Final review

Big five personality traits

1. Neuroticism individuals who are high on this trait are worrying temperamental self pitying self conscious emotional and vulnerable. Individuals who are low or calm even tempered self content comfortable unemotional and hardy. 2. Extroversion individuals who are high on the street or affectionate talkative active fun loving and passionate. Individuals who are low or reserved quiet passive sober and emotionally unreactive. 3. Openness to experience individuals who are high on this trait are imaginative creative original curious and liberal. Individuals who are low are down to earth uncreative conventional and curious and conservative. 4. Agreeableness individuals who are high on this trait are soft soft hearted trusting generous acquiescent lenient and good-natured. Individuals who are low are ruthless suspicious stingy antagonist critical and irritable. 5. Conscientiousness I pronounce it individuals who are high on this trait are conscientious hard-working well organized punctual ambitious and persevering. Individuals who are low or negligent lazy disoriented late aimless and non-persistent.

Changes in Personality traits - neuroticism decreases in middle age

Although Trisha and Joel both became more self-assured and assertive in mid life in other respects they differed. Trisha had always been more organized and hard-working you more gregarious and fun loving. Once the two women travel together. At the end of each day Trisha was disappointing if she had not kept his schedule and visited every tourist attraction. Do you like to play it by ear wandering through streets and stopping to talk with shopkeepers and residents. In previous sections we considered personality changes comment to many middle age adults but stable individual differences also exist. Through factor analysis of self report ratings the hundreds of personality traits on which people differ have been reduced to five basic factors often referred to as the big five personality traits these are neuroticism extroversion openness to experience agreeableness and conscientiousness. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of US men and women revealed that agreeableness and conscientiousness increase from adolescence or middle-age whereas neuroticism declines and extraversion and openness to experience do not change or decree slightly changes that reflect settling down and greater maturity. Similar trends have been identified in more than 50 countries very widely in cultural traditions including Canada Germany Italy Japan Russia and South Korea. The consistency of these cross-cultural findings has led some researchers to conclude that adult personality change is genetically influenced. They also know that individual differences in the big five traits are large and highly stable a person who scores higher low at one age is likely to do the same at another over intervals ranging from 3 to 30 years. How can there be high stability and personality traits yet significant changes in aspects of personality discussed earlier? Look at the big five traits and you will see that they differ from attributes considered in previous sections they do not take into account motivations preferred tasks and coping styles nor do they consider how certain aspects of personality such as masculinity and femininity are integrated. There is concerned with change due to experience focus on how personal needs in life events and induce new strategies and goals they're interested in the human being as a complex adaptive system. In contrast those who emphasize stability due to heredity measure personality traits on which individuals can easily be compared and that are present at any time of life. To resolve this apparent contradiction we can think of a dog as changing an overall organization and integration of personality as they adapt to changing life circumstances by doing so on a foundation of basic and during dispositions. But even the big 5 traits are responsive to life experiences. For example people in stable jobs and romantic relationships compared to those without these commitment show greater gains in conscientiousness and agreeableness and declines and neuroticism overtime. These findings confirm that personality remains an open system responsive to the pressures of life experiences.

Divorce

Although not all couples are financially comfortable middle aged household or well off economically compared with other age groups. Americans between 45 and 54 have the highest average annual income and contemporary middle age adults more of whom have earned college and post graduate degrees and live in dual earner families are financially better off than previous midlife generations. Partly because of increased education and financial security the contemporary social view of marriage in mid life is one of expansion and New Horizon's. These forces strengthen the need to review and adjust the marital relationship. For Devon and Trisha of the shift was gradual. But middle-age their marriage had permitted satisfaction of family and individual needs and dirt many changes and culminated in deeper feelings of love. Elena.'s marriage and contrast became more complex really nice her teenage daughters problems introduced added strains and as departure of children made marital difficulties more obvious. Tim's failed marriage revealed yet another pattern. With passing years the number of problems decline but so did the love expressed. As less happened in the relationship good or bad the couple had a little to keep them together. As the biology and environment box revealed marital satisfaction is a powerful predictor of midlife psychological well-being. Marital happiness is more strongly associated with life satisfaction and happiness in other domains including vocation children friendships and health. Consequently middle-age men who have focus mostly on career often realize a limited nature of their pursuits. At the same time women may insist on a more gratifying relationship. And having grown children who are engaged in adult roles remind middle-age parents that they are in the latter part of their lives prompting many to decide at the time for improving their marriage is now. As with early adulthood evidence on same-sex middle age couples are scarce. But some research suggests that compared to other couples lesbian partners is more effective communication styles. In interviews with over 200 heterosexual and same sex couples in their 40s 50s and 60s the lesbian couples described more openness and honesty and sharing thoughts and feelings with her partner. Across heterosexual lesbian and gay participants physical affection low conflict and sense of fairness predicted a deeper sense of psychological intimacy. Divorce has increasingly become a route to resolving an unsatisfactory marriage in mid life. Although the overall US divorce rate has declined over the past two decades the divorce rate of US adults age 50 and older has doubled over this period. A longer life expectancy widespread social acceptance of marital break up and greater financial security making it easier to leave an unhappy marriage have contributed to the surgeon later life divorces. Divorce at any age takes a heavy psychological toll but midlifers seem to adjust more easily than younger people. A survey of more than 13,000 Americans revealed the following divorce middle-age men and women reported less decline in psychological well-being than their younger counterparts. Midlife gains and practical problem-solving and effective coping strategies may reduce the stressful impact of divorce. Still individual differences in adjustment exist with middle age adults who and a highly distressed marriage faring best. Many ultimately report gains in happiness and outcomes stronger among women than men. In chapter 14 we saw that women's happiness suffers more than men and a poor quality marriage with unequal sharing of authority and responsibilities. When these and other relationship difficulties cannot be solved divorce eventually brings emotional relief. What do recently divorced middle-age people say about why their marriages ended? Women frequently mention communication problems in equality in the relationship adultery gradual distancing substance abuse physical and verbal abuse or their own desire for autonomy. Men also bring up for communication and they sometimes admit that their workaholic lifestyle or emotional in attentiveness played a major role in the marital failure. Women are more likely than men to initiate divorce and those who do feel somewhat better and psychological well-being. Men who initiate a split often already have another romantic involvement to turn to. Because the divorce rate is greater among remarried couples than those in first marriages about half a midlife divorces involve people who have had one or more previous unsuccessful marriages. Although many middle-aged divorcing adults are in comfortable economic circumstances for a considerable number of women marital break up especially when it is repeated severely reduce the standard of living. Consequently in mid life and earlier divorce contributes to the feminization of poverty a trend in which women who support themselves or their families have become the majority of the adult population living in poverty regardless of age and ethnic group. The gender gap in poverty has declined in western nations due to women's increase labor market participation a reduction in the gender pay gap and public policy supporting women and families. But because of wicker US public policies the gender gap in poverty remains higher in the United States than in other western countries. Longitudinal evidence reveals that middle-age women who whether divorce successfully tend to become more tolerant comfortable with uncertainty nonconforming and self-reliant and personality factors believe to be fostered by divorce force independence. And both men and women reevaluate what they consider important in a healthy relationship place in greater weight on equal friendship and less I'm passionate love than they had the first time. As an earlier periods divorce represents both the time of trauma at the time of growth. Less is known about a long-term adjustment: divorce among middle-age man perhaps because most enter new relationships and remarried within a short time.

Romantic Partners

At a party during her third year of college Sharese feel into conversation with Ernie a senior and one of the top students in her government class. She had already noticed Ernie in class and as they talked she discovered that he was as warm and interesting as he had seemed from a distance. Ernie found her to be lively intelligent and attractive. By the end of the evening the to realize that they had similar opinions on important social issues and liked the same leisure activities. They began dating steadily. Six years later they married. Finding a life partner is a major mile stone of early adult development with profound consequences for self-concept and psychological well-being. As Sharese and Ernies relationship reveals it is also a complex process that unfolds overtime and is affected by variety of events. Intimate partners generally meet in places where they are likely to find people of their own age level of education ethnicity and religion or they connect through online dating services. People usually select partners who resemble themselves in other ways attitude personality educational plans intelligence mental health physical attractiveness and even height. Romantic partner sometimes have complementary personality traits one self-assured and dominant the other hesitant and submissive. Because this difference permits each to sustain their preferred style of behavior it contributes to compatibility. But partners differing in other ways generally are not complementary. For example a warm agreeable person and an emotionally cool person usually react with discomfort to each other. Overall little support exist for the idea that opposites attract. Rather partners who are similar in personality and other attributes tend to be more satisfied with their relationship and more likely to stay together. Nevertheless in choosing a long-term partner men and women differ in the importance they place on certain characteristics. In research carried out and diverse industrialize and developing countries women assign greater weight to financial status intelligence ambition and moral character whereas men place more emphasis on physical attractiveness and domestic skills. In addition women prefer a same age or slightly older partner men a younger partner. According to an evolution airy perspective because their capacity to reproduce is limited women sick of meat with traits such as earning power and emotional commitment that help ensure children survival and well-being. In contrast men look for a mate with traits that signal youth health sexual pleasure and ability to give birth to and care for offspring. As further evidence for this different men often want a relationship to move quickly toward physical intimacy. Women in contrast prefer to take time to achieve psychological intimacy. In an alternative view gender roles jointly influenced by EvolutionHR and cultural pressures affect criteria for mate selection. Beginning in childhood men learn to be assertive an independent behaviors need for success in the work world. Women acquired nurturant behaviors which facilitate caregiving. Then each sex learns to value traits in the other that fit with this traditional division of labor. In support of this perspective in cultures and in younger generations experiencing greater gender equity men and women are more like in their mate preferences. For example compared with men in China and Japan American men place more emphasis on their mates financial prospects less on her domestic skills. Also when either male or female young adults are asked to imagine themselves as a future homemaker their preferences for a good provider and an older partner strengthen. But neither man nor woman put good luxe are in power and mates age relative to their own at the top of their wish list. Rather they place a higher value and attributes that contribute to relationship satisfaction mutual attraction caring dependability emotional maturity and a pleasing disposition. Nevertheless men continue to emphasize physical attractiveness more than women do and women earning capacity more than men do. Furthermore these gender differences along with gender similarities and desire for a caring partner also characterized gay men and lesbians. In some both biological and social forces contribute to mate selection. Young peoples choice of an intimate partner and the quality of the relationship are also affected by memories of the early parent child born. Finally for romance to lead to a lasting partnership it must have been at the right time. Two people may be right for each other but if one or both do not feel ready to marry the relationship is likely to dissolve.

Intellectual development - multidimensional and plastic

At age 50 when he occasionally couldn't recall a name or how to pause in the middle of a lecture speech to think about what to say next Devon wondered are the signs of an aging mine? 20 years later he had taken a little notice of the same events his questioning stems from widely held stereotypes of older adults as forgetful and confused. Most cognitive aging research has focused on deficit want to collect in cognitive stability and gains. As we examine changes in thinking in middle adulthood we will revisit the theme of diversity and development. Different aspects of cognitive functioning show different patterns of change. Although declines occur in some areas most people display cognitive competence especially in familiar context and some attain outstanding accomplishment. As we will see certain apparent decrement in cognitive aging result from weaknesses in the resurgence self! Overall the evidence supports an optimistic view of adult cognitive potential. The research we are about to consider illustrates core assumption of the lifespan perspective. Development as multi dimensional or the combined result of biological psychological and social forces. Development as multi directional or the joint expression of growth and decline with the precise mix varying across abilities and individuals. Development as plastic or open to change depending on how a persons biological and environmental history combined with current life conditions.

Predictors for heart disease

Despite a decline over the last few decades each year about 25% of middle-age Americans who dies to come to cardiovascular disease. We associate cardiovascular disease with heart attacks but Devon like many middle age and older adults learned of the condition during an annual check up. His doctor detected high blood pressure high blood cholesterol and atherosclerosis a buildup of plaque in his coronary arteries which encircle the heart and provide its muscles with oxygen and nutrients. These indicators of cardiovascular disease are known as silent killers because they often have no symptoms. When symptoms are evident they take different forms. The most extreme is a heart attack blockage of normal blood supply to an area of the heart usually brought on by a blood clot in one or more of plaque filled coronary arteries. Intense pain results as a muscle in the affected region dies. A heart attack is a medical emergency over 50% of victims die before reaching the hospital another 15% during treatment and an additional 15% over the next few years. Among other less extreme symptoms of cardiovascular disease or arrhythmia or irregular heartbeat. When it persists it can prevent the heart from pumping enough blood and resulting faintness. It can also allow clots to form within the heart chambers which may break loose and travel to the brain. In some individuals indigestion like pain are crushing chest pain called angina pectoris revelas an oxygen deprived heart. Today cardiovascular disease can be treated in many ways including coronary bypass surgery medication and pacemakers to regulate heart rhythm. To relieve arterial blockage Devon had angioplasty a procedure in which a surgeon threaded a needle then catheter into his arteries an inflated balloon additive which foot and fatty deposits to allow blood to flow more freely. Unless Devon took other measures to reduce his risk his doctor warned the arteries were clogged again within a year. Some risk such as heredity advanced age and being male cannot be changed. But cardiovascular disease is so disabling and deadly that people must be alert for it where they least expect it for example and women. Because men account for over 70% of cases in middle adulthood doctors often view a heart attack as a male problem and frequently overlook women's unique symptoms. Rather than chest pain many women experience extreme fatigue dizziness palpitations pain in the upper back or arm as well as intense anxiety symptoms often mistaken for a panic attack. Women themselves are less likely to recognize symptoms and therefore often delay in seeking help. In follow ups of victims of heart attacks women especially African-American women who are at increased risk were less likely to be offered drugs to treat blood clots and costly invasive therapy such as angioplasty and bypass surgery. As a result treatment outcomes including re-hospitalization and death tend to be worse for women particularly black women.

Divorce

Divorce rates have declined over the past two decades partly because of rising age of marriage which is linked to greater financial stability and marital satisfaction. In addition the increase in cohabitation has curtailed divorce many relationships at once would have been marriages now break up before marriage. Still from 42 to 45% of US marriages dissolve. Because most divorces occur within seven years of marriage many involve young children. Divorces are also common during the transition to mid life when people have adolescent children a period of reduced marital satisfaction. Nearly 60% of divorced adult remarry. But marital failure is even greater during the first few years of second marriages 10% above that for first marriages. Afterward the divorce rates for first and second marriages are similar. Why do so many marriages fail? As Christie and Gary's divorce illustrates the most obvious reason is a disrupted relationship. Christie and Gary did not argue more than others. But their problem-solving style was ineffective and it weekend their attachment to each other. When Christie raise concerns Gary reacted with contempt defensiveness and refusal to communicate. This demand withdraw pattern is found in many partners who split up with women more often insisting on change and men more often retreating. Another typical style involves a little conflict. Rather partners increasingly disengage emotionally from each other leading separate lives because they have different expectations of family life and future interest activities or friends. What problems underlie these maladaptive communication patterns? In a nine year longitudinal study researchers asked a nationally representative sample of 2000 US married people about relationship problems and followed up 3, 6, and 9 years later to find out who had separated or divorce. Compared to men women reported more problems largely involving their emotions such as anger and hurt feelings. Men seem to have difficulty sensing their wife's distress which contributed to her view of the marriage as unhappy. Regardless of which spouse reported the problem or was judged responsible for it the strongest predictors of divorce during the following decade were infidelity spending money foolishly drinking or using drugs expressing jealousy engaging in irritating habits and moodiness. Background factors that increase the chances of divorce our younger age at marriage being previously divorced and having parents who had divorced all of which are linked to marital difficulties. For example couples who married a younger ages are more likely to report infidelity and jealousy. And research conducted in diverse industrialized nations consistently confirms that parental divorce elevated risk of divorce in the next generation in part because it promotes child adjustment problems and reduce his commitment to the norm of lifelong marriage. As a result when adult children marry they are more likely to engage in inconsiderate behaviors and to have conflict ridden relationships and less likely to try to work through these difficulties or if they do try to have the skills to do so. Marriage to a caring spouse from a stable family background reduces these negative outcomes. Poorly educated economically disadvantaged couples who suffer multiple life stresses are especially likely to split up. But Christie's case represents another trend elevated marital break up among career oriented economically independent women whose education and income exceed their husbands and outcome explained by differing gender role beliefs between the spouses. However the tendency for those couples to divorce at higher rates is subsiding. The likely reason is a cultural shift toward more egalitarian partnerships in contemporary marriages. In addition to the factors just described American individualism which includes the belief that each person has the right to pursue self expression and personal happiness contributes to the unusually high US divorce rate. When people are dissatisfied with their intimate relationship the cultural value of individualism encourages moving on. Divorce involves the loss of a way of life and therefore a part of the self sustained by that way of life. As a result it provides opportunities for both positive and negative change. Immediately after separation both men and women experience disrupted social networks a decline in social support and increased anxiety and depression. For most of these reactions subside within two years. Non-working women who have organized their identities around their husbands have an especially hard time. And some non-custodial fathers feel disoriented and ruthless as a result of decreased contact with their children. Others distract themselves with a frenzy of social activity. Finding a new partner contribute to most to the psychological well-being of divorce adults. But it is more crucial for men who are just less well than women to living on their own. Despite loneliness and a drop in income women especially those who were in very low quality marriages tend to bounce back more easily from divorce. Christie for example developed a new friendships and a gratifying sense of self reliance. However a few women especially those who are anxious and fearful who remain strongly attached to their ex spouses or who lack education and job skills experience a drop in self-esteem and persistent depression. Job training continued education career advancement and social support from family and friends play vital roles in the economic and psychological well-being of many divorced women.

Presbyopia

During the 40s difficulty reading small print is common due to the thickening of the lens combined with weakening of the muscle that enables that I do accommodate adjust its focus to nearby objects. As new fibers appear on the surface of the lens they compress older fibers toward the center creating a thicker dense or less pliable structure. By age 50 the accommodative ability of the lens is 1/6 of what it was at age 20. Around age 60 the lens loses its capacity to adjust to objects at varying distances entirely a condition called presbyopia (literally old eyes). As the lens loses elasticity that I rapidly becomes More four sided between ages 40 and 60. Corrective lenses or for near sighted people bifocals is reading problems. A second set of changes limits ability to see in dim light which declines at twice the rate of daylight vision. Throughout adulthood the size of the pupil shrinks and the lens yellows. In addition starting at age 40 the vitreous transparent gelatin like substance that fills the eye develops opaque areas reducing the amount of light reaching the retina. Changes in the lens and vitreous also cause light to scatter within the eye increasing sensitivity to glare. Devon had always enjoyed driving at night but now he sometimes had trouble making out signs and moving objects. And his vision was more disrupted by bright light sources such as headlights of oncoming cars. Yellowing of the lens and increasing density of the vitreous also limit color discrimination especially at the Green blue violet end of the spectrum. Occasionally Devon had to ask whether his sport coat tie and socks matched. Besides structural changes in the eye neural changes in the visual system occur. Gradual loss of rods and cones light and color receptor cells in the retina and of neurons in the optic nerve the pathway between the retina and the cerebral cortex contributes to visual declines. By mid life have the rods which enable vision in dim light are lost. And because rod secrete substances necessary for survival of cones which enable daily and color vision gradual loss of cones follows. In addition decreased blood supply to the retina due to degeneration of retinal blood vessels causes it to thin and become less sensitive. Middle age adults are at increase risk of glaucoma a disease in which poor fluid drainage leads to a buildup of pressure within the eye damaging the optic nerve. Glaucoma affects nearly 2% of people over age 40 more often women than men. It typically progresses without noticeable symptoms and is a leading cause of blindness. Heredity contribute to glaucoma which runs in families siblings of people with the disease have a 10 fold increase risk and it occurs 3 to 4 times as often in African-Americans and Hispanics as in European Americans. Starting in mid life exams should include a glaucoma test. Drugs that promote release of fluid and surgery to open block drainage channels prevent vision loss.

Erikson's Intimacy vs. Isolation Stage

Ericksons vision has influenced all contemporary theories of adult personality development. His psychological conflict of early adulthood is intimacy versus isolation evident in the young persons thoughts and feelings about making a long-term commitment to an intimate partner and in close mutually gratifying friendships. As Sharese discovered building and emotionally fulfilling romantic bond is challenging. Most young adults are still grappling with identity issues. Yeah intimacy requires that they give up some of their independent self and read to find their identity to include both partners values and interests. Those in their late teens through mid 20s frequently say they don't feel ready for a lasting romantic tie mentioning concerned about career and financial security and emotional readiness including limit on their freedom. During the first year of marriage Sharese separated from Ernie twice as she tried to reconcile her desire for self determination with her desire for intimacy. Maturity involves balancing these forces. Without intimacy young adult face the negative outcome of Ericksons early adulthood stage loneliness and self absorption. Ernie's patience and stability helped Sharese realize that committed love requires generosity and compromise but not total surrender of the self. Research confirms that as Ericsson emphasized a secure identity fosters attainment of intimacy. Among large samples of college students identity achievement was positively correlated with fidelity loyalty and relationships and love for both men and women. In contrast identity moratorium exploration without commitment was negatively associated with Fidelity and love. Other studies show that advance identity development strongly predicts involvement in a deep committed love partnership or readiness to establish such a partnership. In friendships and work ties to young people who have achieved intimacy are cooperative agreeable communicative and excepting of differences in background and values. In contrast those with a sense of isolation hesitate to form close ties because they fear loss of their own identity tend to compete rather than cooperate are not excepting differences and are easily threatened when others get too close. Erikson believed that successful resolution of intimacy versus isolation prepares the individual for the middle adulthood stage which focuses on generativity caring for the next generation and hoping to improve society. But as noted previously few adults follow a fixed series of tasks tied neatly to age. Some aspects of generativity childbearing and child rearing as well as contributions to society through work and community service are underway in the 20s and 30s. Still in line with Ericksons ideas high friendship or romantic intimacy in early adulthood does predict a stronger generative orientation. In some identity intimacy and generativity our concerns of early adulthood with shifts and emphasis that differ among individuals. Recognizing that Ericksons theory provide only a broad sketch of adult personality development other theorist elaborated on his stage approach adding detail.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Erikson psychological conflict of midlife is called generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves reaching out to others in ways that give to you and guide the next generation. Generativity is underway in early adulthood through work community service and child bearing and child rearing. Generativity expand greatly in midlife when adults focus more intently on extending commitments beyond one's self identity and one's life partner intimacy to a larger group family community or society. The generative adult combines the need for self-expression with the need for communion integrating personal goals with the welfare of the larger social world. The resulting strength is the capacity to care for others in a Broadway than previously. Erikson (1950) selected the term generativity to encompass everything generated that can outlive the self and ensure societies continuity and improvement children ideas products works of art. Although parenting is a major means of realizing generativity it is not the only means adults can be generative and other family relationships such as Joel was with her nephew and niece as mentors in the workplace and volunteer endeavors and through many forms of productivity and creativity. Notice from what we have said so far that generativity brings together personal desires and cultural demands. On the personal side middle age adults feel the need to be needed to attend symbolic and mortality by making a contribution that will survive their death. This desire may stem from a deep-seated Evolutionary urge to protect and advance the next generation. On the cultural side society and poses a social clock for generativity and midlife requiring a daughter to take responsibility for the next generation through the rules as parents teachers and mentors leaders and coordinators. And according to Erickson a cultures belief in the species the conviction that life is good and worthwhile even in the face of human destructiveness and deprivation is a major motivator of generative action. Without this optimistic worldview people would have no hope of improving humanity. The negative outcome of this stage of stagnation once people obtain certain life goals such as marriage children and career success they may become self-centered and self indulgent. Adults with a sense of stagnation express their self absorption in many ways through lack of interest in young people including their own children through a focus on what they can get from others rather than what they can give and through taking a little interest and being productive at work developing their talents or bettering the world in other ways. Some researchers study generativity by asking people to write themselves on generative characteristics such as feelings of duty to help others in need or obligation to be an involved citizen. Others ask open ended questions about life goals major high points and most satisfying activities rating peoples responses for generative references. And still others look for generative themes in peoples narrative descriptions of themselves. Which ever method is used generativity tends to increase in mid life among people diverse in SES and ethnicity. Just as Ericksons theory suggest highly generative people appear especially well-adjusted loan anxiety and depression high and autonomy self acceptance and life satisfaction more open to different viewpoints and more likely to have successful marriages and close friends. They also demonstrate workplace leader ship qualities aimed at enhancing the success of younger colleagues and they care greatly about the welfare of others in general. For example generativity is associated with more effective child rearing higher valuing of trust open communication transmission of generative values to children and an authoritative style. Although these findings characterized adults of all backgrounds individual differences in contacts for generativity exists. Having children seems to foster generative development in both men and women. In some studies including the MIDUS survey fathers scored higher and generativity than childless men. Similarly in an investigation of well educated women from age is 43 to 63 those with family commitment with or without a career express grader generative concerns then childless women who were solely focused on their careers. Perhaps parenting spurs especially tender caring attitudes toward succeeding generations. For low SES men with troubled past sons students workers and intimate partners fatherhood can provide a context for highly generative positive life change. At times these fathers expressed this generativity as a refusal to pass on their own history of suffering. As one former gang member who earned an associates degree and struggle to keep his teenage sons off the streets explained I came through the depths of hell to try to be a father I let my sons know you're never without a daddy don't you let anybody tell you that. I told him that if me and your mother separate I make sure that wherever I go I built some thing for you to come to. Finally compared with European Americans African-Americans more often engage in certain types of generativity. They expressed a stronger desire to leave a legacy to their broader community rather than just their immediate family and consistent with that goal offer more social support to community members. A life history of greater support from church and extended family may strengthen these generative values and actions. Among European Americans religiosity and spirituality are also positively associated with generative activity. Highly generative middle age adults often indicate that his children and adolescents they internalize moral values rooted in a religious tradition and sustain their commitment to those values which provided lifelong encouragement for generative action. Especially an individualistic society's belonging to a religious community or believing in a higher being may help preserve generative commitments.

Religiosity among men and women - differences

How do older adults managed to except declines and losses yet still feel whole complete and calmly composed in the face of a shrinking future? One possibility consistent with Ericksons and pecks emphasis on a transcendent perspective in late adulthood is the development of a more mature sense of spirituality and inspirational sense of life's meaning. But for many people religion provides beliefs symbols and rituals that guide this quest for meaning. Older adults attach great value to religious beliefs and behaviors. In a recent survey of a large nationally representative sample of Americans 65% of those age 65 and older said that religion is very important in their lives and nearly have reported attending religious services at least once a week the highest of any age group. Similar cross-sectional trans existing countries as diverse as Belize Germany India Russia and togo. Although health and transportation difficulties reduce organized religious participation in advance old age older people generally become more religious or spiritual as they age. The late life increase in religiosity however is usually modest and it is not universal. Longitudinal research reveals that many people show stability and religiosity through adulthood while others follow diverse passive change gaining or declining to varying degrees. For example in a British investigation following adults for two decades 1/4 of older adults said they had become less religious with some siding disappointment at the support they have received from their religious institution during stressful times such as bereavement as the reason. Despite these variation spirituality and faith may advance to a higher level only adulthood away from prescribe beliefs toward a more reflective approach that emphasizes links to others and is at ease with misery and uncertainty. According to James Fowler's theory of faith development mature adults develop new faith capacities including awareness of their own believe system is just one of many possible worldviews contemplation of the deeper significance of religious symbols and rituals openness to other religious perspectives as sources of inspiration and especially in late life and enlarged vision of a common good that serves the needs of all humanity. For example as a complement to his Catholicism Walt became intensely interested in Buddhism especially its focus on attaining perfect peace and happiness by mastering thoughts and feelings never harming others and resisting attachment to worldly objects. Involvement in both organize an informal religious activities is especially high among low SES ethnic minority older people including African-American Hispanic and Native American groups. And African-American communities churches not only provide contacts for deriving meaning from life but also or centers for education health social welfare and political activities aimed at improving life conditions. Aging African-Americans look to religion as a powerful resource for social support be on the family and for the inner strength to withstand daily stressors and physical impairments. Compared with their European American age makes more African-American or older adults report feeling closer to God and engaging in prayer as a means of overcoming life's problems. As an earlier age is in late adulthood women are more likely than men to say that religion is very important to them to participate in religious activities and to engage in a personal quest for connectedness with a higher power. Women's higher rates of poverty widowhood and participation in caregiving including caring for chronically ill family members exposes them to higher levels of stress and anxiety. As with at ethnic minorities they turn to religion for social support and for a larger vision of community that place is less challenges in perspective. Religious involvement is associated with diverse benefits including better physical and psychological well-being more time devoted to exercising and leisure activities increase sense of closeness to family and friends greater generativity care for others and deeper sense of meaning or purpose in life. And longitudinal research both organize an informal religious participation predicted longer survival after family background health social and psychological factors known to affect mortality were controlled.

Levinson's Seasons of life - masculinity - femininity

Levinson's interviews revealed that with the transition to middle age adults become more aware that from now on more time will they behind than ahead so they view the remaining years as increasingly precious. This leads some to make drastic revisions in their life structure divorcing remarrying changing careers or displaying enhance creativity. Others make smaller changes in the context of merit on occupational stability. Whether these years bring a gust of wind or a storm most people turn in word for a time focusing on personally meaningful living. According to Levinson to reassess and rebuild her life structure middle age adults must confront for developmental task. Each requires the individual to reconcile to opposing tendencies within the self attaining greater internal harmony. 1. Young-old: the middle-age person must seek new ways of being both young and old. This means giving up certain youthful qualities transforming others and finding positive meaning and being older. Perhaps because of the double standard of aging most middle-age women expressed concern about appearing less attractive as they grow older. But middle-age men particularly non-college educated men who often hold blue-collar jobs requiring physical strength and stamina also highly sensitive to physical aging. Compared with previous middle life cohorts US baby boomers are especially interested in controlling physical changes a desire that has helped energize huge industry of anti-aging cosmetic products and medical treatments. And sustaining a youthful subjective age feeling younger than one's actual age is positively related to self-esteem and psychological well-being with stronger associations among Americans and western European middle age and older adults. In the more individualistic US contacts a youthful self image seems more important for viewing oneself as self-reliant and capable of planning for an active fulfilling late adulthood. 2. Destruction-creation: with greater awareness of mortality the middle-age person focuses on Waze he or she has active destructively. Past hurtful acts towards parents intimate partners children friends and coworkers are countered by an intense if I desire to be generative through charitable giving community volunteering mentoring young people or fashioning creative products. 3. Masculinity-Femininty: the middle-age person must better balance masculine and feminine parts of the self. For men this means greater acceptance of feminine traits of nurturing and caring which enhance close relationships and compassionate exercise of authority in the workplace. For women and generally means greater openness to masculine characteristics of autonomy and assertiveness. People who combined masculine and feminine traits have an androgynous gender identity. 4. Engagement-separateness: the middle-age person must forge a better balance between engagement with the extra world and separateness. For many men and for women with successful careers this may mean reducing concern with achievement in favor of attending more fully to oneself. But some women who have been devoted to child rearing or an unfulfilling job may feel compelled to move in the other direction pursuing a long desired ambition. At age 48 Elena. left her position as a reporter for a small town newspaper earned an advanced degree in creative writing excepted a college teaching position and began writing a novel. Tim and contrast recognize his intense desire for a gratifying romantic partnership. By scaling back his own career he realize he could grant Elena. the time and space she needed to rebuild her work life and that doing so Might deepen in their attachment to each other. people who flexibly modify their identities in response to age related changes yeah maintain a sense of self continuity are more aware of their own thoughts and feelings and are higher in self-esteem and life satisfaction. But adjusting one's life structure to incorporate the effects of aging require supportive social contexts. When poverty unemployment and lack of a respected place in society dominate the life course energies are directed towards survival rather than realistically addressing age related changes. And even adults whose jobs are secure and who live in economically advantage neighborhood may find that employment conditions restrict possibilities for growth by placing too much emphasis on productivity and profit and too little on the meaning of work. In her early 40s Trisha left a large law firm where she felt constant pressure to bring in-client and received a little acknowledgment of her efforts for a small practice. Opportunities for advancement is the tradition to Merrill adult. Yet these are less available to women than men. Individuals of both sexes and blue-collar jobs also have fewer possibilities for promotion. Consequently they make whatever vacation adjustments they can becoming active union members shop stewards or mentors of younger workers. Many men find compensating rewards and moving to the senior generation of their families.

Skipped generation families

Nearly 2.7 million US grandparents live with grandchildren but apart from the children's parents in Skip generation families. The number of grandparents with primary responsibility for rear and grand children has increased over the past two decades with an especially sharp rise during the economic recession of 2007 to 2009. The arrangement occurs in all ethnic groups but more often an African-American Hispanic and Native American families been in European American families. Although grandparent caregivers are more likely to be women than men many grandfathers participate. Grandparents generally step in when parents troubled lives severe financial hardship substance abuse child abuse and neglect family violence or physical or mental illness threaten children safety and security. Often these families taking two or more children. As a result grandparents usually assume the parenting role under highly stressful life circumstances. Unfavorable child rearing experiences have left their mark on the children who show high rates of learning difficulties depression and antisocial behavior. Absent parents adjustment difficulties strain family relationships. Parents may interfere by violating the grandparents behavioral limits taking grandchildren away without permission or making promises to children that they do not keep. These children also introduced financial burdens into household that often already low income. All these factors height and grandparents emotional distress. Grandparents struggle with daily dilemmas wanting to be grandparents not parents wanting the parents to be present in the child's life the feeling for the child well-being if the parent returns and does not provide good care. And grandparent caregivers at a time when they anticipated having more time for spouses friends and leisure instead have less. Many report feeling emotionally drained and depressed and worried about what will happen to the children if their own health fails. Some families are extremely burdened. Native American caregiving grandparents are especially likely to be unemployed to have a disability to be caring for several grandchildren and to be living in extreme poverty. Despite great hardship these grandparents seem to realize their widespread image of silence saviors often forging close emotional bonds with their grandchildren and using effective child rearing practices. Compared with children and divorced single parent families blended families or foster families children weird by grandparents fare better in adjustment. Skipped generation families have a tremendous need for social and financial support and intervention services for troubled children. Custodial grandparents with relatives and friends they can count on benefit and physical and mental health. Others say that support groups for themselves and for their grandchildren are especially helpful yet only minority make use of such interventions. This suggests that grandparents need special help in finding out about and accessing support services. Although their every day lives are often stressful caregiving grandparents even those rearing children with serious problems report as much fulfillment in the grandparent Ross typical grandparents do. The warmer the grandparent grandchild bond the greater grandparents long-term life satisfaction. Many grandparents mention joy from sharing children's lives and feelings of pride at children's progress which help compensate for difficult circumstances. Town and some grandparents view the rearing of grandchildren as a second chance and opportunity to make up for earlier unfavorable parenting experiences and do it right.

Challenges with retirement

One evening Devon and Trisha met Anya and her husband Jorge for dinner. Halfway through the mail Devon inquire Jorge tell us what you want on your going to do about retirement. Are you planning to close down your business or work part time? Do you think you'll stay here or move out of town? Three generations ago the two couples would not have had this conversation. Because of government sponsored retirement benefits beginning in the United States in 1935 retirement is no longer a privilege reserved for the wealthy. The federal government pay Social Security to the majority of retired adults and others are covered by employer based private pension plans. As the trend is noted suggest the average age of retirement declined over the 20th century but over the past two decades it has risen from age 57 to 62 in the United States. A similar rise has occurred in other western nations were average retirement age hovers between 60 and 63. Many US baby boomers say they expect to delay retirement. But even with a negative impact of the economic recession of 2007 to 2009 most will need to work just a few extra years to be financially ready to retire. For the healthy active long lived baby boom generation up to 1/4 of their lives may lie head after they leave their jobs. Retirement is a lengthy complex process that begins as soon as the middle-age person first thinks about it. Planning is important because retirement leads to a loss of two important work related rewards income and status into a change in many other aspects of life. Like other life transitions retirement can be stressful. Clarifying goals for the future and acquiring financial planning knowledge consistently predict better retirement savings adjustment and satisfaction. Yet half or more of US adults over age 50 have not engaged in any concrete retirement planning. Financial planning is a specially vital in the United States where unlike Western European nations the federal government does not offer a pension system that guarantees an adequate standard of living. Hence US retirees income typically drops by 50%. But even midlifers who attend financial education programs often feel to look closely at their financial well-being and to make wise decisions. Many could benefit from an expert's financial analysis and counsel. Retirement leads to ways of spending time that are largely guided by one's interest rather than one's obligations. Individuals who have not thought carefully about how to fill this time may find a sense of purpose in life seriously threatened. Planning for an active life has an even greater impact on happiness after retirement than financial planning. Participation in activities promote many factors essential for psychological well-being including a structured time schedule social contact and self-esteem. Carefully considering whether or not to relocate our retirement is related to an active life since it affects access to healthcare friends family recreation entertainment and part-time work. Devon retired at age 62 Jorge at age 66. There's several years younger Trish and Anja like many married women coordinated their retirement with those of their husbands in contrast jewel and good health but without an intimate partner to share her life kept her consulting business going until age 75. Tim took early retirement and move to be near Elena. where he devoted himself to public service tutoring second graders in a public school transporting inner-city children to museums and coaching after school and we can youth sports. For Tim retirement offered new opportunities to give generously to his community. Unfortunately less well educated people with lower lifetime earnings are least likely to attend retirement preparation programs yet they stand to benefit the most. And compared with men women do less planning for retirement instead of relying on their husbands preparation's. This gender gap seems to be narrowing however as women increasingly contribute to family income. Employers must take extra steps to encourage lower paid workers and women to participate in planning activities. In addition enhancing retirement adjustment among the economically disadvantage depends on access to better vocational training jobs and healthcare at early ages. Clearly a lifetime of opportunities and experiences affects the transition to retirement.

Changes in parent- child relationships - Low SES

Parents positive relationships with their grown children are the result of a gradual process of letting go starting in childhood gaining momentum in adolescence and culminating in children's independent living. As noted earlier most parents launch adult children sometime in mid life. But because more people are delaying having children to their 30s and even 40s the age at which midlife is experience their children's departure varies widely. Most parents adjust well only a minority have difficulty. Investment in non-parental relationships and roles children's characteristics parents marital and economic circumstances and cultural forces affect the extent to which this transition is expansive and rewarding or sad and distressing. After their son Mark secured a career entry job and moved out of the family home permanently Devon and Trisha felt a twinge of nostalgia combine with a sense of pride and they're grown sons maturity and success. Beyond this they return to rewarding careers and community participation and delighted and having more time for each other. Parents who have developed gratifying alternative activities typically welcome their children's adult status. A strong work orientation especially predicts gains in life satisfaction after children depart from the home. Wide cultural variations exist in the social clock for children's departure. Recall from chapter 13 that many young people from low socioeconomic status homes and with cultural traditions of extended family living do not leave home early. In the southern European countries of Greece Italy and Spain parents often actively delayed or children's leaving. In Italy for example parents believe that moving out without a justified reason usually marriage signifies that something is wrong in the family. At the same time Italian adults grant their grown children extensive freedom. Parent adult child relationships are usually positive making living with parents attractive. With the end of parent child coresidence comes a substantial decline in parental authority. Devon and Trisha no longer knew of Mark's daily comings and going's or expected him to inform them. Nevertheless like most young adult Mark visited regularly and telephone texted and emailed often to report on events in his life sacrifice and keep abreast of his parents lives. Although the parental role changes its continuation is important to middle age adults. Departure of children is a relatively minor event as long as parent child contact and pleasurable interaction or sustain. When communication sell them occurs or is negative parents psychological well-being declines. Whether or not they reside with parents young adult children who are off time in development who deviate from parental expectations about how the path to adult responsibilities shit unfold can prompt parental stream. Consider Elena whose daughter was doing poorly in her college courses and in danger of not graduating. The need for extensive parental guidance at a time when she expected her daughter to be more responsible and independent caused anxiety and happiness for elena who was ready to reduce time devoted to active parenting. In one study researchers asked a large sample of 40 to 60-year-old parents to report on their grown children's problems and successes along with their own psychological well-being. Consistent with the familiar saying parents are only as happy as their least happy child having even one problematic child dampen parents well-being but having a successful child did not have a compensating positive affect. The more grown children with problems the poor parents well-being. In contrast it took multiple successful grown children to sway parents will being in a favorable direction. As with marriage is negative conflict written experiences with grown children are particularly salient profoundly affected midlife parent psychological states. Throughout middle adulthood parents continue to give more assistance to children than they receive especially while children are unmarried or when they face difficulties such as marital break up or unemployment. Support in Western countries typically flows downstream. Although ethnic variations exist most middle-age parents provide more financial practical emotional and social support to their offspring than to their aging parents unless a parent has an urgent need. And explaining their generous support of adult children parents usually mention the importance of the relationship. And providing adult children with assistance enhances midlife psychological well-being. Clearly middle age adults remain invested in their adult children's development and continue to reap deep personal rewards from the parental role. However the amount and type of support middle age adults provide very with Socio economic status. Parents with more education and income give more financial assistance. But low SES parents give more overall support usually consisting of coresidences Plus various types of intangible assistance advice help with child care emotional encouragement and companionship. Nevertheless because of widespread single parenthood plus larger families low SES parents must divide their supportive resources among more offspring. Consequently on average low SES parents are able to give less tangible and intangible support to each child then their higher socioeconomic status counterparts. Finding themselves devoting much time to giving support that is thinly spread and therefore less effective in helping children launch their lives is likely draining and disappointing too many low SES parents. After children marry parents messages to an in large family network that includes in laws. Difficulties occur when parents do not approve of their child's partner or when the young couple adopt a way of life inconsistent with the parents values. Parents who take steps to forge a positive time with the future daughter or son-in-law generally experience a closer relationship after the couple Marries. And when warm supportive relationships endure intimacy between parents and children increases over the adult years with great benefits for parents life satisfaction. Members of the middle generation especially mothers usually take on the role of kin keeper gathering the family for celebrations and making sure everyone stays in touch. Parents of adult children expect a mature relationship marked by tranquility and contentment. Yet many factors on both the child and the parent side and also having to do with family circumstances affect whether that goal is achieved.

Changes in speech

Reduce blood supply natural cell death in the inner ear and auditory cortex along with stiffening of the membrane such as the eardrum cause hearing to decline in late adulthood. Decrements our greatest at high frequencies although detection of soft sounds diminishes throughout the frequency range. In addition responsiveness to startling noises lessons and discriminating complex tone patterns becomes harder. As hearing declines older people report lower self efficacy more loneliness and depressive symptoms and a smaller social network then they are normally hearing peers.

Symptoms of Menopause

The changes involved in women's climacteric occur gradually over a ten-year period during which the production of estrogen drops. As a result the number of days in a woman's monthly cycle shorts from about 28 in her 20s and 30s to perhaps 23 by her late 40s and her cycles become more regular. And some ova are not released when they are more are defective. The climacteric concludes with menopause the end of menstruation and reproductive capacity. This occurs on average in the early 50s among North American European and east Asian women although the age range extends from the late 30s to the late 50s. Women who smoke or who have not born children tend to reach menopause earlier. Following menopause estrogen declines further causing the reproductive organs to shrink in size the generals to be less easily stimulated in the vagina to lubricate more slowly during arousal. As a result complains about sexual functioning increase with about 35 to 40% of women reporting difficulties especially among those with health problems or his partners have sexual performance problems. The drop in estrogen also means it in a longer helps protect against aging of the skin loss of bone mass and accumulation of plaque on the walls of the arteries by boosting good cholesterol. The period leading up to and following menopause is often accompanied by emotional and physical symptoms including mood fluctuations and hot flashes sensations of warm accompanied by a rise in body temperature and redness in the face neck and chest followed by sweating. Hot flashes which may occur during the day and also has night sweats during sleep affect more than 50% of women in western industrialized nations. Typically they are not severe only about one and 12 women experience them every day. On average hot flashes purses for four years but in some women they continue for a decade. Although women approaching menopause tend to report increased irritability and less satisfying sleep research using EEG and other neurobiological measures finds no link between menopause and changes in quantity or quality of sleep. Frequent hot flashes however are associated with repeated night wakings and poor sleep. Furthermore longitudinal evidence reveals that depressive episodes rise during the climacteric the women who have a history of depression who are experiencing highly stressful life events or who harbor negative attitudes towards menopause and aging are at greatest risk. The hormonal changes of the climacteric seem to elevate depressive symptoms especially in vulnerable women. With the final metro. As hormone levels stabilize the incidence of depression diminishes. Women with the previous history of depression or four more likely than those with no history to continue feeling depressed after menopause. Their difficulties merit serious evaluation and treatment. Compared with North American European African and Middle Eastern women Asian women report fewer metro complaints including hot flashes. Asian diets which are high in soy based foods a rich source of plant estrogen may be involved.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychological conflict of Ericksons theory ego integrity versus despair involves coming to terms with one's life. Adult to arrive at a sense of integrity feel whole complete and satisfied with their achievements. They have adapted the mix of triumphs and his appointments that are an inevitable part of love relationships Child rearing work friendships and community participation. They realize that the past they followed abandon and never selected were necessary for fashion in a meaningful life course. The capacity to view one's life in the larger contacts of all humanity has the chance combination of one person and one segment in history contributes to the serenity and contentment that accompany integrity. These last few decades have been the happiest wall murmured class being rude San only weeks before the heart attack that would end his life. At peace with himself his wife and his children while I had excepted his life course of something that had to be the way it was. In a study that followed a sample of women diverse and SES throughout adulthood middle of generativity predicted ego integrity in late adulthood. Ego integrity intern was associated with more favorable psychological well-being a more upbeat mood greater self acceptance higher marital satisfaction closer relationships with adult children greater community involvement and increased ease and excepting help from others when it is needed. As Ericksons theory indicates psychosocial maturity in late life brings increased contentment affection enjoyable bond with others and continued service to society. Scanning the newspaper Walt pondered I keep reading these percentages one out of five people get heart disease 103 will get cancer but the truth is one out of one Will die. We are all mortal and must except this fate. Do year before what I had given his granddaughter Marcy his collection of prize photos which had absorbed him for over half a century. With the realization that the integrity of one's own life as part of an extended chain of human existence Erickson suggested death loses its sting. In support of this view older adult to report having attained interested personally gratifying life goals typically expressed acceptance of their own death. Those who emphasize attainment of extrinsic goals such as memory or perceived more often for your life to end. The negative I'll come over the stage despair occurs when aging adults feel they have made many wrong decisions yet time is too short to find an alternate route to integrity. Without another chance the despairing person find it hard to except that death is near and is overwhelmed with bitterness defeat and hopelessness. According to Ericsson these attitudes are often expresses anger and contempt for others which disguise contempt for oneself. Ricks argumentative faultfinding behavior tendency to blame others for his personal failures and regretful view of his own life reflect the deep sense of despair within him.

Early Dating

The hormonal changes of puberty increase sexual interest but cultural expectations determine when and how dating begins. Asian you to start dating later and have fewer dating partners than young people in Western societies which tolerate and even encourage romantic involvement from middle school onwards. At age 12 to 14 these relationships are usually casual lasting only briefly. By age 16 they have become steady relationships continuing on average for 1 to 2 years the break ups remain common for about 1/3. Early adolescence tend to mention recreation and achieving peer status as reasons for dating. By late adolescence as young people are ready for greater psychological intimacy they look for dating partners who offer personal compatibility companionship affection and social support. The achievement of intimacy between dating partners typically lags behind that between friends. And positive relationships with parents and friends contribute to warm romantic ties whereas conflict ridden parent adolescent and peer relationships forecast hostile dating interactions. According to ethological theory, early attachment bond lead to an internal working model or set of expectations about attachment figures that guides later close relationships. Consistent with these ideas secure attachment to parents in infancy and childhood together with recollections of that security and adolescents predicts higher quality teenage friendships and romantic ties. Parents marital interactions make a difference to likely through modeling important relationship skills. And longitudinal research parents approach to marital conflict resolution predicted teenagers conflict resolution with friends one year later and with romantic partners up to seven years later. Impressively parents marital conflict resolution strategies also forecast qualities of young people's interactions with their own marital partner 17 years later. Perhaps because early adolescent romantic involvement are shallow and stereotyped early dating is related to drug use delinquency and poor academic achievement. These factors along with a history of uninvolved parenting and aggression and family and peer relationships increase the likelihood of dating violence. About 10 to 20% of adolescents are physically or sexually abused by dating partners boys and girls are equally likely to report being victims and violence by one partner is often returned by the other. Mental health consequences are severe including increased in anxiety depression and suicide attempts and victims of both genders plus antisocial behavior in boys and unhealthy weight control vomiting and using laxatives and girls. Young teenagers are better off sticking with group activities such as parties and dances before becoming involved with a steady boyfriend or girlfriend. Lesbian and gay youth's face special challenges in initiating and maintaining visible romances. Because of prejudice sexual minority adolescent sometimes the retreat into heterosexual dating. Although more are identifying their sexual orientation to others than in the past many have difficulty finding a partner because their peers with same-sex romantic interest have not yet come out. Similar to heterosexual youth security of attachment to parents and friends predicts gratifying romantic ties among lesbian gay and bisexual adolescence and again prediction from teenagers attachment to parents is persistent still evident in sexual minority couples romantic relationship satisfaction in early adulthood. After high school graduation many adolescent romances dissolve and those that survive usually become less satisfying. Because young people are still forming their identities high school couples often find that they have little in common later. Nevertheless among older teenagers close romantic ties promote sensitivity empathy self-esteem social support and identity progress. In addition teenagers increasing capacity for caring and compromise with dating partners enhances the quality of other peer relationships. Thus as long as dating leads to warm supportive romantic bond and fosters adjustment and provides beneficial lessons in relating to people generally.

Define thanatology

This is the study of death and dying which has expanded dramatically over the past three decades. As a result of life saving technology death is long and drawn out for 3/4 of people many more than in times past. Of those who die suddenly 65 to 85% are victims of heart attacks.

ways to age successfully

Walt Ruth Rick Goldie and Eva and the research findings they illustrate revealed great diversity in a development during the final decades of life. Walt and Ruth fit contemporary experts views of successful aging in which games are maximizing losses minimize enabling realization of individual potential. Both were actively engage with their families and communities coped well with negative life changes enjoyed a happy intimate partnership and other close relationships and lead daily lives filled with gratifying activities. Eva to age successfully until the onset of Alzheimer's symptoms overwhelmed her ability to manage life's challenges. As a single adult she built a rich social network that sustained her into her old age. In contrast Rick and Goldie reacted with despondency to physical aging and other losses such as ricks force retirement. And ricks angry outburst restricted their social contacts although the couples moved to a life care community eventually lead to an improved social life. People age well when their growth vitality and strivings limit and at times overcome physical cognitive and social declines. Researchers want to know more about factors that contribute to successful aging so they can help more people experience it. Yet there is disagree on the precise ingredients of a satisfying old age. Some focus on easily measurable outcomes such as excellent cardiovascular functioning absence of disability superior cognitive performance and creative achievements. But this view has been heavily criticized. Not everyone can become an outstanding athlete an innovative scientist or a talented artist. And many older adults do not want to keep on accomplishing and producing the main markers of success in western nations. Each of us is limited by our genetic potential as a combines with the lifetime of environments we encounter and select for ourselves. Furthermore outcomes valued in one culture may not be valued in others. Perspectives on successful aging have turned away from specific achievements toward processes people used to reach personally valued goals. Instead of identifying one set of standards as successful as we focus is on how people minimize losses while maximizing gains. From this vantage point optimal aging might be a better descriptor and then the commonly used term successful aging. Optimal aging reflects the reality that aging well involves not only achievement of desirable outcomes but also effective coping with life's challenges and losses. In research on diverse samples of adult followed over the lifespan Jorge looked at how various life course factors contributed to late life physical and psychological well-being. Findings revealed that factors people can control to some degree such as health habits coping strategies marital stability and years of education for outweighed uncontrollable factors parental SES family warmth in childhood early physical health and longevity of family members in predicting a satisfying active old age.

Suicidality in late adulthood

When Abe's wife died he withdrew from life mostly spending his days alone. As grand children were born Abe visited his daughters families from time to time caring his despond and behavior with him. Look at my new pajamas grandpa! Abe grandson Tony exclaimed on one occasion Abe didn't respond. When in his 80s he developed painful digestive difficulties. His depression deep end but he refused to see a doctor. Don't need to he said abruptly when one of his daughters begged him to get medical attention. Answering her invitation to Tony's 10th birthday party Abe wrote if I'm still around next month. Two weeks later Abe died from an intestinal blockage. His body was found in the living room chair where he habitually spent his days. Although it may seem surprising abes self-destructive acts are a form of suicide. In most countries around the world suicide increases over the lifespan with older adults at greatest risk the regional variations exist. The United States is distinguished by a sharp rise in suicide in middle adulthood. There after the suicide rate levels off or drop slightly increasing once again from age 75 onto a level that age 85 or older slightly exceeds the midlife incidence. US suicides among the very old have risen by 15% over the past few years a trend as in middle adulthood largely accounted for by white men. Furthermore the sex differences in suicide widens in old age nearly 10 times as many US aging men as women take their own lives. Compared with the white majority most ethnic minority older adults have low suicide rates. What explains these differences? Despite the lifelong pattern of higher rates of depression among females older women's closer ties to family and friends willingness to seek social support and greatly religiosity prevent many from taking their own lives. High levels of social support through extended families and religious institutions may prevent suicide among ethnic minorities. And within certain groups such as Alaskan natives deep respect for and reliance on older adults to teach cultural traditions strengthen self-esteem and social integration. This reduces suicide making it almost nonexistent after age 80. Failed suicides are rare in old age. The ratio of attempts to completions for adolescents and young adults is as high as 200 to 1 for aging adult it is 41 or lower. When older people decide to die they are especially determined to succeed. Under reporting of suicides probably occurs at all ages but it is more common in old age. Many older adults like abe engaging in indirect self-destructive acts really classified as suicide deciding not to go to a doctor when ill or refusing to eat or take prescribe medication's. Among institutionalize older adult these efforts to hasten death are widespread. Consequently suicide in late life is a larger problem than statistics indicate. Two types of events prompt suicide in late life. Losses retirement from a highly valued occupation widowhood or social isolation place older adults who have difficulty coping with change at risk for persistent depression. Most suicides however stem from chronic and terminal illnesses that severely reduce physical functioning or cause intense pain. As comfort and quality of life diminish feelings of hopelessness and helplessness deepen. Mild cognitive decline especially an executive function makes some individual susceptible to impulsivity and problem solving that is poor heightening suicidal risk when losses or illnesses rise. Dementia is also linked to suicide especially shortly after diagnosis. The chances of suicide are further elevated when a sick older person is socially isolated living alone or in a nursing home with high staff turnover minimal caregiver support and little opportunity for personal control over daily life. Suicide rates are low in European countries were older people more often live with their families. At the same time when ill aging adults perceive themselves to be a burden to their families the risk of suicide rises. Warning signs of suicide in late adulthood like those that earlier ages include statements about dying despondency and sleep and appetite changes. But family members friends caregivers and health professionals must also watch for indirect self-destructive acts that are unique to old age such as refusing food or medical treatment. When suicidal aging adults are depressed the most effective treatment combines antidepressant medication with therapy including helping coping with role transition such as retirement widowhood and dependency brought about by illness. Distorted ways of thinking like I'm old nothing can be done about my problems or I'm burdening my children must be countered and revised. Meeting with the family to find ways to reduce loneliness and desperation is also helpful. Communities are beginning to recognize the importance of preventative steps such as community wide screenings for risk factors programs that help aging adults cope with life transitions telephone hotlines with train volunteers who provide emotional support and agencies that arrange for regular home visitors or buddy system phone calls. But so far most of these efforts benefit women more than men because women are more likely to tell health professionals about her symptoms such as despondency and to use social resources.

Where do most americans prefer to die

Whereas in the past month deaths occurred at home in the United States today about 40% take place in hospitals in another 20% in long-term care facilities usually nursing homes. Nearly 30% of people age 65 and older experience a hospital intensive care unit in the last month of life most of them die there. In the large and personal hospital environment meeting the human needs of dying patients and their families is usually secondary not because professionals lack concern but because their work focuses on saving lives. A dying patient represents a failure. In the 1960s a death awareness movement arose as a reaction to hospitals death avoiding practices attachment of complicated machinery to patients with no chance of survival and avoidance of communication with dying patients. This movement soon lead to medical care better suited to the needs of dying people and also to hospice programs which have spread to many countries in the industrialized world. Had Sophie and Nick been asked where they wanted to die undoubtably each would have responded at home the preference of 80% of Americans. The reason is clear the home can offer an atmosphere of intimacy and loving care in which the terminally ill person is unlikely to feel abandoned or humiliated by physical decline or dependence on others. Although US home deaths have increased over the past two decades dying at home remains a distant reality for many only about 1/4 of Americans experience it more often those who are financially better off. And it is important not to romanticize dying at home. Because of dramatic improvements in medicine dying people tend to be sicker or much older than in the past. Consequently their bodies may be extremely frail making ordinary activities eating sleeping taking a pill toileting and bathing major or deals for informal caregivers. Health problems of aging spouse is working other responsibilities of family members and the physical psychological and financial strain of providing home care can make it difficult to honor a terminally ill person's wish to die at home. For many family members the chance to be with a dying person until the very end is a rewarding trade off for the high demand of caregiving. But to make dying at home feasible adequate support for the caregiver is essential. Especially trained home health aide is usually necessary a service that hospice programs have made more accessible. Furthermore even with professional help most homes are poorly equipped to handle the medical and comfort care needs of the dying. Hospital-based equipment and technical support often must be transported to the home. Overall the evidence is inconsistent on whether home deaths are associated with less pain and increased satisfaction for patients and reduce distress for family members than deaths occurring in hospitals. Contributing to these mixed outcomes a considerable number of aging adults rather than dying in their own home die in a family members home often an adult childs. Modifications to the physical structure in addition of equipment to accommodate the dying person's needs along with the intensity of caregiving task and disrupt caregivers own sense of home with a negative consequences for psychological well-being. And dying older adults concerns about burdening their adult children along with regret of having lost the identity security privacy and personal control they had in their own home can contribute to anxiety and dissatisfaction as well.

What are the stages of death

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance. Denial refusing to except the diagnosis and avoiding discussions with doctors and family members as a means of escaping from the prospect of death. Anger resentment and fury that Time is sure that goals may be left unattended and at the unfairness of death. Bargaining striking bargains with doctors and nurses family members friends or God for extra time. Depression with realization of the inevitability of death despondency about the impending loss of one's life. Acceptance the weekend patient reaches a state of peace usually in the last few days and disengage is from all but a few family members friends and caregivers.

Area of decline among elders

After age 75 about 9% of Americans have difficulty caring out activities of daily living basic self-care task required to live on one's own such as bathing dressing getting in and out of bed or a chair or eating. And about 70% cannot carry out instrumental activities of daily living tasks necessary to conduct the business of daily life and also requiring some cognitive competence such as telephoning shopping food preparation housekeeping and paying bills. Other physical changes may be nervous system sensory system such as vision hearing another physical change cardiovascular and respiratory systems immune system sleep physical appearance and mobility.

Factors that contribute to shortening life expectancy

Consistent group differences in life expectancy_of the joint contributions of heredity and environment to biological agent. In countries around the globe women outlive men by an average of five years. This life expectancy advantage characterizes females of most species. The protective value of females extra X chromosome along with a reduced risk taking and physical aggression are believed to be responsible. Yet since the 1990s the gender gap in life expectancy has narrowed in industrialized nations. Because men are at higher risk for disease in early death they reap somewhat larger generational gains from positive lifestyle changes and new medical discoveries. Life expectancy very substantially with SES. As education and income increase so does length of life. In the United States the gap in life expectancy at birth between the wealthiest and the poorest individuals is 14 1/2 years for men and 10 years for women. As he is also accounts for the two to three-year advantage in life expectancy for European American over African American adults age 65 and older. As noted in chapter 13 stressful life events wide ranging unhealthy behaviors jobs with health risk and weeks social supports are associated with low SES. Length of life and even more important quality of life in old age can be predicted by a countries healthcare housing and social services along with lifestyle factors. When researchers estimate average healthy life expectancy the number of years a person born in a particular year can expect to live in for health without disease or injury Japan rings first with the United States falling below the overwhelming majority of industrialized nations. Japan's leading status in this overall measure of population health has been attributed to its low rates will be city in heart disease linked to its low fat diet along with its favorable healthcare policies. Because the United States fall short in these respects Americans spend somewhat more time disabled and die earlier than older adults in most other developed countries. I'm going to talk in developing nations with widespread poverty malnutrition disease and armed conflict average life expectancy hovers around 55 years. And healthy life expectancy is reduced by 3 to 4 decades compared with the industrialized world for example male 69 years in Japan 67 years in Sweden 65 years in the United States but only 48 in Afghanistan 47 Sierra Leone and 28 in Heidi wear overall health recently declined because of the 2010 catastrophic earthquake.

Leading form of dementia

Dementia refers to a set of disorders occurring almost entirely in old age in which many aspects of thought and behavior are so impaired that every day activities are disrupted. About a dozen types of dementia have been identified. Some are reversible with proper treatment but most are irreversible and in curable. A few forms such as Parkinson's disease involve deterioration and subcortical brain regions primitive structures below the cortex that often extends to the cerebral cortex and in many instances result in brain abnormalities resembling Alzheimer's disease. Research suggests that Parkinson's and Alzheimer's are related. But in the majority of dementia cases subcortical brain regions are intact and progressive damage occurs only to the cerebral cortex. The two most common forms of cortical dementia or Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia.

What Does Pragmatic Thought Allow For

Gisella Labouvie-Vief's (1980,1985) Portrait of adult cognition echoes features of Paris theories. Adolescence she points out operate within a world of possibility. Adulthood involves movement from hypothetical to pragmatic thought a structural advance in which logic becomes a tool for solving real world problems. They need to specialize motivates this change. As adults select one path out of many alternatives they become more aware of the constraints of every day life. And in the course of balancing various roles they except contradictions as part of existence and develop ways of thinking that thrive on imperfection and compromise. Sharese's friend Christy a married graduate student and parent of her first child at 26 illustrates I've always been a feminist and I wanted to remain true to my believes in family and career. But this is Gary's first year of teaching high school and he saddled with four preparation and coaching the schools basketball team. At least for now I've had to settle for give-and-take feminism going to school part time and shouldering most of childcare responsibilities while he gets used to his new job. Otherwise we'd never make it financially. Labouvie-Vief also points out that young adults enhance reflective capacities alter the dynamics of their emotional lives. They become more adept at integrating cognition with emotion and in doing so again makes sense of discrepancies. Examining the self descriptions of 10 to 80-year-olds divorce in SCS she found that from adolescence through middle adulthood people gained in cognitive affective complexity which is awareness of conflicting positive and negative feelings and coordination of them into a complex organized structure that recognizes the uniqueness of individual experiences. For example 134-year-old combined rules traits and diverse emotions into it this coherent self description with the recent birth of our first child I find myself more fulfilled than ever yet struggling in some ways. My elation is tempered by my gnawing concern over meeting all my responsibilities in a satisfying way while remaining an individualized person with needs and desires. Cognitive affective complexity promotes greater awareness of one's own and others' perspectives and motivations. As she noted it is a vital aspect of adult emotional intelligence and is valuable and sobbing many pragmatic problems. Individuals high in cognitive affective complex review events and people in the tolerant and open minded fashion. And because cognitive affective complexity involves excepting and making sense of both positive and negative feelings it helps people regulate intense emotion and therefore think rationally about real world dilemmas even those that are Laden with negative information. Awareness of multiple truths integration of logic with reality and cognitive affective complexity some of the qualitative transformations and thinking underway in early adulthood.

Living will vs durable power of attorney for healthcare

In a living will people specify the treatment they do or do not want in case of a terminal illness, or other near death situation. For example a person might state that without reasonable expectation of recovery here she should not be kept alive through medical intervention of any kind. In addition a LivingWell sometimes specifies that pain relieving medication be given even though it might shorten life. In Sophie's case her doctor administered powerful narcotic to relieve labored breathing and quiet her fear of suffocation. The narcotic and induced unconsciousness and suppress respiration causing that to occur hours or days earlier than if the medication had not been prescribed. Such palliative care is excepted as appropriate ethical medical practice. Although living wills help in sure personal control they do not guarantee it. Recognition of living walls is usually limited to patients who are terminally ill or or otherwise expected to die shortly. Only a few US states cover people in a persistent vegetative state or aging adults who linger with many chronic problems including Alzheimer's disease because these conditions are not classified as terminal. Even when terminally ill patients have living wills doctors often do not follow them for a variety of reasons. These include fear of lawsuits their own moral believes failure to inquire about patients directives and INXS ability of those directives for example located in the family safe or family members unaware of them. Because living wills cannot anticipate all future medical conditions and can easily be ignored a second form of advanced directive has become common. A durable power of attorney for healthcare authorized as appointment of another person usually they're not always a family member to make healthcare decisions on one's behalf. It generally requires only a short signed and witnessed statement. The durable power of attorney for healthcare is more flexible than the LivingWell because it permits a trusted spokes person to confirm with the doctor as medical circumstances arise. Because authority to speak for the patient is not limited to terminal illness is more latitude exist for dealing with unexpected situations. And for a couples who are not legally married the durable power of attorney can ensure the partners role in decision making and in advocating for the patient's health care needs. Whether or not a person supports ending treatment when natural death is eminent it is important to have a LivingWell durable power of attorney or both because most deaths occur in hospitals or long-term care facilities. Yeah only 45% of Americans over age 40 have executed such documents perhaps because of widespread uneasiness about bringing up the topic of death especially with relatives. The percentage with advanced directives increases with age nearly 55% of adults over age 65 have them. To encourage people to make decisions about potential treatment while they're able US federal law now requires that all medical facilities receiving federal funds provide information at admission about state laws and institutional policies on patients rights and advance directives.

Anticipatory grief

In instances of sudden unexpected that's usually the result of murder suicide war accident or natural disaster avoidance may be especially pronounced and confrontation highly traumatic because shock and disbelief are extreme. In a survey of a large representative sample of 18 to 45-year-old in Detroit the trauma most often reported as prompting an intense debilitating stress reaction was the sudden unanticipated death of a loved one. In contrast during prolonged dying the bereaved person has had time to engage and anticipatory grieving which is acknowledging that the losses inevitable and preparing emotionally for it. Survivors may feel less overwhelmed immediately following the death. Still they may be vulnerable to persistent anxiety due to long-term stressors such as highly demanding caregiving and having watched a loved one suffer from a debilitating illness. Adjusting to a sudden death is easier when the survivor understands the reasons for it. This barrier to confronting loss is tragically apparent in cases of sudden infant death syndrome in which doctors cannot tell parents exactly why their baby died. That death seems senseless also complicates grieving after suicides terrorist attack school and drive-by shootings natural disasters and motor vehicle fatalities. In Western societies people tend to believe that momentous events should be comprehensible and non-random. A death that is sudden and unexpected can threaten basic assumptions about adjust benevolent and controllable world. Suicide particularly that other young person is especially hard to bear. Compared with survivors of other sudden deaths people grieving a suicidal loss are more likely to conclude that they contributed to or could have prevented itself blame that can trigger profound guilt and shame. These reactions are likely to be especially intense and persistent when the grievers culture or religion condemn suicide as immoral. Individuals who have survived a suicide typically score higher than those who have experience other types of losses and feelings of guilt and shame sense of rejection by the disease and desire to conceal the cause of death. Typically recovery from grief after suicide is prolonged.

Palliative

In medieval times a hospice was a place where travelers could find rest in shelter. In the 19th and 20th centuries the word referred to homes for dying patients. Today hospice is not a place but a comprehensive program of support services for terminally ill people and their families. It aims to provide a caring community sensitive to the dying person's needs so patients and family members can prepare for death in ways that are satisfying to them. Quality of life is central to the hospice approach which includes these main features the patient and family as a unit of care. Emphasis on meeting the patient's physical emotional social and spiritual needs including controlling pain retaining dignity and self worth and feeling cared for and loved. Care provided by an interdisciplinary team a doctor or a nurse or home health aide a chaplain a counselor or social worker and a train volunteer. The patient kept at home or in an inpatient setting with a Home like atmosphere where coordination of care is possible. Focus on protecting the quality of remaining life with palliative or comfort care that relieves the pain and other symptoms nausea breathing difficulties insomnia and depression rather than prolonging life. In addition to regularly scheduled care visits on-call services available 24 hours a day seven days a week. Follow up bereavement services offered to families in the year after a death.

Voluntary euthanasia in North america

Involuntary euthanasia at a patient's request a doctor actively takes the patient's life in a painless way for the purpose of relieving suffering. The practice a form of mercy killing is a criminal offense in all US states and most other countries. But public support for voluntary euthanasia group over the 1980s and 1990s reaching 2/3 of the American population and has since stabilized. In Belgium the Netherlands Luxembourg and Canada were voluntary euthanasia is legal public approval is similar to or higher than in the United States. And eastern European countries were most of the population is religious approval rates are lower generally around 45%. In the United States and Western Europe in nations were voluntary euthanasia is illegal the courts are usually lenient with doctors who engaged in it with patients near death and suffering profoundly generally granting suspended sentences or probation. Nevertheless attempts to legalize the practice have prompted heated controversy. Supporters believe it represents the most compassionate option for terminally ill people under and great suffering. Opponent stress the moral difference between letting die and killing and argue that permitting doctors to take patients lives may impair peoples trust in health professionals. Finally a fear exist that legalizing the practice even when strictly monitored to ensure it does not arise out of depression loneliness coercion or a desire to relieve the burden of caregiving on others could result in broadening of euthanasia. Initially limited to the terminally ill it might be applied involuntarily to the frail and disabled outcomes that most people find unacceptable and immoral.

Changes in Sexual Activity

The overwhelming majority of research on sexuality and midwife focuses on heterosexual married couples and to a lesser extent cohabiting couples. Little is known about the sexual activity of the growing numbers of middle age adults who are single and dating. Research on middle age dating cohabiting and married same sex couples is also sparse. Frequency of sexual activity among heterosexual couples tends to decline in mid life but for most the drop is modest. Surveys of large nationally representative samples of US adults reveal that even in the latter years of middle adulthood age 55 to 60 for the overwhelming majority of married and cohabiting adults are sexually active about 90% of men and 80% of women. Most sexually active midlifers report having sex regularly more than once a month or once a week. Longitudinal research reveals that stability of sexual activity is far more typical than dramatic change. Couples who have sex often in early adulthood continue to do so in mid life. And the best predictor of sexual frequency as relationship satisfaction and association that is probably by directional. Sex is more likely in the contacts of a happy intimate bond and couples who have sex often probably view their relationship more positively. Nevertheless intensity of sexual response diminishes in mid life due to physical changes of the climacteric. Both men and women take longer to feel aroused and to reach orgasm. If partners perceive each other as less attractive this may contribute to a drop in sexual desire. Yet in the contacts of a positive outlook sexual activity can become more satisfying. Devon and Trisha for example viewed each other's aging bodies with acceptance and affection as a sign of their enduring and deepening relationship. And with greater freedom from the demands of work and family their sex life became more spontaneous. The majority of married people over age 50 say that sex is an important component of a healthy couple relationship. And most find ways to overcome difficulties with sexual functioning. One happily married 52-year-old woman said we know what we are doing we've had plenty of practice and I would never have believed that it gets better as you get older but it does. When surveys include married cohabiting and single people a striking gender difference in age related sexual activity appears. The proportion of US men with no sexual partners in the previous year increases only slightly from the 30s to the late 50s from 8 to 12%. In contrast the rice for women is dramatic from nine to about 35 to 40% a gender gap that becomes even larger in late adulthood. A higher male mortality rate and the value women place on affection and continuity in sexual relations make partners less available to them. Taken as a whole the evidence reveals a sexual activity in mid life as an earlier. Is the combined result of biological psychological and social forces.

Complicated grief

Theorist formally believe that bereaved individuals both children and adults move through three phases of grieving avoidance confrontation and restoration each characterized by a set of different responses. In reality however people very greatly and emotional reactions behavior and timing. An estimated 60 to 70% experience mild distress that resolves within a few months. Another 15 to 25% experience moderate distress depression and difficulties and every day functioning and recover gradually usually within a year. Only about 5 to 15% experience severe prolong distress depression and lack of acceptance of the death that persist for years impairing physical and mental health termed complicated grief. As these findings revealed a typical response to the loss of a loved one is resilience. Grievers generally move back-and-forth between emotional reactions with many ups and downs. Rather than phase is the grief process is best conceived as a set of task actions the person must take to recover and return to a fulfilling life 1. to accept the reality of the loss 2. to work through the pain of grief 3. to adjust to a world without the loved one and 4 to develop an inner bond with the deceased and move on with life.

Phases of dying

There are three phases when it comes to dying. 1. The agonal phase: the Greek word agon means struggle. Here Agana refers to a rattled breathing sound due to fluid buildup in the throat and to gas and muscle spasms during the first moments in which the regular heart beat disintegrates. 2. Clinical death. A short interval follows in which heartbeat circulation breathing and brain functioning stop but resuscitation is still possible. 3. Mortality. The individual passes into permanent death. Within a few hours the newly lifeless being appears shrunken not at all like the person here she was when alive.

Changes in personality

And personality these very senior citizens appear highly optimistic. In a study in which robust Centenarians and re-took personality test after 18 months they reported more fatigue and depression perhaps in response to increased frailty at the very end of their lives. But they also scored higher and tough mindedness independence and emotional security and openness to experience traits that may be vital for surviving beyond 100. An important contributor to their favorable mental health and longevity is social support especially close family bonds and a long and happy marriage. An unusually large percentage of centenarian men about 1/4 are still married.

Peer Relationships - Gender Difference

Ask several adolescence to describe their close friendships. You're likely to find the emotional closeness is more common between girls and boys. Girls frequently get together to just talk and their interactions contain more self disclosure and mutually supportive statements. In contrast boys more often gather for an activity usually sports and competitive games. Boys discussions usually focus on successes in sports and school and involve more competition and conflict. Because of gender role expectations girls friendships typically focus on communal concerns boys on achievement status. Boys do form close friendship ties but the quality of their friendships is more variable. When ethnically diverse boys from low income families were asked to describe their friendships African Americans and Asian Americans and Hispanics mention closeness mutual support and self disclosure more often than their white counterparts. But as ethnic minority boys transition from mid to late adolescence many reported to the kind of friendship closeness. There were marks revealed that masculine stereotypes to be tough and an emotional interfered with these bonds. But perhaps because of cultural valuing of emotional expressiveness between male friend, Hispanic boys were more likely than others to resist conforming to gender stereotypes. Such resistance by permitting boys to benefit from the support of Ness of intimate friends is consistently related to better adjustment. Friendship closeness however can have cost. When friends focus on deeper thoughts and feelings they tend to coruminate or repeatedly mull over problems and negative emotions with girls doing some more than boys. Corumination while contributing to her friendship quality also triggers anxiety and depression symptoms more common in girls. And when conflict arises between intimate friends more potential exist for one party to harm the other through relational aggression for example by divulging sensitive personal information to outsiders. Partly for these reasons girls closest same sex friendships tend to be of shorter duration than boys.

Functional age vs Chronological age

Do you know older adults who seem younger seem old for their age? And using these descriptors week knowledge that chronological age is an imperfect indicator of functional age or actual competence and performance. Because people age biologically a different rate some 80-year-olds appear younger than many 65-year-olds. Recall that within each person change differs across parts of the body. For example Ruth B. came in from physically but remained active mentally whereas Eva the physically fit for her age found it hard to converse with others keep appointments or complete familiar test. So much variation exist between them within individuals that researchers have not yet identified any single biological measure that predicts the overall rate at which a person with age. But we do have estimate of how much longer older adults can expect to live in our knowledge of factors affecting longevity in late adulthood has increased rapidly.

Spirituality/religiosity and death

Earlier we noted that his sense of spirituality reduce his fear of death. Research indicates that this is as true for the dying as for people in general. Terminally ill patients who score higher in spiritual well-being belief in life's meaning expressive greater sense of inner peace feeling relaxed positive forgiving of themselves and others and excepting of their life situation and less end of life despair desire for a Hastened death and suicidal thoughts. Vastly different cultural beliefs guided by religious ideas also shape peoples dying experiences. Buddhism widely practiced in China India and Southeast Asia emphasizes that all physical and mental states are transient which Foster's acceptance of death. By chanting sutras teachings of Buddha to the dying to calm the mind and emphasizing that death leads to rebirth moving through a variety of lives on a journey towards enlightenment. Buddhist believe that it is possible for the dying person to attain Nirvana a transcendent state in which there is no suffering desire sense of self. In many native American groups death is met with stoic self control and approach taught at an early age through stories that emphasize a circular rather than linear relationship between life and death and the importance of making way for others. For African Americans are dying loved one signals of crisis that unites family members in caregiving. The terminally ill person remains in active and vital force within the family until here she can no longer carry out this role and attitude of respect that eases the dying process. Among the Maori of New Zealand relatives and friends gather around the dying person to give spiritual strength and comfort. Older adults clergy and other experts in tribal customs conduct a karakia ceremony in which they recite prayers asking for peace and mercy and guidance from the creator. After the ceremony the patient is encouraged to discuss important matters with the closest loved ones giving away of personal belongings directions for interment and completion of other unfinished tasks. In some dying prompts and multitude of thoughts emotions and coping strategies. Which ones are emphasize depends on a wider rate of contextual influences. A vital assumption of the lifespan perspective that development is multi dimensional and multi directional is just as relevant to this final phase as to each earlier period.

The Three Stages of Vocational Development

In societies with an abundance of career possibilities, occupational choice is a gradual process that begins long before adolescence and often extends into the mid-20s. Major theorists view the young person as moving through several periods of vocational development. 1. The fantasy period: in early and middle childhood children gain insight into career options by fantasizing about them. Their preference is guided largely by familiarity, glamour, and excitement there a little relation to the decisions they will eventually make. 2. The tentative period: between ages 11 and 16 adolescence think about careers and more complex ways at first in terms of their interests and soon as they become more aware of personal and educational requirements for different vacations in terms of their abilities and values. I like science and the process of discovery shares one young girl. Her thought is she near high school graduation but I'm also good with people and I'd like to do something to help others so maybe teaching or medicine would suit my needs. 3. The realistic period: by the late teens and early 20s with the economic and practical realities of adulthood just around the corner young people start to narrow their options. The first step is often further exploration gathering more information about possibilities that blend with their personal characteristics. In the final phase crystallization, they focus on a general vocational category and experiment for a time before settling on a single occupation. As a college sophomore Sharese pursued her interest in science but she had not yet selected a major. Once she decided on chemistry she considered whether to pursue teaching medicine or public health.

Benefits of continuing education

Older participants in continuing education report of Richard Ray of benefits understanding new ideas in many disciplines learning new skills and rich their lives making new friends and developing a broader perspective on the world. Furthermore participants come to see themselves differently. Many abandon their own and green negative stereotypes of aging when they realize that adults in late life including themselves can still engage in complex learning. Older adults willingness to acquire new knowledge and skills as a parent in the recent rapid rise in their use of computers and the Internet. They are now the fastest growing age group to embrace online technology as they discover its many practical benefits including assistance with shopping banking a healthcare management and communication. Currently about 60% of adults age 65 and older access the Internet with the majority of these going online on a daily basis. Older people have joined the computer and Internet community to a lesser extent than younger people. Those who are less well educated and have lower incomes in those over age 75 or especially reluctant with many perceiving the technology is too complicated an attitude that continuing education can overcome. With patient training support and modified equipment and software to sue their physical and cognitive needs older adults readily enter the online world often becoming nearly as devoted and skilled as young users. The educational needs of aging adults are likely to be giving greater attention and coming decades as their numbers grow and they serve their right to lifelong learning. Once this happens fall stereotypes they are too old to learn or education is for the young are likely to weaken and perhaps disappear.

Changes in sleep between men and women

When Walt went to bed at night he usually lay awake for a half hour to an hour before falling asleep remaining in a drowsy stay longer than when he was younger. During the night he spent less time in the deepest phase of an REM sleep and a walk several times again sometimes lying awake for a half hour or more before drifting back to sleep. Older adults require about as much total sleep as younger adults around seven hours per night. Yeah as people age they have more difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep and sleeping deeply. Insomnia facts about half of older adults. The timing of sleep tends to change as well toward earlier bedtime in early your morning weakening. Changes in brain structures controlling sleep in higher levels of stress hormones in the bloodstream which having a learning affect on the central nervous system are believed to be responsible. Until age 70 or 80 men experience more sleep disturbances than women for several reasons. First enlargement of the prostate gland which occurs in almost all aging men constricts the urethra the tube draining the bladder and leads to a need to urinate more often including during the night. Second men especially those who are overweight and use alcohol heavily or more prone to sleep apnea a condition in which breathing Caesars for 10 seconds or longer resulting in many brief awakenings. An estimated 45% of older adults are affected. Poor sleep can feed on itself. Waltz nighttime wakefulness let the daytime fatigue and short naps which made it harder to fall asleep the following evening. And because were expected to have trouble sleeping he worried about it which also interferes with sleep. Insomnia and older adults is a special concern because it increases the risk of falls and cognitive impairments. Those who are poor sleepers more often report slower reaction times and attention and memory difficulties. Fortunately there are ways to foster a restful sleep such as establishing a super consistent bedtime and waking time exercising regularly and using the bedroom only for sleep not for eating reading or watching TV. Older adults receive more prescription sedated for sleep complaints then do people under age 60. Used briefly these drugs can help relieve temporary insomnia. But long-term medication can make matters worse by inducing drug dependence daytime sleepiness and rebound insomnia after the drug is discontinued. Finally discomfort due to an in large prostate including frequent urination at night can be corrected with laser surgical procedures that relieve symptoms without complications.