretical guidance to develop solutions to their problems

psychopath

Individuals whose antisocial behavior may be the result of a defect or abnormality rather than the result of their rearing or socialization

Organized crimes: largest sources of revenue, Wickersham Commission and bootlegging, Maltz's characteristics of these criminals

Largest source of revenue: gambling (369) Wickersham Commission: Established in 1929 to access the effect of Prohibition on criminal activity Maltz's characteristics of criminals: corruption, violence, continuity, multiple enterprises, structure and involvement in legitimate businesses, and sophistication, discipline, and bonding

In addition, definitely need to know what experts agree we need to do for pregnant women who have drug/alcohol addictions

Many criminologists contend that policymakers should provide universal healthcare for pregnant women, as well as their newborn infants, through the first few years of life in order to reduce early risk factors for criminality. Also insist on universal healthcare for their children through the first few years of life.

Mala in se vs. Mala prohibita

Mala in se: acts which inherently are deemed evil and immoral Mala prohibita: a wrong prohibited

Game theory and who uses it

Military uses game theory for teaching, training, and operational studies. Game theory asses various scenarios by applying simulation gaming models Two goals: understand why parties in competitive situations behave as they do and advise players of best way to play game

Miller's focal concerns and research (definitely need to know the six focal concerns!!)

Miller's theoretical model (based on Sub-culture theory): Entire lower class had its own cultural value system Six focal concerns within Miller's theory: Fate, autonomy, trouble, toughness, excitement, and smartness

Nature v. nurture and the adoption and twin studies and their findings

Nature versus Nurture: Studies Examining the Influence of Genetics and Environment The interaction between the aspects of genetics and environment causes crime among individuals and groups in society Family Studies Test the proposition that criminality is more likely to be found in certain families Goddard claimed individuals from Kallikak family actually looked like criminals Criminality in the mother had stronger influence on future criminality of the children (fathers often absent) Twin Studies Meant to determine the relative influence of nature and nurture on criminality Identical twins are known as monozygotic twins Fraternal twins are known as dizygotic twins Goal of the twin studies: examine concordance rates of delinquency Concordance: count based on whether two people share a certain trait Concordance rates: MZ twins were far more similar in the trait of criminality than were DZ twins Adoption Studies Examine the criminality of adoptees Influence of biological versus adoptive parents Selective placement: argument that adoptees tend to be placed in households that resemble those of their biological parents Twins Separated at Birth Examine the similarities between identical twins that are separated at birth and tendencies for criminal behavior Genetics and heredity both have a significant impact on criminality Interplay between biology and environment determines human behavior

Labelling theory: assumptions, findings, critiques of, policy and program effects

No act is intrinsically criminal. The law designates an act as a crime; thus, crimes are defined by politically influential and organized groups. Criminal definitions are enforced in the interest of the powerful. While the law incorporates detailed guidelines, as well as definitions and procedures, the implementation of the law can vary by decisions of local officials and other social leaders. A person does not become a criminal by violating the law. Rather, a person becomes a criminal by authorities designating him or her as such. The practice of dichotomizing individuals into criminal and noncriminal groups is contrary to common sense and research. Self-report and other unofficial sources reveal that most acts committed by criminals conform with the law, while some actions of "conform-ists" violate the law. Thus, the "criminal" label designates an individual's legal status and not his or her behavior. Only a few persons are caught in violating the law, even though many individuals may be equally guilty. The act of "getting caught" begins the labeling process. When an individual is labeled as a criminal, he or she may become one of a few that many can blame for the ills of society (i.e., a scapegoat). While the sanctions used in law enforcement are directed against the individual and not just the criminal act, the penalties for such an act vary according to the characteristics of the offender. Therefore, the decisions of many authorities appear to reflect the perspective "Once a criminal, always a criminal, but some are more criminal than others. Criminal sanctions also vary according to other characteristics of the offender. Further, these sanctions tend to be more severe among males, the young, the unemployed or underemployed, the poorly educated, members of the lower classes, members of minority groups, transients, and residents of deteriorated urban areas. Criminal justice is founded on a stereotyped conception of the criminal as a pariah-willful wrongdoer who is morally bad and deserving of the community's condemnation. The criminal justice system is based on a free-will perspective that allows for the condemnation and rejection of the identified offender. Confronted by public condemnation and the label of an evil man, it may be difficult for an offender to maintain a favorable image of himself. Thus, labeling is a process that produces, eventually, identification with a deviant image and subculture and, subsequently, the "rejection of the rejectors." Evaluating Labeling Theory Research on Labeling Theory Central focus: deviance amplification due to labeling Employee's criminal court record effect on the reactions of potential employers Influence of insanity behavior and perceptions of hospital staff Critiques of Labeling Theory Propositions to be tested are not specified Lack of data and empirical research Avoids the question of causation Focuses on reactors rather than the actors Should be viewed as a perspective rather than a theory Weaknesses as an explanatory model of criminal behavior

Kenney and Finckenauer's research on urban street gangs

Out of the 6 characteristics (corruption, violence, continuity, multiple enterprises, structure and involvement in legitimate businesses, and sophistication, discipline, and bonding) assigned to organized crime groups, Kenney and Finckenauer posit that urban street gangs only have 4 maybe 5 of the characteristics, but they are still considered part of the criminal organizations listed in the book.

Nineteenth Amendment

Part of the first wave of feminism, gave women the right to vote. Many women at the time thought this put them on equal grounds with men

partisan and nonpartisan (politically)

Partisan conflict perspective: According to Quinney, provides a criminal justice theory and practice with the purpose of changing the world; associated political objective Nonpartisan conflict perspective: According to Turk, the ideological position or political utilities of theories are irrelevant when assessing the validity of knowledge claims; truth should be independent of political ideology or personal values

sociopath

People whose antisocial personalities are due to social or familial dysfunction

lambda (331)

Perhaps the most discussed and researched aspect of developmental theory is offender frequency, referred to as lambda. estimates of lambda, or average frequency of offending by criminals over a year period, vary greatly. Some estimates of lambda are in the high single digits, and some are in the triple digits.

Power and control theory: assumptions, research on

Power-Control Theory: Integrated theory of crime that assumes that, in households where the mother and father have relatively similar levels of power at work, mothers will be less likely to exert control over daughters, and in households where mothers and fathers have dissimilar levels of power in the workplace, mothers will be more likely to suppress criminal activity in daughters than sons Risk-taking behavior: Related to delinquency Individuals from various social classes experience power relations differently Social reproduction of gender relations: Maintenance and reinforcement of gender roles

symbolic interactionism

Proposes that many social interactions involve symbolism, which occurs when individuals interpret each other's words or gestures and act based on the meaning of those gestures

praxis

Refers not just to consciousness-raising but also to the establishment of alternative arrangements that will provide models for change, which then change consciousness

Restorative Justice (components, assumptions, critiques of)

Restorative justice: refers to the repair of justice be reaffirming a shared consensus of values More inclusive in that it considers not only the offender but also the victim and the community Three key principles: Focus on harms, root procedures in the communities where harms occurred, moral potential for restorative justice (related to spiritual or religious traditions as well as a sense of humanism) Competency Development, Community Safety, Accountability

The National Organization of Women (NOW) and its 1967 Bill of Rights for Women

Second wave of feminism. Argued that to be fully liberated, women needed to have equal access to economic opportunities and sexual freedoms as well as other civil liberties (online says the repeal of all abortion laws, and publicly-funded child care)

Characteristics and motives of serial and spree killers

Serial killers: kill single victims over time with a cooling period. (Ted Bundy) Spree killers: kill victims in different places without a cooling-off time (Daniel Remeta)

Social Disorganization theory, its components and assumptions, Chicago School researchers (Shaw and McKay, Burgess, etc.), findings, impact and criticisms of

Shaw and McKay's Theory of Social Disorganization Framework: Certain neighborhoods in all cities have more crime than other parts Problems of areas with highest crime rate: physical dilapidation, poverty, and heterogeneity (also high transient population) Theory of social disorganization (demonstrated that the prevalence and frequency of various social ills tend to overlap with higher delinquency rates) Shaw and McKay supplied data to support these theoretical positions They were able to show that with Burgess's framework of concentric circles the highest rates of crime or delinquency happened in zone II or the transition zone Longitudinal data: Delinquency existed, irrespective of the ethnic groups living After moving out of zone II, delinquency rates decreased Rejects notion of social Darwinism: Zone determined the rate of delinquency regardless of what ethnic or racial groups live there Reaction and Research for Social Disorganization Theory Shaw and McKay's original research did not measure their primary construct: social disorganization Criticism is based on their formulation of social disorganization because of the emphasis the theory places on the macro, or aggregate, level of analysis Doesn't explain why youth in zone 5 choose to commit crime Despite criticisms, Shaw was allowed to lead the Chicago Area Project, which established youth activity centers in the most crime-ridden neighborhoods of Chicago

Critical/Marxist (including Marx's social classes)/radical/conflict theories of criminology: their theorists (e.g. Marx and Quinney, etc.), assumptions, findings, critiques of

Social contract theory stresses that law serves a necessary social function Major proponent of the perspective In lawless state, individuals pursue self-interests without considering its effects Ideology of criminologists from consensus perspective Two forms of conflict theory: conservative (pluralist) or critical-radical The Conservative (Pluralist) Conflict Perspectives George Vold: Group Conflict Theory Groups conflict due to competing interests Austin Turk: The Power to Define Criminal Behavior Criminality is definition applied by individuals with power to do so Richard Quinney: The Social Reality of Crime Six prepositions that described his social reality of crime: definition of crime, formulation of criminal definitions, application of criminal definition, development of behavior patterns in relation to criminal definitions, construction of criminal conceptions, the social reality of crime The Radical Conflict Perspectives Marxist criminology: societies are characterized by class struggles Marxist's concepts of bourgeoisie, proletariat, class and false consciousness William Chambliss and Robert Seidman and the US Criminal Justice System: Argued on the consensus perspective Additional Explanations of Crime Using a Marxist Framework Colvin and Pauly's Integrated Structural-Marxist theory Structures of control have various patterns and those patterns form the mechanisms for the reproduction of the class structure Herman and Julia Siegel Schwendinger and Adolescent Subcultures Previous theoretical explanations of delinquency were inadequate and maintained that it is essential to incorporate structural conditions, especially economic conditions, under which certain peer groups develop and which promote delinquent behavior Steven Spitzer and Problem Populations One of the most essential functions of the super structure in capitalist societies is the regulation and management of problem populations Evaluating Conflict Theories Research on Conflict Theories Two broad approaches: Mitchell Chamlin tested two hypotheses: Size of threatening groups and hostility between crime control agents Hostility enhances the volatility of police-citizen encounters Critiques of Conflict Perspectives Similar finding may be interpreted in more than one way Does not distinguish between alternative explanations Many empirical studies do not adequately specify which conflict propositions on conflict theory are being tested

Studies of Chicago and the effects of waves of immigration on crime

The Ecological School and the Chicago School of Criminology Important development of the school: Using theoretical development and scientific testing Credited with the first attempt: Understanding cultural or subcultural differences in groups that do not fit with the mainstream of society Cultural Context: Chicago in the 1800s and Early 1900s Chicago: Fastest growing city in the United States Opening of Erie Canal and operation of Baltimore and Ohio Railroad: Created continuous stream of (im)migration In the early to mid-1800s, many large US cities had no formal social agencies to handle problems of urbanization Resulted in normlessness as Durkheim predicted when urbanization and industrialization occurred to rapidly One of the manifestations of the total breakdown of social control was gangs, specifically children roaming the streets in gangs Chicago needed theoretical guidance to develop solutions to their problems Ecological Principles in City Growth and Concentric Circles Ecology: Study of dynamics and processes through which plants and animals interact with the environment Growth of cities follow natural pattern of evolution All cities contain identifiable clusters called natural areas (where the group has taken on a life or organic unity of its own) Areas may invade and dominate adjacent areas causing the recession Urban sprawl Invasion by factories disrupted previously dominant and stable residential areas Park's ideas became influential with complementary perspective offered by Ernest W. Burgess Burgess called this the city grew from the inside out Ecological principle of succession This type of development is referred to as "radical growth" meaning it begins on the inside and ripples outward Growth of inner city puts pressure on adjacent zones of the city Burgess laid out the 5 types of zones within the concentric circle of a city: central business district (city itself), zone of transition, zone of independent workers' homes, zone of better residences, commuter's zone (furthest from city) Also claimed for their to be five pseudo-distinctive natural areas Concentric Circles: Assumes that all cities grow in a natural way with the same five zones (could be in America or outside) Cities grow in a natural way across time and place and abide by the natural principles of ecology

What the UCR, NCVS, NIBRS stand for, collect data on, and strengths and weaknesses of each are UCR -know the act that required the Attorney General to develop guidelines to collect data on hate crimes (i.e., those based on race, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity)

The Uniform Crime Reports: The UCR Program Between 1830 and 1930, the collection of crime statistics involved various agencies In 1927, efforts were made to collect crime statistics in an uniform manner In 1960, Part I crimes were termed the Crime Index Additional categories (from sex offenses to parking violations) of crime were termed as Part II crimes In 1979, offense of arson was added as a Part I offense In 2013, human trafficking/commercial sex acts and human trafficking/involuntary servitude were added as Part I offenses Generate a consistent set of crime statistics that can be used in law enforcement Classifying and scoring crimes are important functions of agencies participating in the UCR Program Classifying: determining the appropriate crime category The hierarchy rule Limitations of the UCR Even with criticisms, the UCR continues to be a major source of information UCR is a summary-based system Obtain total counts of crimes on a city/country level using UCR data Types of crime measures: Supplementary Homicide Reports National Incident-Based Reporting System The Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR) Provides detailed information on the incident Another national data collection system: CDC NVSS consistently demonstrates a higher number of homicides than the SHR The SHR is regarded as the precursor of the NIBRS The National Incident-Based Reporting System (The NIBRS Program) Enhanced version of the UCR program The National Crime Statistics Exchange (NCS-X) There are two goals of the NIBRS data collection program: Enhance the quantity, quality, and timeliness of crime statistical data Improve methodology Data collection NIBRS expands the types of offenses NIBRS includes a greater degree of detail in reporting NIBRS does not use the hierarchy rule, if the offender commits more than one crime in close succession and/or proximity all the crimes are reported within the same incident Limitations Unreported and unrecorded crimes are not included in NIBRS Inflexible specifications and problems with reporting procedures Different organizations may have different goals and incentives The NIBRS record structure is more complex Little known about errors made when collecting NIBRS data UCR - Hate Crime Statistics Act, April 23, 1990

Different responses to eradicating drugs (success/failures) and more recent attempts to reduce use (drug courts, maintenance, decriminalization).

The destruction of plants used in the production of illegal drugs; there are four recognized techniques: mechanical destruction (i.e., slashing or uprooting), burning, chemical eradication, and biological (including genetic) eradication Four recognized techniques of eradication: mechanical, bunting, chemical, and biological Peru is the world's second largest cocaine producing country Difficult to prevent coca cultivation Primary marijuana cultivation states: California, Hawaii, Kentucky, Oregon, Tennessee, Washington, and West Virginia Drug Courts Offenders with substance abuse problems were clogging the criminal justice system Drug treatment court programs Individuals participating can have charges dismissed or reduced, address their substance abuse problems, obtain employment, and regain custody of their children Maintenance and Decriminalization Maintenance policy: Accessibility of drugs Decriminalization policy: Supports the end of using criminal sanctions California was the first state to pass a legal medical marijuana law, Compassionate Use Act of 1996

insanity

The idea-which has been in existence for centuries-of excusing offenders for their criminal actions due to a mental disease; the term is not a medical term but a legal term

status-degradation ceremony

The most dramatic way to initiate the process of giving an individual a new identity, such as a criminal trait

Citizenship and human rights

US stressed that the issue of human rights within the context of terrorism and counterterrorism measures has often focused on the protection of civil and political rights. Greater efforts must ... be made to understand and address the linkages between terrorism and the enjoyment of economic, social, and cultural rights

Dept. of Homeland Security - know what happened when there was a reorganization of the dept. of homeland security

Was established after the 09/11/01 attacks, worst in modern international terrorism on US soil. Bush signed Executive Order 13228 on October 8, 2001. November 2002, Congress passed the Homeland Security Act making DHS a stand-alone, Cabinet-level department. February 2005, modifcations were adopted after reviewing DHS' operations, policies, and structures. Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform act of 2006, and Security Accountability for Every Port (SAFE Port) Act of 2006.

Cyber criminals and crime: white and black hat hacktivists, child porn, components of the crime, script kiddies, FBI's Operation Innocent Images

White Hat Hackers: write programs to protect networks and systems from being illegally and maliciously accessed Black Hat Hackers: violate computer security out of malice for personal gain Child porn: spring 2018 Department of Justice initiated the Internet Crimes Against Children (ICAC) task forces. With ever-growing World Wide Web there will be a continuous expansion of child pornography. FBI's Operation Innocent Images: proactively investigating pedophiles for years, and now local and state law enforcement agencies are also implementing these types of investigations. Under-cover officer chats online with groomer, sets up time to meet, and police arrest groomer

White-collar criminals, researchers, such as Sutherland, who they are, what they do, how are they treated

White-collar crimes as (defined by researcher Sutherland): 1. The offender is upper-class 2. The committed violations are work-related 3. The work-related violations of blue-collar workers are excluded 4. Regular crimes (i.e., those occurring outside employment) committed by upper-class persons are excluded White-collar criminals are far less likely than traditional street criminals to be investigated, caught, charged, and convicted, let alone sentenced to significant prison time.

dramatization of evil

a concept proposed by Tannenbaum in relation to labeling theory; states that when relatively minor laws are broken, the community tends to dramatize it

patriarchy

a social, legal, and political climate based on male dominance and hierarchy. A key aspect of this ideology is that women's nature is biologically, not culturally, determined

operant conditioning

association between an action and feedback Assumes that the animal or human is a proactive player in seeking out rewards A learning model based on the association between an action and the feedback following the action

Goals of the legislative reforms of rape statutes

expanding the range of people protected by the law increasing the reporting of rape and enhancing the prosecution and conviction in rape cases improving the treatment of victims involved in the criminal justice process Achieving comparability between the legal treatment of rape and other violent offenses prohibiting a broader range of coercive sexual conduct

tabula rasa

individuals enter the world with a blank slate

metaphor of the ledger

the belief that an individual or group has done so much good (e.g., provided a useful product or service for public consumption) that he or she is entitled to a "pass" for doing something illegal (e.g. "cooking the books" or knowingly distributing a faulty, dangerous product)

paternalism

the idea that women need to be protected for their own good. In a broader social context, paternalism implies independence for men and dependence for women