Final Exam Anatomy study guide

Gross anatomy of the spinal cord (grey vs. white matter arrangement, names of horns and columns)

-white matter is located externally and gray matter is internally -gray matter = cell bodies of interneurons and motor neurons -white matter = myelinated motor & sensory axons - the amount of white/gray matter increases as you go up the spinal cord -dorsal horn & ventral horn are gray matter extending the entire length of the spinal cord.

Layers of the heart wall

1. Epicardium: Visceral layer of the pericardium 2. myocardium: cardiac muscle tissue 3. Endocardium: lines the chambers and covers the valves

3-layered sac surrounding the heart

1. fibrous pericardium: adheres to the diaphragm and the roots of the large vessels 2. parietal pericardium: adheres to the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium 3. visceral pericardium: epicardium

Pathway of sperm cells from the testis to external urethral orifice

1. gametes/individual sperm cells are produced in the seminiferous tubules 2. sperm gets deposited through tiny straight tubules to the rete testis 3. rete testis is like a channeling pool that funnels sperm sperm into efferent ductule/straight ductule 4. efferent ductule leads sperm into smaller tubes that make the head of the epididymis 5. from epididymis into the vas deferens where there is more mature sperm 6. move towards the urethra through the external urethral orifice to be ejaculated from the body

3 main structural components of any cell

1. plasma membrane 2. cytoplasm 3. nucleus

Five components of the reflex arc

1. receptor: basic stimulus, it detects an external or internal stimulus and sends action potential down... 2. sensory neuron: action potential comes then leaves to the... 3. integration center: in the spinal cord of the CNS, it may directly connect the sensory neuron to the motor, or it may consist of one or many interneurons. then sends an action potential down to... 4. motor neuron: where it has an impact on the... 5. effector: is the response

Spermaticord contents

A fascia-covered bundle of nerves, vessels, and the ductus deferens

Special features of epithelium

A free surface: always exposed to an area of no cells, because they cover, line, or secrete Cellularity: packed tightly together, made up of lots of cells Avascularity: no blood vessels Specialized contacts: specific proteins that allow them to link together tightly

Define afferent vs. efferent

Afferent: "conducting towards something" sensory neurons carrying impulses to the CNS Afferent division has Somatic & Visceral sensory Efferent: "conducting away from something" motor neurons carrying impulses away from the CNS to muscles and glands Has somatic motor (voluntary) & visceral motor (involuntary)

Know the names, numbers, and basic functions (sensory, motor, both) of all cranial nerves

CN 1 Olfactory = sensory CN 2 Optic = sensory Cn 3 oculomotor = Motor CN 4 Trochlear = Motor CN 5 Trigeminal = Both CN 6 Abducens = Motor CN 7 Facial = Both CN 8 Vestibulocochlear = sensory CN 9 Glossopharyngeal = Both CN 10 Vagus = Both CN 11 Accessory = Motor CN 12 Hypoglossal = Motor Oh Some Oh Say Oh Marry To Money Touch But And My Feel Brother Vaginas Says God Bouncy Vaginas Boobs Are Matter Hot More

CNS vs. PNS components and functions

CNS: brain & spinal cord, responsible for the integration of sensory input from afferent neurons and the command of motor output through the efferent neurons PNS: not in the spinal cord or brain, Nerves & ganglia, responsible for relaying both sensory stimuli to the CNS and the motor commands from the CNS

Know the selected nerves from each plexus

Cervical Plexus: phrenic nerve, which innervates the diaphragm (C1-C4) Brachial plexus: ulnar & medial nerve innervate the anterior compartment of the antebrachium. Radial & axillary nerve run along the posterior aspect of the brachium/antebrachium. Musculocutaneous nerve innervates the anterior part of the brachium (C4-T1) Lumbar plexus: obturator nerve innervates the medial compartment of the thigh. femoral nerve innervates the anterior aspect of the thigh (L1-L4) Sacral plexus: sciatic nerve supplies the hamstring, butt, and leg. (L4-S4)

Cilia vs. flagella vs. microvilli

Cilia: short hairlike vibrating assist in moving the cell or items along the surface Flagella: whip-like motion to move the entire cell Microvilli: fingerlike projections on the outside of the cell, role is to increase surface area

Describe the fiber types found in CT

Collagen Fibers: large, thick, strong fibers that provide tensile strength and withstand pulling forces Elastic Fibers: are long fibers with intermediate diameters, that allow the tissue to recoil Reticular fibers: are the smallest fibers, their primary function is to support Connective tissue proper: fibroblasts, mast cells, plasma cells, macrophages, adipocytes, and leukocytes; all 3 fiber types present -Most common cell type is the fibroblast (produces fibers) -Cartilage: matrix made up of glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, collagen fibers, and, sometimes, elastin; the most abundant cell type is the chondrocyte (maintains fibers) -Osseous tissue: matrix made up of collagen and minerals (calcium, phosphorus); osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteocytes -Blood: fluid matrix=plasma; erythrocytes (RBCs), WBCs, platelets

Be able to identify: · The diencephalon (thalamus = relay...hypothalamus = homeostasis) · The midbrain · The pons · The medulla oblongata (pyramids/olives) · The cerebellum and middle cerebellar peduncle

Diencephalon: -thalamus: is a relay station, motor & sensory signals pass through it -Hypothalamus: controls homeostasis Midbrain: -cerebral peduncles: composed of motor axons from the cortex to the cerebellum and the spinal cord -cerebral aqueduct: passes through the center of the midbrain -corpora quadrigemina: nuclei that form 4 bumps on the dorsal midbrain Pons: functions as a bridge between the brainstem and the cerebellum Medulla: continuation of the spinal cord in the brain -pyramids: motor tracts that form bulges on the anterior surface. takes motor output from the cerebellum to the spinal cord -olives: nuclei that form bulges just lateral to the pyramids. sensory relay station relaying it to the cerebellum Cerebellum: outside layer of gray matter (cortex w/ folia) and an inner layer of white matter (arbor vitae), small amount of deep gray matter. -middle cerebellar peduncle: tract that takes motor information from the pons to the cerebellum. ONLY takes info

Functional difference between dorsal and ventral roots, spinal nerves, and rami

Dorsal horn: many sensory interneurons dorsal root: sensory (afferent) neurons transmit signals from the rest of the body to the spinal cord and ENTER through the root Ventral horn: multipolar somatic motor neurons, sends its axons out to synapse on skeletal muscles Ventral root: motor (efferent) neurons transmit signals from the spinal cord to the rest of the body and EXIT through root Spinal nerves: form when sensory axons in the dorsal root and motor axons in the ventral root come together as they exit the intervertebral foramina. all are mixed nerves Rami: spinal nerve branches into dorsal and ventral ramus dorsal ramus: is only segmented innervation (nerve directly innervates area) which is T2-T12 Ventral ramus: form plexuses (interlacing network of axons)

CT components of a skeletal muscle (epi, peri, endo)

Epi: outermost sheet of CT surrounding the entire skeletal muscle Peri: CT that surrounds the fascicles which are bundles that typically consist of 10 or more myocytes Endo: CT that is found within the fascicles surrounded by the individual myocytes. endomysium is found outside of the sarcolemma

Gross anatomy of a nerve (epi, peri, endo)

Epi: outermost sheet of CT that surrounds the entire nerve. peri: CT that surrounds the fascicles, which are bundles of axons arranged in parallel to one another endo: CT that is found within the fascicles, surrounding the individual Schwann cells that surround each axon

Know all the layers of the skin

Epidermis: -Basale: deepest layer -Spinosum -Granulosum -Lucidum -Corneum Dermis: -papillary: superficial -Reticular Hypodermis

General type of tissue associated with epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis

Epidermis: epithelial Dermis: Connective tissue hypodermis: Loose CT Epidermis - keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Dermis - Connective tissue proper (areolar loose and reticular dense irregular) Hypodermis - Adipose loose CT proper

4 basic tissue types and their one-word functions

Epithelial tissue - covering Connective tissue - support Muscle tissue - movement Nervous tissue - control

Identify the gross structures of the heart (internal and external)

External: -2 pulmonary arteries (deoxygenated blood) -4 pulmonary veins (oxygenated blood) The internal anatomy of the atria: -pectinate muscles -crista terminalis -fossa ovalis -vessel openings The internal anatomy of the ventricles: -trabeculae carneae -papillary muscles -chordae tendineae -AV valves -semilunar valves *Left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle Valves -mitral/bicuspid valve (left atrioventricular valve) -tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) -Aortic valve -Pulmonary Valve

Gross anatomy of the vagina and vulva

External: -mons pubis: rounded fat pad over the pubic symphysis -labia majora: adipose filled, hair covered skin fold extending posteriorly and inferiorly from the mons pubis -labia minora: thin, hairless skin folds which enclose the vestibule -clitoris: erectile tissue located at the anterior margin of the vestibule, covered mostly by a prepuce skin

What are the structural classifications of joints?

Fibrous: held together by dense collagen fibers. DONT have synovial cavities Cartilaginous joints: held together by cartilage. DONT have synovial cavities Synovial joints: held together by ligaments. DO have synovial cavities

Movements that occur at synovial joints

Gliding, angular (extension, abduction, adduction, flexion, circumduction), medial rotation, lateral rotation

General hair anatomy

Hair shaft hair root hair follicle bulb papilla of the hair arrector pili muscle matrix

The general structure of the plasma membrane - fluid mosaic model

It states that a cell membrane is not a rigid structure but rather a fluid "mosaic" of phospholipids and embedded proteins. A flexible layer made of lipid molecules is interspersed with large protein molecules that act as channels through which other molecules enter and leave the cell. integral proteins glycoproteins peripheral proteins

Lobes and major sulci/fissures of the cerebrum

Lobes: -frontal -parietal -temporal -occipital Sulcus: -central sulcus: separates frontal from parietal -occipital sulcus: separates the occipital lobe from parietal -lateral sulcus: separates parietal & frontal from temporal lobe

The meninges

Meninges are 3 sheaths of CT that encircle the spinal cord and brain. they protect the CNS and the blood vessel that supply it, they contain the cerebrospinal fluid

Nerve vs. tract and nucleus vs. ganglia

Nerve: cluster of axons in the PNS, all covered by Schwann cells only once Tract: cluster of axons in the CNS nucleus: cluster of somas in the CNS ganglion: cluster of somas in the PNS

Is the hypodermis part of skin?

No, but it shares some functions

Oligodendrocytes vs. Schwann cells

Oligodendrocytes: produce myelin sheaths by wrapping their "end feet" around multiple axons. help electrically insulate CNS axons. Nodes of Ranvier are present Schwann cells: glial cells cover axon in PNS. they surround ALL axons in the PNS, but only some axons have "myelin sheath." they have no processes

Periosteum vs. endosteum

Periosteum: thick membrane on outside of bones. -superficial layer of dense irregular CT (allows for strength) -deep layer that is osteogenic (w/ blasts & clasts). It creates new bone cells -perforated fibers (Sharpey's) which are collagen fibers that wedge themselves into bone tissue -tuberosities are formed by the pulling of muscles on the periosteum Endosteum: a thin membrane found on the inside of the bones, lining the trabeculae of spongy bone in the medullary cavity. osteogenic membrane as well.

Epiphyseal plate vs. line

Plate: hyaline cartilage found in metaphysis of growing bones Line: old cartilage is replaced by bone and the epiphyseal plates close all is left is a bony structure

Preganglionic vs. postganglionic neurons (compare and contrast sympathetic and parasympathetic)

Preganglionic: located in the CNS. sympathetic: lateral horn of thoracolumbar spinal cord. short pre and long post. prereleases acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft activating the second neuron in the PNS called postganglionic neuron Parasympathetic: brainstem or sacral spinal cord. long pre and short post Postganglionic: soma located in the PNS. the nervous signal is then sent to effector muscles or glands, where a second transmitter, activated a response

Primary vs. secondary sex organs (male vs. female)

Primary: organs that produce sex cells. Males: testes Females: ovaries Secondary: accessory organs are other parts of the reproductive system that aid in or support the sex cells

General functions of the major organelles

Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis Mitochondria: "powerhouse", cellular respiration, cells convert the energy stored in the bonds of organic molecules to ATP Rough ER: w/ ribosomes & protein synthesis Smooth ER: w/o ribosomes, making or breaking down lipids and calcium storage Golgi apparatus: "Packing center" receives from ER, modifies them, sorts them, and shops them Lysosomes: break down large molecules and intracellular digestion Peroxisomes: removes toxins Centrosomes: microtubules organizing center of 2 centrioles, flagella & cilia are formed, important role in cell division Cytoskeleton: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules

Parts of the penis (root, shaft, glans)

Root: is part attached to the body. it is formed by the crura and the bulb. (There are 2 crura, right & left) Shaft: is the portion not attached to the body Glans: is the enlarged tip of the free shaft Corpus spongiosum (unpaired ventral): forms the glans penis distally, forms the bulb of the penis proximally, secured to the urogenital region Corpus cavernosa (paired-dorsal): form the crura of the penis proximally, secured to the pubic arch

Electrical conduction pathway through the heart

SA node (pacemaker) --> AV node --> AV bundle or bundle of His --> Bundle branches --> Purkinje fibers (change in voltage triggers contraction)

What is myelin?

Schwann cells & oligodendrocytes wrap around axons forming a multilayered lipoprotein structure called myelin. Myelin sheath serves as an electrical insulation for the axon precenting ions from moving across the plasma membrane

Sebaceous and sweat glands

Sebaceous glands: produce oily substance called sebum. connected to hair follicles Eccrine: palms, feet, forehead, true sweat, opens directly, to cool the skin Apocrine: anal, genital, axillary areas(armpits), "milky sweat", odor, into hair follicles, neutralize harmful bacteria

Which muscles have voluntary and/or involuntary control?

Skeletal = voluntary & involuntary Cardiac = involuntary Smooth = involuntary

Types and differences between muscle tissues

Skeletal muscle: myocytes are among the largest, they are long and striated. they have multiple nuclei. involved in body movements (bone-to-bone, bone-to-skin) both voluntarily and involuntarily movement Cardiac muscle: striated but only one nucleus. contain intercalated discs, which have many gap junctions and desmosome. Smooth muscle: cells arranged into sheets. not stratified and nucleus is in the center. function is to propel things along internal passageways

Compare and contrast somatic motor with ANS

Somatic motor: neurons can only activate skeletal muscle; impulses are sent from the spinal cord to skeletal muscle via the neuron of a single axon ANS: neurons can activate or inhibit smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or glands. ANS uses 2 neurons to send impulses: preganglionic and postganglionic neuron

What are spinal vs. cranial nerves?

Spinal: are attached to the spinal cord. there are 32 pairs of nerves which are all mixed Cranial: attached to or closely associated with the brain. there are 12 pairs. some motor some sensory or both

Structural and functional classifications of neurons

Structural: -multipolar: single axon and multiple dendrites. -bipolar: centralized soma and 2 process. onside is an axon and other is a dendrite. associated with special senses -Unipolar: starts as bipolar but bases fused where they touch the soma. has central and peripheral processes. somatic sensory neurons are unipolar Functional: -Afferent neurons: sensory neurons that carry action toward CNS -Efferent neurons: motor neurons that carry action away from CNS Interneuron: within the CNS. main function is to integrate.

Functional organization of the ANS (symp vs. para)

Sympathetic: "fight or flight" it is activated by physical and emotional stress Parasympathetic: "rest and digest" When the body is at rest, Para acts to conserve and restore body energy. it inhibits body functions that support physical activity and promotes such things as digestive and urinary function

Be able to classify a body response as either sympathetic or parasympathetic

Sympathetic: body function that support physical activity increases. digestive and urinary function decreases Parasympathetic: decrease body functions that support physical activity. Increases digestive and urinary function

What are the functional classifications of joints?

Synanthropic joints are immovable Amphiarthrotic joint: are slightly movable Diarthrotic Joints: freely movable

Microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle · Sarcolemma and T-tubules · Sarcoplasmic reticulum Myofibrils and protein components

T-tubules: deep invagination of sarcolemma. weaves around and between myofibrils. they are key to signal transmission between the sarcolemma and the myofibrils Sarcoplasmic reticulum: is a saclike membrane located adjacent to the T-tubules that functions primarily in the storage of calcium ions, which are released upon stimulation by electrical signals. allows actin and myosin to bind together which begins muscle contraction. sarcomere is made up of thin/thick filaments which is the basic repeating unit of myofibrils tropomyosin = covers actin troponin= attaches to tropomyosin exposing myosin binding sites on the actin Myofibril: contractile organ in a muscle fiber that extends the entire length of the muscle fiber. single muscle fiber has 100s to 1,000s of myofibrils titin: helps anchor the thick myosin to the Z-disc at the end of a sarcomere Dystrophin: attaches myofibril to the sarcolemma at the end of the muscle cell. w/o dystrophin, the muscle would not get shorter

Types of membrane junctions and their functional differences

Tight junctions: connected 2 cells that prevents molecules from passing between them Desmosomes: filamentous junctions between 2 cells provides strong linkage between them. tissue withstand stretch Gap Junctions: 2 cells are connected by a membrane protein called connexons forms a channel between the cells. small molecules can pass through

Trabecular vs. compact bone

Trabecular: very spongy tissue. it tends to fill up the inside of the bones. found internally. red marrow inside spongy bone. yellow marrow in the medullary cavity Compact bone: individual osteons surrounded by several lamellae(rings). runs around the outside of bones. much denser and harder

Define "tissue"

a group of cells that live and work together for a common function

What is an articulation?

a point at which the rigid elements of the skeleton come together

Regional terminology

anterior view: cephalic: frontal, orbital, nasal, oral, mental Cervical: neck Upper limb: acromial, Brachial, Antecubital, antebrachial, carpal Manus: (hand), pollex, palmar, digital Thoracic: sternal, mammary, axillary Abdominal: Umbilical, pelvic, inguinal (groin), pubic lower limb: coxal, femoral, patellar, crural, fibular/peroneal, pedal(foot), tarsal, metatarsal, digital, hallux Posterior view: cephalic: optic, occipital Cervical (neck) Upper limb: acromial, brachial, olecranal, antebrachial, manus(hand), metacarpal, digital Back(dorsal), scapular, vertebral, lumbar, sacral, gluteal, perineal Lower limb: femoral, popliteal, sural, fibular/peroneal, Pedal(foot), calcaneal, plantar

Hierarchy of structural organization

atoms --> Molecules--> Organelles--> Cells--> Tissues--> Organs--> Organ systems--> Organisms Macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

What organs make up the skeletal system?

bones, joints, and cartilages

What are the smallest living units in our bodies?

cells

What is the most abundant and diverse type of tissue?

connective tissue

What is a tendon?

connects muscle to bone. dense regular CT of a tendon interacts with dense irregular CT of the periosteum of a bone

Anatomy of a multipolar neuron

consists of a single axon and multiple dendrites. most common type.

Which rami do and do not form plexuses?

dorsal does not

The ventricles (right lat, left lat, 3rd, and 4th) and what parts of the brain they serve

epithelial tubes lined with ciliated ependymal cells, around which the brain tissue grows. Left & right ventricle: -anterior horn supplies the frontal lobes and parietal lobes -posterior horn supplies the occipital lobes -inferior horn supplies the temporal lobes 3rd ventricle: donut shaped central ventricle. interventricular foramina allow the CSF to drain from the lateral ventricles to the 3rd. 3rd supplies CSF to the diencephalon areas. cerebral aqueduct is part of the 3rd and extends down supplying the midbrain 4th ventricle: continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. supplies the pons and the medulla. supplies CSF to a region outside the brain called the subarachnoid space. CSF exits the 4thventricle vis puncture holes called lateral and median apertures

Properties of muscle tissue

excitability: ability to produce electric signals in response to a stimulus contractility: ability to get shorter and thicker extensibility: ability to stretch without becoming damaged elasticity: ability to go back to its original shape after distention

Define extracellular matrix

extracellular component of a tissue that gives it the consistency. it provides structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells

Body Planes

frontal plane: divides the body into anterior and posterior Transverse: divides the body into superior and inferior parts Sagittal plane: divides the body into left and right halves or down the midline.

Components of a synovial joint

held together by ligaments and have synovial cavities. have spaces filled with synovial fluid allowing the joints to move freely. diarthrotic enclosed in a synovial capsule (outer layer = dense irregular CT, inner loose CT) the inner layer secretes synovial fluid into the capsule

Which part of the brain regulates autonomic tone?

hypothalamus

Where do you find the lateral horn of the spinal cord and what is located there?

in the thoracolumbar spinal cord & sympathetic soma of preganglionic neurons are located there

Why is skin considered an organ?

it consists of many tissues working together for a common function

Type of cells hair and nails are made of

keratinocytes (keratinized epidermal cells)

Neuromuscular junction components

location of the interaction between an axon terminal of a somatic motor neuron and a muscle. as it approaches skeletal muscle fibers, a myelinated axon branches off into projections that end in terminal boutons. boutons are actually separated from the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber by tiny space called synaptic cleft. At the site of the synapse, the sarcolemma which contains motor end plates exist within the kinky borders of junctional folds in the sarcolemma. the folds increase the surface area so that the sarcolemma can house more receptors for neurotransmitters.

Classification of bones

long bones: longer than wider, have 2 distinct ends Flat bones: thin and flattened with a pronounced curvature, with only one end Short bones: roughly cuboidal in shape Sesamoid bone: form inside the tendons and ligament and change the leverage of a joint Irregular bones: don't fit nicely in other groups

Based on conventions of origins and insertions, be able to predict the action a muscle will have at a joint

look at lab

If given a muscle name, be able to identify the limb compartment or general location of the body where you would find that muscle

look at lab

What are the general effectors of the nervous system?

muscles and glands

Types of cells present in nervous tissue

neurons and neuroglia Neurons: basic kind of nerve cell, cell body called soma, where nuclei and organelles are found, axons are projections that carry electrical info away and dendrites carry electrical info to soma Astrocyte: provide protection and support to neurons in the CNS Oligodendrocyte: myelinating cell of the CNS Microglia: immune cells of the CNS (surround and digest damaged or invading cells) Ependymal cell: filter some of the materials out of the vessels to manufacture CSF and then use their cilia to circulate it through the empty ventricles and into the rest of the CNS Satellite cell: provide nutrients and protection to neurons in the PNS Schwann cell: myelinating cell of the PNS Neuroglia: Glial cells or support cells for neurons, very small

What tissue lines the vagina?

non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Define origin and insertion

origin: immovable insertion: movable

Gross anatomy of a long bone

proximal epiphysis: articular cartilage diaphysis: (medullary cavity) mostly compact bone metaphysis: fuses when the baby gets older. either epiphyseal line or plate Medullary cavity: yellow bone marrow w/ some red (trabecular) periosteum: CT sheath around bone. has Sharpey's fibers. deep sits on compact bone (osteogenic w/ blasts & clasts). superficial layer is dense irregular CT Endosteum: internal, dark brown, CT membrane distal epiphysis: hyaline cartilage

Define rostral and caudal

rostral- towards the brain caudal-towards the feet

Be able to name all types of epitheliums based on

simple squamous: one layer of flat cells Simple cuboidal: one layer of cubelike cells w/ large nuclei Simple columnar: one layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei w/ microvilli, cilia, or glands pseudostratified columnar: one layer of differing heights with differing nuclei stratified squamous: several cell layers, cells flattened stratified cuboidal: generally, two layers of cubelike cells Stratified columnar: several cell layers, elongated and columnar

What is the general arrangement of all types of CT?

small number of cells and a lot of extracellular matrix Ground substance Fibers Cells

Anatomical Positions and terminology

standing, feet together, arms to the side, and the head, eyes, and palms of the hand facing forward.

Gross anatomy of the testes and epididymis

testes: paired, primary sex organs in males Epididymis: the sperm then travel into a middle region in the testicle and into ductulus, which lead to a comma-shaped structure

Which parts of the integumentary system are vascularized?

the dermis

Visceral vs. Somatic

visceral consists of nerves and ganglia INside the ventral body cavity. Somatic consists of nerves and ganglia OUTside the ventral body cavity

Define white matter and grey matter

white matter: consists of a large abundance of fiber tracts of myelinated and unmyelinated axons. has neuroglia (non-excitable, can be replicated, but like neurons) gray matter: consists of a large abundance of cell bodies of the interneurons and motor neurons. short & nonmyelinated. neuroglia as well