final quiz

social movement organization

(a single social movement group)

Zone B

(concentric circle surrounding the city center, formerly wealthy homes, split into cheap aprt, new immigration, small manufactures, pane shop, marginal business

environmental sociology

CONCEPT OF CARRYING CAPACITY,studies how humans interact with their environments. This field is closely related to human ecology, which focuses on the relationship between people and their built and natural environment. REFER TO GRAZING LANDS OR TO RIVERS, IT ALSO CAN BE APPLIED TO THE EARTH AS A WHOLE.

social change

Collective behavior and social movements are just two of the forces driving social change, which is the change in society created through social movements as well as external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovations. Essentially, any disruptive shift in the status quo, be it intentional or random, human-caused or natural, can lead to social change. Below are some of the likely causes. TECHNOLOGY, SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS, POPULATION, ENVIRONMENT,

cornucopia

Cornucopian theory scoffs at the idea of humans wiping themselves out; it asserts that HUMAN INGENUITY CAN resolve any environmental or social issues that develop. As an example, it points to the issue of food supply. If we need more food, the theory contends, agricultural scientists will figure out how to grow it, as they have already been doing for centuries. After all, in this perspective, human ingenuity has been up to the task for thousands of years and there is no reason for that pattern not to continue

Transition Theory

Demographic transition is a model used to represent the movement of high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system. It works on the premise that birth and death rates are connected to and correlate with stages of industrial development. The demographic transition model is sometimes referred to as "DTM" and is based on historical data and trends. STAGE 1: DEATH RATES AND birth rates are high and are roughly in balance, a common condition of a pre-industrial society. Population growth is very slow, influenced in part by the availability of food. The U.S. was said to be in Stage 1 in the 19th century. Stage 2: This is the "developing country" phase. Death rates drop rapidly due to improvements in food supply and sanitation, which increases life spans and reduces disease. Without a corresponding fall in birth rates, countries in this stage experience a large increase in population. Stage 3: Birth rates fall due to access to contraception, increases in wages, urbanization, an increase in the status and education of women, and other social changes. Population growth begins to level off. Mexico is believed to be in this stage in the early decades of the millennium. Northern Europe entered this stage in the later part of the 19th century. Stage 4: Birth rates and death rates are both low in this stage. People born during Stage 2 are now beginning to age and require the support of a dwindling working population. Birth rates may drop below replacement level, considered to be two children per family. This leads to a shrinking population. Death rates may remain consistently low, or they may increase slightly due to increases in lifestyle diseases linked to low exercise levels and high obesity. Sweden has reached this stage in the 21st century. The Fifth Stage of Transition Some theorists include a fifth stage in which fertility rates begin to transition again to either above or below that which is necessary to replace the percentage of the population that is lost to death. Some say fertility levels decrease during this stage while others hypothesize that they increase. Rates are expected to increase populations in Mexico, India and the U.S. in the 21st century, and to decrease populations in Australia and China. Birth and death rates largely plateaued in most developed nations in the late 1900s.

social placement

Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement. College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success.

collective behavior

Flash mobs are examples of collective behavior, non-institutionalized activity in which several people voluntarily engage. Other examples of collective behavior can include anything from a group of commuters traveling home from work to the trend toward adopting the Justin Bieber hair flip. In short, it can be ANY GROUP BEHAVIOR THAT IS NOT MANDATED OR REGULATED BY AN INSTITUTION. THERE ARE FOUR PRIMARY FORMS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR: THE CROWD, THE MASS, THE PUBLIC, AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Theorists

Historical sociologists Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud anticipated secularization, claiming that the modernization of society would bring about a decrease in the influence of religion

no child left behind

In 2001, the Bush administration passed the No Child Left Behind Act, which requires states to test students in designated grades. The results of those tests determine eligibility to receive federal funding. Schools that do not meet the standards set by the Act run the risk of having their funding cut. Sociologists and teachers alike have contended that the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act is far more negative than positive, arguing that a "one size fits all" concept cannot apply to education.

mass

In addition to the different types of crowds, collective groups can also be identified in two other ways. A mass is a relatively large number of people with a common interest, though they may not be in close proximity (Lofland 1993), such as players of the popular Facebook game Farmville

malthusian

Malthusian theory, three factors would control human population that exceeded the earth's carrying capacity, or how many people can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources. He identified these factors as WAR, FAMINE, AND DISEASE (Malthus 1798). He termed these "positive checks" because they increased mortality rates, thus keeping the population in check, so to speak. These are countered by "preventative checks," which also seek to control the population, but by reducing fertility rates; preventive checks include birth control and celibacy. Thinking practically, Malthus saw that people could only produce so much food in a given year, yet the population was increasing at an exponential rate. Eventually, he thought people would run out of food and begin to starve. They would go to war over the increasingly scarce resources, reduce the population to a manageable level, and the cycle would begin anew. Of course, this has not exactly happened. The human population has continued to grow long past Malthus's predictions. So what happened? Why didn't we die off? There are three reasons that sociologists suggest we continue to expand the population of our planet. First, technological increases

carrying capacity

Malthusian theory, three factors would control human population that exceeded the earth's carrying capacity, or how many people can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources. He identified these factors as war, famine, and disease

Weber

Max Weber (1864-1920) believed it was a precipitator of social change. He examined the effects of religion on economic activities and noticed that heavily Protestant societies—such as those in the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and Germany—were the most highly developed capitalist societies and that their most successful business leaders were Protestant. In his writing The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905), he contends that the Protestant work ethic influenced the development of capitalism. Weber noted that certain kinds of Protestantism supported the pursuit of material gain by motivating believers to work hard, be successful, and not spend their profits on frivolous things. (The modern use of "work ethic" comes directly from Weber's Protestant ethic, although it has now lost its religious connotations.)

NIMBY

Not in My Back Yard, is the name for a movement of engaged citizens who are mostly protesting something objectionable that will happen to them

centric zone model

This model views a city as a series of concentric circular areas, expanding outward from the center of the city, with various "zones" invading (new categories of people and businesses overrun the edges of nearby zones) and succeeding (after invasion, the new inhabitants repurpose the areas they have invaded and push out the previous inhabitants) adjacent zones. In this model, Zone A, in the heart of the city, is the center of the business and cultural district. Zone B, the concentric circle surrounding the city center, is composed of formerly wealthy homes split into cheap apartments for new immigrant populations; this zone also houses small manufacturers, pawn shops, and other marginal businesses. Zone C consists of the homes of the working class and established ethnic enclaves. Zone D consists of wealthy homes, white-collar workers, and shopping centers. Zone E contains the estates of the upper class (exurbs) and the suburbs.

weber

Weber believed membership in distinguished clubs would outpace membership in Protestant sects as a way for people to gain authority or respect.

frame alignment process

With so many similar diagnostic frames, some groups find it best to join together to maximize their impact. When social movements link their goals to the goals of other social movements and merge into A SINGLE GROUP, a frame alignment process (Snow et al. 1986) occurs—an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to the movement.

head start

a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status

tracking

a formalized sorting system that places students on "tracks" that perpetuate inequalities. PLACEMENT

megapolis

a huge urban corridor encompassing multiple cities and their surrounding suburbs. These metropolises use vast quantities of natural resources and are a growing part of the U.S. landscape.

flash mob

a large group of people who gather together in a spontaneous activity that lasts a limited amount of time before returning to their regular routines.

denomination

a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state

monotheism

a religion based on belief in a single deity

polytheism

a religion based on belief in multiple deities

ecclesia

a religion that is considered the state religion

sect

a small, new offshoot of a denomination

religion

a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant

grade inflation

a term used to describe the observation that the correspondence between letter grades and the achievements they reflect WHAT USED TO BE A "C" IS NOW AN "A"

Feminist theory

aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education. this changed in 1972. based on Title 9 of the education amendments. This theory seeks to promote womans rights to equal education across the world.

meritocracy

an ideal system in which personal effort—or merit—determines social standing

ritual

are behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the members of a particular group, such as bar mitzvah

expressive crowd

are people who join together to express emotion, often at funerals, weddings, or the like.

social movement

are purposeful, organized groups striving to work toward a common social goal. outlaw smoking in public buildings and raise the cost of cigarettes,

belief

are specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true

busing

bringing students to schools outside their neighborhoods (and therefore schools they would not normally have the opportunity to attend) to bring racial diversity into balance

exurbs

communities that exist outside the ring of suburbs and are typically populated by even wealthier families who want more space and have the resources to lengthen their commute.

casual crowd

consist of people who are in the same place at the same time, but who aren't really interacting, such as people standing in line at the post office.

informal education

describes learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors by participating in a society.

formal education

describes the learning of academic facts and concepts through a formal curriculum.

modernization

describes the processes that increase the amount of specialization and differentiation of structure in societies resulting in the move from an undeveloped society to developed, technologically driven society (Irwin 1975). By this definition, the level of modernity within a society is judged by the sophistication of its technology, particularly as it relates to infrastructure, industry, and the like. However, it is important to note the inherent ethnocentric bias of such assessment. Why do we assume that those living in semi-peripheral and peripheral nations would find it so wonderful to become more like the core nations? Is modernization always positive?

credentialism

emphasis on certificates or degrees

Zone E

estates of the upper class (exurbs) AND the suburbs.

crowd

fairly large number of people in close proximity to form a crowd

decline stage

fall away, adopt a new movement, it has successfully brought about its sought, or people no longer are the issue seriously. Many make this stage before institutionalization. the focus on this stage has shifted or died out. example being same sex marriage, occupy wall street, PETA

Zone A

heart of the city, center of business, and cultural district.

Zone C

homes of the working class and established ethnic enclaves.

human ecology

is a functionalist field of study that focuses on the relationship between people and their built and natural physical environments

value-add

is a perspective within the functionalist tradition based on the idea that several conditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur. Each condition adds to the likelihood that collective behavior will occur. The first condition is structural conduciveness, which describes when people are aware of the problem and have the opportunity to gather, ideally in an open area. Structural strain, the second condition, refers to people's expectations about the situation at hand being unmet, causing tension and strain. The next condition is the growth and spread of a generalized belief, wherein a problem is clearly identified and attributed to a person or group.Fourth, precipitating factors spur collective behavior; this is the emergence of a dramatic event. The fifth condition is mobilization for action, when leaders emerge to direct a crowd to action. The final condition relates to action by the agents. Called social control, itis the only way to end the collective behavior episode (Smelser 1962). Let's consider a hypothetical example of these conditions. In structure conduciveness (awareness and opportunity), a group of students gathers on the campus quad. Structural strain emerges when they feel stress concerning their high tuition costs. If the crowd decides that the latest tuition hike is the fault of the Chancellor, and that she'll lower tuition if they protest, then growth and spread of a generalized belief has occurred. A precipitation factor arises when campus security appears to disperse the crowd, using pepper spray to do so. When the student body president sits down and passively resists attempts to stop the protest, this represents mobilization of action. Finally, when local police arrive and direct students back to their dorms, we've seen agents of social control in action. While value-added theory addresses the complexity of collective behavior, it also assumes that such behavior is inherently negative or disruptive. In contrast, collective behavior can be non-disruptive, such as when people flood to a place where a leader or public figure has died to express condolences or leave tokens of remembrance.

education

is a social institution through which a society's children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms

public crowd

is an unorganized, relatively diffused group of people who share ideas, such as the Libertarian political party.

population pyramid

is the distribution of age groups in a population

urbanization

is the study of the social, political, and economic relationships in cities

institutionalize stage

no linger requires grassroots volunteerism, it is established, organized with paid staff, movement is at the highest visibility to the public, focuses on achieving recognizable gains, and well organized operation.

emergent norm

norms experienced by people in a crowd may be disparate and fluctuating. They emphasize the importance of these norms in shaping crowd behavior, especially those norms that shift quickly in response to changing external factors. Emergent norm theory asserts that, in this circumstance, people perceive and respond to the crowd situation with their particular (individual) set of norms, which may change as the crowd experience evolves. This focus on the individual component of interaction reflects a symbolic interactionist perspective. For Turner and Killian, the process begins when individuals suddenly find themselves in a new situation, or when an existing situation suddenly becomes strange or unfamiliar. For example, think about human behavior during Hurricane Katrina. New Orleans was decimated and people were trapped without supplies or a way to evacuate. In these extraordinary circumstances, what outsiders saw as "looting" was defined by those involved as seeking needed supplies for survival. Normally, individuals would not wade into a corner gas station and take canned goods without paying, but given that THEY WERE SUDDENLY IN A GREATLY CHANGED SITUATION, THEY ESTABLISHED A NORM THAT THEY FELT WAS REASONABLE. ONCE INDIVIDUALS FIND THEMSELVES IN A SITUATION UNGOVERNED BY PREVIOUSLY ESTABLISHED NORMS, THEY INTERACT IN SMALL GROUPS TO DEVELOP NEW GUIDELINES ON HOW TO BEHAVE. ACCORDING TO THE EMERGENT-NORM PERSPECTIVE, CROWDS ARE NOT VIEWED AS IRRATIONAL, IMPULSIVE, UNCONTROLLED GROUPS. INSTEAD, NORMS DEVELOP AND ARE ACCEPTED AS THEY FIT THE SITUATION. WHILE THIS THEORY OFFERS INSIGHT INTO WHY NORMS DEVELOP, IT LEAVES UNDEFINED THE NATURE OF NORMS, HOW THEY COME TO BE ACCEPTED BY THE CROWD, AND HOW THEY SPREAD THROUGH THE CROWD.

fertility rate

number of children born.

mortality rate

number of people who die

e-waste

obsolete, broken, and worn-out electronics—from computers to mobile phones to televisions.

sorting

or classifying students based on academic merit or potential. SUCCESS

demography

or the study of populations.

coalescence stage (grass root)

people join together, organize, make public, raise awareness, focus on recruiting, and energized volunteers.

climate change

refers to long-term shifts in temperatures due to human activity and, in particular, the release of greenhouse gases into the environment

gentrification

refers to members of the middle and upper classes entering city areas that have been historically less affluent and renovating properties while the poor urban underclass are forced by resulting price pressures to leave those neighborhoods. This practice is widespread and the lower class is pushed into increasingly decaying portions of the city.

white flight

refers to the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas toward the suburbs. This has happened throughout the 20th century—due to causes as diverse as the legal end of racial segregation

environmental racism

refers to the way in which minority group neighborhoods are burdened with a disproportionate number of hazards, including toxic waste facilities, garbage dumps, and other sources of environmental pollution and foul odors that lower the quality of life

cultural transmission

refers to the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture. Both informal and formal education include cultural transmission. For example, a student will learn about cultural aspects of modern history in a U.S. History classroom. In that same classroom, the student might learn the cultural norm for asking a classmate out on a date through passing notes and whispered conversations.

cult

religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader

charter schools

schools are self-governing public schools that have signed agreements with state governments to improve students when poor performance is revealed on tests required by the No Child Left Behind Act. While such schools receive public money,

brown VS B of ED.

schools for black and white students were, in fact, unequal and unconstitutional.

preliminary change

social change happens in 4 stages; people become aware and get the word out

urban sociology

social, political, and economic relationships in cities, and someone specializing in urban sociology would study those relationships

metropolis

suburbs, exurbs, and metropolitan areas all combine to form a metropolis

totemism

the belief in a divine connection between humans and other natural things

atheism

the belief in no deities

religious experience

the conviction of sensation that one is connected to "the divine"

zero population growth

the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration.

sex ratio

the ratio of men to women in a given population

animism

the religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world

liberation theology

the use of a church to promote social change via the political arena

demographic transition

there are clear patterns that can be seen in population growth. Societies develop along a predictable continuum as they evolve from unindustrialized to postindustrial. Demographic transition theory (Caldwell and Caldwell 2006) suggests that future POPULATION GROWTH WILL DEVELOP ALONG A PREDICTABLE FOUR-STAGE MODEL. IN STAGE 1, BIRTH, DEATH, AND INFANT MORTALITY rates are all high, while life expectancy is short. An example of this stage is 1800s America. As countries begin to industrialize, they enter Stage 2, WHERE BIRTHRATES ARE HIGHER WHILE INFANT MORTALITY AND THE DEATH RATES DROP. LIFE EXPECTANCY ALSO INCREASES. AFGHANISTAN is currently in this stage. STAGE 3 OCCURS ONCE A SOCIETY IS THOROUGHLY INDUSTRIALIZED; BIRTHRATES DECLINE, WHILE LIFE EXPECTANCY CONTINUES TO INCREASE. DEATH RATES CONTINUE to decrease. Mexico's population is at this stage. In the final phase, Stage 4, WE SEE THE POSTINDUSTRIAL ERA OF A SOCIETY. BIRTH AND DEATH RATES ARE LOW, PEOPLE ARE HEALTHIER AND LIVE LONGER, AND SOCIETY ENTERS A PHASE OF POPULATION STABILITY. Overall population may even decline. Sweden and the United States are considered Stage 4.

Zone D

wealthy homes, white-collar workers, and shopping centers

pollution

when contaminants are introduced into an environment at levels that are damaging

cultural capital

which refers to the type of nonacademic knowledge that one learns through informal learning and cultural transmission. This hidden curriculum reinforces the positions of those with higher cultural capital, and serves to bestow status unequally.

hidden curriculum

which refers to the type of nonacademic knowledge that one learns through informal learning and cultural transmission. This hidden curriculum reinforces the positions of those with higher cultural capital, and serves to bestow status unequally.

Durkheim

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) defined religion as a "unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things" (1915). To him, sacred meant extraordinary—something that inspired wonder and which seemed connected to the concept of "the divine." Durkheim argued that "religion happens" in society when there is a separation between the profane (ordinary life) and the sacred (1915). A rock, for example, isn't sacred or profane as it exists. But if someone makes it into a headstone, or another person uses it for landscaping, it takes on different meanings—one sacred, one profane. Durkheim is generally considered the first sociologist who analyzed religion in terms of its societal impact. Above all, Durkheim believed that religion is about community: It binds people together (social cohesion), promotes behavior consistency (social control), and offers strength for people during life's transitions and tragedies (meaning and purpose). By applying the methods of natural science to the study of society, he held that the source of religion and morality is the collective mind-set of society and that the cohesive bonds of social order result from common values in a society. He contended that these values need to be maintained to maintain social stability. But what would happen if religion were to decline? This question led Durkheim to posit that religion is not just a social creation but something that represents the power of society: When people celebrate sacred things, they celebrate the power of their society. By this reasoning, even if traditional religion disappeared, society wouldn't necessarily dissolve. Whereas Durkheim saw religion as a source of social stability, German sociologist and political economist