final study guide cset i study guide

A. Demonstrate knowledge of the regular and predictable patterns of movements of stars, planets, and the moon and their effects on Earth's systems (e.g., seasons, eclipses, tides). Other study guide:

Objects in the solar system help in their predictable patter by inward pulling of gravionational attraction of massive sun. this causes planets, to orbit sun, and moon orbit planet. Earth is in rotation on its axis and revoluation around sun. earth in circular patter explains season and changes in stars paters. . earth rotates counteclockwise. · Phases of the Moon are due to the Moon's Orbit around the Earth · Polaris appears stationary in the North because o It lies near/above the spin point axis of Earth, thus at this point the Earth has a near stationary spin · · Earth's spin explains o the fact that the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. § Only around the spring and fall equinoxes.Fall equinox =sep 22; spring equinox=march 20 § Due to tilt of earth axis · In the summer, sun rises about the point due east (celestial equator), which explains the shorter nights in summer . more exposure to sun light during day. · In winter, the sun rises below the point due east(celestial equator), which explains the longer nights in the winter (shorter days). Less exposure to sun light during the day o Planets move from east to west.In the spring fall it takes about 12 hrs for a tar to travel east to west.planets move slowly across the sky and so are said to be part of many constellations · The earth's orbit around the Sun explains: that different constellations are visible in the in the winter and summer. Some of the regular and predictable patterns we see in the night sky are due to Earth's spin about its axis, and some are due to its orbit around the Sun. constellations move across the sky each night, east to west.diffrent constellations are visible at night (according to seasons) due to earth orbit on sun. costellation are fixed patters of stars. (-88 constellations, 12 never visible in CA because they are too far south) § the north star appears nearly stationary all night. § -Prominent winter constellations: Orion, Taurus, Cassiopeia § -Prominent summer constellations: Scorpius and Sagittarius § Zodiac 12 : Sagittarius, Capricornus, aquarius, pisces,aries,Taurus,gemini,cancer,leo,virgo,libra,scorpios · Polaris = star that appears nearly stationary because it lies very close to a point in the sky above the earth's spin axis . · the unaided eye can see about 3,000 stars (which are all a part of our own galaxy, the milky way). Band of light seen at night, the dark spots are due to clouds of gas and dust · Moon orbits earth in 29.5 days, seasons caused by 23.5 degree tilt of earth axis rotation and revolution of sun. area tilted toward the sun its warmer, away cooler. Season change on earth continue revolution. Phases of moon due to orbit on earth. Half of the moon is illuminated by the Sun, sometimes this is the half facing away from the Earth. Phase we see depends on whether we are seeing the illuminated half of some fraction of it. Moon cycle = 28 days/4wk - Full Moon rises at sunset; Occurs when all the illuminated half of the Moon is facing towards the Earth - New Moon:Occurs when all the illuminated half of the Moon is facing away from the Earth; Rises during the day o The phases are caused by changing illuminating light from the Sun o Moon cycles repeats in a predictable pattern, Moon rises occur 50 minutes later from previous cycle - Moon Phases o New Moon: Rises during the day along with the Sun, and is high in the sky at Noon o 1st Quarter Moon (Half Moon) § Occurs a week after New Moon · Rises at noon and is high in the sky at sunset. Growing , "WAXING " period o Full Moon § Occurs one week after the 1st Quarter Moon · Rises at sunset and is high in the sky at midnight o 3rd Quarter Moon (last quarter moon) § Occurs one week after the Full moon · Rises at midnight and is high in the sky at sunrise * waning period -solar eclipse: - Moon is in new phase when Solar Eclipse occurs. o Occurs when the Moon and the Sun are in the same plane in a new moon.(earth between moon and sun) - Lunar eclipse is when earth between moon and sun.there may be umbra or penumbra. § Umbra-area total eclipse vs. Penumbra: area of partial eclipse - Tides are regular rising and falling of earth surface water in response to graviotantion attraction of moon and sun. Moon gravity cause ocean to bulge out in the direction of the moon. Moon gravity pulling upwards on earth surface produces high tide, pulling water up. As the earth rotates on its axis, the areas directly in line with the moon will experience high tide. In a spring tide, sun and moon are in line, this happens when full and new moon. Sun graivity pulls earth water, while moon pulls on water too, so spring tide are higher than normal. Neat tide is when earth and sun are in line , but moon is perpendicular to earth. This when moon first quarter and last quarter moon. Sun gravity cancels out pull gravity of moon, so tides are small. Other study guide: Constellations and Stars: - constellations move across the sky each night, east to west - the north star appears nearly stationary all night. - in summer, the Sun rises north of a point due east -Prominent winter constellations: Orion, Taurus, Cassiopeia -Prominent summer constellations: Scorpius and Sagittarius - The earth's orbit around the Sun explains: that different constellations are visible in the in the winter and summer. Some of the regular and predictable patterns we see in the night sky are due to Earth's spin about its axis, and some are due to its orbit around the Sun. - Earth's spin explains the fact that the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. - The fact that Earth has a (more or less) stationary spin axis also means that Polaris appears stationary; the spin axis points to Polaris. - The phases of the moon are due to the moon's orbit around the Earth. -the unaided eye can see about 3,000 stars (which are all a part of our own galaxy, the milky way) -88 constellations, 12 never visible in CA because they are too far south - stars and planets rise in the east and set in the west due to: the earth's spin about its axis -Polaris = star that appears nearly stationary because it lies very close to a point in the sky above the earth's spin axis - In the summer, the Sun rises north of the point due east and in winter, south. - Shorter days in the winter are due to the tilt of Earth' axis -Fall equinox = when the Sun rises due east = Sept 22 -Spring equinox= March 20 Phases of the Moon: - Half of the moon is illuminated by the Sun, sometimes this is the half facing away from the Earth. Phase we see depends on whether we are seeing the illuminated half of some fraction of it. - Full moon rises at sunset - Quarter moon rises at noon - Last quarter moon rises at midnight - New moon = illuminated side of Moon facing away from Earth - The Moon is in its new phase when a solar eclipse occurs - Moon cycle = 28 days/ 4 weeks - Solar eclipses don't happen each time there is a new moon bc the sun and moon are not usually in the same plane when the moon is new What is a constellation? - Constellations are fixed patterns of stars - Constellations appear flat but are 3-D - Prominent Winter Constellations o Orion o Cassiopeia o Taurus - Prominent Summer Constellations o Scorpios o Sagittarius - Sun Constellations "Zodiac"; 12 total o Sagittarius o Capricornus o Aquarius o Pisces o Aries o Taurus o Gemini o Cancer o Leo o Virgo o Libra o Scorpios Phases of the Moon - Half of the Moon is always illuminated by the Sun o Sometimes it is possible to see other portions of Moon besides the crescent because of the light reflection form the Earth - Full Moon rises at sunset o Occurs when all the illuminated half of the Moon is facing towards the Earth - New Moon o Occurs when all the illuminated half of the Moon is facing away from the Earth o Rises during the day - Moon cycles occurs over a period of 28 days, or four weeks o The phases are caused by changing illuminating light from the Sun § The Moon does not shine on its own, nor does the Earth Shadow play a role o Moon cycles repeats in a predictable pattern, Moon rises occur 50 minutes later from previous cycle - Moon Phases o New Moon § Rises during the day along with the Sun, and is high in the sky at Noon o 1st Quarter Moon (Half Moon) § Occurs a week after New Moon · Rises at noon and is high in the sky at sunset § Growing , "Waxing" Period o Full Moon § Occurs one week after the 1st Quarter Moon · Rises at sunset and is high in the sky at midnight o 3rd Quarter Moon § Occurs one week after the Full moon · Rises at midnight and is high in the sky at sunrise § Waning Period - Solar Eclipse o Occurs when the Moon and the Sun are in the same plane in a new moon § Umbra · Area of total eclipse § Penumbra · Are of partial eclipse Online : If you are able to get away one evening from the city lights, you will be able to view more than 2,000 stars as well as the whitish band of light, the Milky Way. Observing the sky night after night will allow you to recognize some patters in the stars. These patterns have not changed noticeably in the past few thousand years. Patterns formed by stars that we see in the night sky are called constellations. Bright stars help us to identify constellations. 88 official constellations were chosen in 1928 and which ones you see in the sky depends on the latitude and the time of the year. Constellations are an illusion. The stars may appear to lie close to each other, but in actuality may be quite far apart. This illusion occurs because we lack depth perception when we look up into space. The ancient Greeks viewed the constellations as we do and believed that they were indeed lying on a great celestial sphere that surrounded the Earth. While we do understand in this modern age that starts do not lie in a celestial sphere, we can use this to help us understand and map the sky. We use four special points: 1) north celestial pole that points directly over Earth's North Pole2) south celestial pole that points directly over Earth's South Pole3) Celestial equator is the projection of Earth's equator into space, making a complete circle around the celestial sphere4) ecliptic is the path that the Sun follows as it circles around the celestial sphere, crosses the celestial equator at a 23 1/2 degree angleStanding outside, you will also notice that it feels like the universe is circling around us. The stars moving gradually across the sky from east to west. Going back to the celestial sphere, it appears that every object in the celestial sphere is making a daily circle around Earth. The stars near the north celestial pole remain above the horizon, never rising or setting but instead making daily counter-clockwise circles around the north celestial pole. These stars are circumpolar. Stars near the south celestial pole never rise above the horizon at all. The other stars have these daily circles that are partly above the horizon and partly below it. As Earth is rotating from west to east, this stars then appear to rise in the east and set in the west. The moon's phases are based on its position relative to the sun as it orbits the Earth. As you look at the moon as it orbits Earth, you see different combinations of light and dark regions on the moon. Each complete cycle starting with the new moon takes 29 ½ days. In addition to the moon's appearance changing as it orbits Earth, its rise and set times also change.For example, during its full moon phase, when it is opposite to the sun in the sky, it rises around sunset, reaches it high point at midnight, and sets around sunrise.New moon- The moon lies close to the sun in the sky and so it is hidden by the sun's bright light. It rises at 6 in the AM, highest at noon, and sets at 6 PM.Waning Crescent- We observe a sliver of the moon starting to "shrink". It rises at 3 AM, highest at 9 AM, and sets at 3 PMThird Quarter- Half of the moon is lit now. It rises at midnight, highest at 6 AM, and sets at noon.Waning Gibbous- The moon continues to "shrink". It rises at 9 PM, highest at 3 AM, and sets at 9 AM.Full Moon- The moon is opposite from the sun. Rises at 6 PM, highest at midnight, sets at 6 PM.Waxing Gibbous- moon is starting to "grow". It rises at 3 PM, highest at 9 PM, and sets at 3 AM.First Quarter- the moon rises at noon, highest at 6 pm and sets at midnight.Waxing Crescent- rises at 9 am, highest at 3 pm, and sets at 9 pm. The order of the moon's phases are as follows: New Moon > Waxing Crescent > First Quarter > Waxing Gibbous > Full Moon > Waning Gibbous > Third Quarter > Waning Crescent > Back to New MoonQuick Quiz!Based on the position of the Sun, Earth, and Moon in this illustration, which phase of the moon would you witness on this night? a) full moon b) half moon c) gibbous moon d) new moon Correct Answer: A As the moon orbits the Earth, it goes through several different phases. The full moon occurs when it is far from the Sun in the sky. It is a bright full moon (sometimes associated with the strange behaviors that our students exhibit!). As it continues to orbit the Earth, it is said to be waning (decreasing). Waning crescent would occur when the moon is orbiting closer to the Sun in the sky. When the moon is closest to the Sun, it is in the New moon phase. We cannot see the moon during this phase as it is hidden from view by the bright light of the Sun. As the moon continues to orbit, it is going through the waxing (increasing) phase. Waxing gibbous occurs right before the Full moon phase.Lunar Eclipse: this occurs when the Earth lies directly between the Sun and the Moon. The Earth's shadow falls on the Moon. Solar Eclipse: this occurs when the Moon lies directly between the Sun and the Earth. The Moon's shadow falls on Earth Due to the Earth's tilt and its curvature, the light that hits earth and the intensity varies at each latitude. During the northern hemisphere's summer months, the Earth is tilted towards the sun so it receives more light. Thus, the southern hemisphere receives less direct light during this time period and goes through winter season. Summer solstice is June 21/22 and this is the day that the northern hemisphere experiences the longest day of the year, while the southern hemisphere experiences the shortest day of the year. Winter solstice is December 21/22 and this is the day when northern hemisphere experiences the shortest day of the year, while southern hemisphere experiences the longest day.The sun's light is most intense around noon when it is at its highest point. TEACHER PREP: · Predictable pattern of stars and planets in time and location o 88 areas of the night sky called constellation, each made of different star partters o The earth rotates eastward , which makes the stars appear rotate westward o Notes: our own stars sun appears to rise east and sets west because earth rotates toward east. o Because the earth is tipple 23.5 degrees ( angle of incidence), the sun spends half of the year pointed at the northern hemisphere and the other half of the year directed at the southern hemisphere. This difference causes the seasons § Example it is summer is north America , it is winter in austrlia o The equator received the most direction sun because of its alignment with the sun year round o Notes : seasonal changes due to the 23.5 degree tilt. The summer soltace is the most light in the northern hemisphere. Less extreme seasonal variation on the equator. Reason for season is til given more or less solar exposure during a particular time in the year, and has nothing to do with earth rotating sun. · Changes in the moons appearance o The moon reflects light from the sun so its shape appears to change as it revolves around the eart § Wax new moon to full moon ( appears to grow) § Wane - appers to shrink, full moon to new moon § It takes \29.53 days for the moon to complete a cycle around the earth revolaion causes us to see different lunar phass. o Lunar phases o Sun casting light on the left side. So for new moon, its day time, can not see moon . as moon around, now waxing crescent so start see a little of illumiated portion, then becomes quarter moon so half othe moon is illmiated so we can see half . then continues to wax gibbous means more than half illuminated . finally full moon, opposite to the earth from sun, so we can see moon the whole thing is illumiated. It continues in this 29 day orbit, now gets to wanning until back to another new moon. So this causes lunar phases. They might ask you, if looking overhead can you see full moon directly over head? No you cant. The only time you can see if its its dust or dawn. Those type of questions they might ask.

4c a. Apply knowledge of the development and organization of the periodic table and predict the properties of elements on the basis of their positions in the periodic table.

Table ordered by atomic number ( number of protons) and by chemical properties ( number valence electrons) Period is the elements in any one horizontal row Group is elements in vertical column, same number electrons in outer shell. Atomic mass increases as elements go from L to R and from Top to Bottom Elements in the same group (column) show similar chemical reactivity because they have the same number of valence electrons Group 1 elements have 1 valence electron and react with water Group VII (group 17) elements have 7 valence electrons and form acids when combined with hydrogen, fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine (At) Period number top to bottom 1-8 is the same as the number of electron shells Group number =respectively number of electrons in outer shell For boding, depend number of valence electrons. If take Na have strong bond with water because have extra electron and water wants that electron, for group I reperiod 1. Hydrogen #1 is nonmetal, but below are alkaine metals, highly reactive,silvery in color,. But all rest below are alkaline metals. To the right are alkaline earth metals like mg,silver and less metallis; then transitional metals, then get to metelloids ( left metals, right are nonmetals), all the way right are noble gases ( 8 valence eletrons ) that is why gases don't reacting full shell of electrons. Atoms im the same period (row) have the same number of electron shells Metals : solid at room temperature (except mercury), malleable, ductile, good conductor of heat and electricity , shinycenter and left side of the periodic table, as move r ight become less metallic. Groups 1-12 plus Al, Ga, In, Ti, Sn, Pb, Bi are metals Nonmetals solid,liquid, orgas ,brittle, poor conductor of heta and electricity, on the right side or the periodic trable. Metalloids/semimetals are elements that show both sets of characteristic and they are right along both side of the "stair case". have a mixture of properties. B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At are al nonmetals. These elements separates metals and nonmetals, form steps down the periodic table. Noble gases (inert gases) are rightmost group group 18 or VIIIA and tend to be non-reactive . they have full shell of valence electrons and are already stable The diatomic elements like to be in groups of 2. They include hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluoring,chloring,bromie, and iodine (HOFBrINCl! ) The periodic table does so much more than just tell us the atomic number of an atom. In fact, we can use it to help us figure out how different substances will react if given certain circumstances. For example, elements in the same column often bond similarly. We see this most clearly to the far right with the noble gases, which don't bond well with others. However, knowing what electrons are free in a given atom can help us figure out how the rest of the elements will react to one another. An easy way to figure out how elements bond is through electron configuration, a system of stating how many electrons are present in each orbital of an atom. Remember that an orbital is the orbit that electrons can take around the nucleus. In this lesson, we're going to learn how to use electron configuration to describe the first thirty-six atoms on the periodic table so that you'll be comfortable using it later on to describe larger atoms. One really important thing to mention here is that these are just trends. As with many rules in chemistry, there are some exceptions. Don't worry about memorizing the exceptions, but do feel comfortable with explaining what the trend is and why. So to review, as you move from top to bottom in the same group, or column, on the periodic table, the atomic radius will increase, because new energy levels are needed to hold the electrons. These extra 'layers' provide a much larger atom. However, as you move from left to right in the same period, or row, on the periodic table, the atomic radius will generally decrease. Atoms will have the same number of energy levels, but the more positive protons in the nucleus will have a greater pull on the negative electrons, bringing them farther in. So, to review: as you move from top to bottom in the same group or column on the periodic table, the ionization energy will decrease, meaning that it will become easier and easier to remove an atom's outer electron. This is because these electrons are being removed from farther and farther away from the nucleus as the atoms increase in size. As you move from left to right in the same period or row on the periodic table, the ionization energy will increase. This is because electrons are all located in the same energy levels, so elements with more protons (those on the right-hand side) will have a greater pull on those outer electrons, making it more difficult to remove them from atoms. . So, as you move down a group on the periodic table, the electronegativity of an element decreases because the increased number of energy levels puts the outer electrons very far away from the pull of the nucleus. Electronegativity increases as you move from left to right across a period on the periodic table. This is because, even though there are the same number of energy levels, there are more positive protons in the nucleus, creating a stronger pull on the negative electrons in the outer shell. What it 'boils down to' is that elements diagonal (top left to bottom right) of each other are going to have similar features. Also, the metallic character (shininess and conductivity) of elements decreases from left to right across a period and increases from top to bottom down a group, and the boiling point does something strange: it increases and then decreases across the periodic table with very little predictable trend among the groups. One final but important disclaimer about all the periodic trends is that they are just generalizations. There are several exceptions. Hopefully after putting together everything you know about the periodic trends, that table of seemingly random squares should You decide! The main group elements have distinct and specific trends in number of valence electrons, which leads to an overall predictability when it comes to chemical bonding (something that will come in handy later on down the road). They will exist as either neutral elements or stable ions, and if they do lose or gain electrons to achieve full outer shells, it will be a gain or loss of the same number of electrons every time (depending on what is needed for full s and p shells). Transition metals, on the other hand, can lose varying numbers of electrons - if they even lose any at all! These elements with partially filled d orbitals can exhibit extremely bright colors (depending on which form they are in), and some can become temporary magnets if they're surrounded by a magnetic field.now look a little less intimidating and a little more inviting. Inner-Transition elements- found in the main portion of the periodic table. Placed below table in order to avoid unduly wide periodic table.Lanthanide Series- Ce through Lu, these have similar properties and are found in abundance in nature. Also referred as rare earth elements Actinide Series- All are radioactive and none of the elements after uranium is naturally occurring. All are radioactive and none of the elements after uranium is naturally ccurring As we move up a group of elements from bottom to top, the radii of the atom decreases because there are fewer energy levels of electrons surrounding the nucleus. Thus, the trend in atomic radius decreases up a group.As we move left to right within a period the radii of the atoms decrease. Because the number of protons increase as we move left to right, the nuclear charge of the elements increases which increases the pulling of electrons closer to the nucleus thus reducing the size of the atom.The unusual shape of the table is the result of the ordering of energy sublevels. The order of energy sublevels follow the systematic arrangement of the elements by groups. Left area is called S block of elements. Right area are called p blocks. Transition area makeup of the d blocks. Inner transition comprise of the f block.Number of sublevels corresponds to the number of main energy level. 1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4d<5p<6s......

a. Recognize the hierarchical levels of organization (e.g., cells, tissues, organs, systems, organisms) in plants and animals. What are the five levels of the Hierachael organization from cell to organims ? What are cells? What is tissue, what is an example? what are the four types of tissue? What is the function of connective tissue, what are the 5 types of connective tissue what is the function of each? For muscle, muslce that contract is called ? muscle that rest is called / What are the three kinds of muscle? describe each. what cotnractions allow for muscle movement ? Nerves are tissue that has what kind of cells? w here is nerve tissue found? Functions of nerve tissue? What is epithelia tissue made of , where is this found. ? where is this found on our bodies ? what are the 3 types of epithelial tissue in plants?

cella, tissue, organ, organ system, organism. Level 1: Cells These are the basic units of life. They carry out all of the vital chemical processes. For example, blood cells, nerve cells, bone cells, skin cells, etc. Level 2: tissue Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function form tissue. The cells work together to perform a specific activity. For example: nervous, bone, skin, etc. There are four basic mammal types of tissue: 1. Connective- these protect and connect cells or organs and have the basis of non-living material in which living cells are scattered. Tissues found at the joint are all types of connective tissue and can either be tough (collegenn fibers) or elastic (elastic fibers)There are various kinds of connective tissue: Periosteum- these surrounds all bones, expert at the joints. They contain osteoblasts (cells with make new bone cells needed for growth and repair). Ligaments- these are bands of connective tissue which holds together the bones of joints (and also many organs in place). Can be tough or elastic. Synovial sac- this is a "bag" of lubricating fluid found at most movable joints Tendons- these are bands of tough connective tissue joining muscles to bones. Cartilage- these are tough connective tissue found in joints 2. Muscle- these are voluntary or involuntary. The muscle that contracts is called agonist (prime movers) and the one that rests is called the antagonist. They contain specialize protein actin and myosin that slide past each other and allow movement. There are different kinds of muscle tissue: 1. skeletal- these muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton. They are voluntary muscles made up of striated muscle tissue 2. cardiac- these muscles make up the wall of the heart. This is an involuntary muscle. 3. visceral- muscles in the walls of internal organs. They are involuntary, smooth muscles. 3. Nerve- this is the most complex tissue in the body and consists of two types of cells (neuron and glial). These tissues are found in the brain , spinal cord, and nerves. Nerve tissues require more oxygen and nutrients than any other body tissue. The nerve tissue conducts electrical impulses and reacts to stimuli. 4. Epithelia- These are sheets of tightly packed together cells with forms a surface covering or a cavity lining throughout the body. They lies on top of connective tissue. For example, skin, inside of mouth, stomach.There are three plant types of tissue 1. epidermis- forms outer surface of plants 2.Vascular- these tissues are involved in the transport of water and nutrients. They include the xylem and phloem. 3. Ground- these produce nutrients through photosynthesis and stores nutrients.

What occurs in cellular respiration, is this aerobic or anaroeabic? What is the first step of aerobic respiration with glucose staring from entering ? What happnes next, on the second step? What happnes after acetyl Coa is made ? Where in the cell are we know for the next step? What are the products hwere, what is made ? What happens after the krebs cycle, what part of hte cell are we on? what is the process called? what occures here in teh fourth state ? for each glucose molecule, how many atps are produces ? what is the final electron acceptor in aerobicrespiration ?

cellular respiration is with oxygen, so aerobic. C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O. This takes place in cytoplasm. What is happening in the cytoplasm is the glycolysis process , the glucose is being broken down into 2 Pyruvates. In this process we generate a small amount of ATP. Electron carriers are also created. this is the first step of what happens. on the next step, 2 , the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex , what happens is that pyruvate is going to turn into Acetyl CoA (acetyl coenzyme A) . the next step, #3 , in the mitochondrial matrix, what happens is the citric acid cycle, or krebs cycle, acetyl-CoA gets turned into 2 carbon dioxides . so there is bonding with oxygen that takes place to create 2 carbon dioxides. What do we get out of this, this stage generation a lot of electron carriers. (For example, NADH or FADH2). These are electron carriers. In this stage, we also get a small amount of ATP. This stage next stage 4, the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain happens in the mitochondria for eukaryotes. Here the built up of electrons will drive the production of ATP. Oxygen will accept the leftover electrons and H to produce waterv. in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This is the electron transport chain, this is where all-electron carries are going to come in. Electron carriers dump the high energy into the chain of proteins As electrons flow.. down the chain , proteins carry (H+) positive hydrogen and are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane The protons flow through the ATP synthase and that creates a lot of ATP. Takes energy of electrons into ATP in order to store energy. That flow of protons goes through ATP synthase and creates lots of ATP oxygen is the final electron acceptor For each glucose molecule, about 36 ATPs will be produces 38 ATP produces for plants

the process of forming mature sex scells is called

gametogenesis

10 b. Recognize and differentiate the structure and function of molecules in living organisms, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. what are the four classes of macromolecules? Do lipids like water ? what are lipids made of ? what are the four types if lipids? What is the function of fat ? what are they made of ? are they saturated ? why? What are phospholidps,where are they found, what are they made of ? dod phospholipids like water ? discuss how steroid are a type of lipid, what is their function? what kind of lipid wax? , what is it used for or wha is the function? lipids are insoluble in _____ but soluble in _____. lipds function are what ?

basics important for a living are lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids !!!· Macromolecule- there are four classes of macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Macromolecules are polymers which are molecules built by linking together a large number of small, similar chemical subunits. For example, complex carbohydrates are polymers of simple ring-shaped sugars. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleotides. Macromolecules are grouped into four major categories: carbs, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. 1. LIPIDS · All lipids are hydrophobic ( opposite of hydrophilic) hate water · They are mostly composed of hydrogen and carbon ( hydrocarbons) · There are four primary types of lipds o Fats , phospholipids, steroids, and wax · Fats - fats store energy, provide insulation and cushion vital organis. They are composed of glycerol connected to 3 fatty acids. These fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated depending on the amount of hydrogen bonds · Phospholipids make up cell membranes. They are made of glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphate. Because of chemical composition, these molecuels are both hydrophobic and hydrophilic , which is important for establishing the boundaries of a cell · Notes : a fat no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms, no double bonds saturated with hydrogen bonds, and so saturated with hydrogen . cell membrane it selectively permeable, it allows things in and out , these membrane phobic and philic , so organells water soluble, it has sides, it makes it harder for them to pass throught, a phospholidpi bilyar is effective membrane. Molecues are water soluble. Hydrophobic goes together, hydrophilic point out, away from the inside. So it keeps water soluble molecues from being able to pass · -Sterols a subgroup of steroids are important organic molecules , the most familiar of which is cholesterol · Hormones are steroids that act as messenger sterols look like 4 ring structure Wax is a lipid that is typically used for structural protection · EAR WAX made of alchoholchain and fatty acid Lipids- made up of glycerol, fatty acids, phosphate, long carbon chains, etc. This is a group of esters including fats and waxes found in living tissue. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. The most familiar lipids are fats and oils. They have a very high proportion of nonpolar carbon-hydrogen bonds, as a result these long-chain lipids cannot fold up like a protein. When placed in water, many lipid molecules will cluster together and expose the polar groups to the surrounding water while hiding away the nonpolar parts of the molecules together within this cluster. This setup is very important to cells as it underlies the structor of cellular membranes. Lipids are a source of energy, chemical messengers, insulation and crucial elements of membranes.

17. Understand plate tectonics and large-scale system interactions. (SMR 4.3) a a. . Demonstrate knowledge of the evidence for plate tectonics (e.g., the ages of crustal rocks, distribution of fossils and rocks, continental shapes) and relate plate movements to continental and ocean-floor features. Which of the following is an example of a sedimentary rock?a) marbleb) granitec) limestoned) quartz current paleomagnetic date shows what ? whowas first scientist to promote continential drift ? which fossiles show or support continential drift ? for what time period ? Which mountain ranches support continential drift ? what is paleomagnetism ? apparent polar wander shows ? what is the driving forse for plante motions ? what causes sea floor spreading? whatcan we see from magnetic strips in the ocean, what does that tells us ? what causes midocean ridges ? The outward flowing limb of the convection cell moves in the same direction as the ______ ocean floor. the discovery of stripes of different paleomagnetic polarity was key in finding the mechanism in what ? magentic stripes are centered on the mid ocean ridges and expalnd in both directions as you move _____ from the ridge? Plate tectonics = continental drift + ________ ____________ is thicker ad more buoyan than the ocean crust . what are the layers of earth in order, what are they made of ? the lithosphere is comprised of ? asthenosphere is comprised of what ? what is isostasy ? why doesthe continental crust rise above the oceaniscrust ? ____________ forms when magmen cooles large crystals grow and harden, such as pumise ,basalt ____________ rock forms due to heat nad pressure, two types, foliated like shale and slate and nonfoliated likemarble ____________ form from sediment out of solution in body fo water and graduallycompancted or cemebted toegether 3 types of sedimentalry rock ? 1) ____________ : formed when broken pieces of other rocks are compacted + cemented, type of sedimentary rock 2)____________ : formed from remains of plants and animals, ex: coal, limestone, type of sedimentary rock 3) ____________ : from when dissolved minerals come out of solution,type of sediemntary rock

he Theory of Plate Tectonics first begins with the meteorologist and geophysicist, Alfred Wegener. Wegener proposed that all continents were once joined together at one point called Pangaea (Pan=all Gaea=Earth). Wegener hypothesized that Pangaea began to split apart during the Mesozoic Era (approximately 200 million years ago). He proposed a hypotheses called Continental Drift to explain this idea. There are four main evidence for his hypothesis that he came up with: 1) Puzzle Fit of the Continents: Some scientists argued that it is a very crude fit so they set out to see how the continents fit together. They discovered that you can get a much better approximation of the actual boundary of the continents if you look at their continental shelf as a boundary line. While some areas overlap, such as the west coast of middle Africa, the pieces of the continents fit better than some of the scientists expected.2) Fossil Evidence: Wegener learned that identical fossil organisms were found on both Africa and South America. One type of fossil organism, the reptilian mesosaur, was found in Eastern South America and Africa. Wegener thought, if the creature could travel across the vast Atlantic Ocean, then it should also be able to have traveled to various other regions. In other words, it's remains should be more widely distributed. Another fossil used as an example for the fossil evidence was the glossopteris. This plant fossil, with large seeds, was found in regions such as Africa, Australia, India, and Antarctica. Wegener learned that these seeds only grew in subpolar climate. 3) Rock Types and Structural Similarities: Wegener noticed that if you fit the continent puzzle pieces together, mountain rages and rock types continued from one continent to the next. For example, the Appalachian Mountain Range extends fluidly from Eastern America to Western Africa, Greenland, British Isle, and into Scandinavia. 4) Paleoclimatic Evidence: As a meteorologist, Wegener was fascinated to learn that ice sheets covered extensive areas of the Southern Hemisphere and India. Layers of glacially transported sediments were found in India, South Africa, South America, Australia, and India. Much of the glacial evidence lies within 30 degrees of the equator.Wegener received much criticisms for his hypothesis. One very large issue with his hypothesis was that Wegener was unable to provide the mechanism for his continental drift idea. How are the continents moving across the globe? About 20 years after Wegener's death, two new types of evidence appeared to help understand how the Earth worked. 1) Paleomagnetism- aka fossil magnetism. The Earth has a magnetic north and a magnetic south pole. You can think of the Earth as having a magnetic bar, with magnetic fields passing through the planet, extending from one magnetic pole to the other. Certain rocks contain iron-rich minerals, such as magnetite, that allows it to be used as a "fossil compass". These iron-rich rocks are abundant in lava flows of basaltic composition. When heated above a certain point known as the Curie point, the rocks lose their magnetism. When they cool, the minerals would become magnetic again and would freeze in the direction of the existing magnetic poles. As these rocks moved, they still retained their magnetic alignment and are said to possess paleomagnetism. Thus, rock magnetism provides us a record of its direction and distance from the magnetic poles during the time they became magnetized again. Vine-Mathews-Morey hypotheses connected the two hypotheses, seafloor spreading (described next) and geomagnetic reversals. Geophysicists were beginning to accept the idea that over periods of hundred of thousands of years, the Earth went through periods of magnetic reversal where the north magnetic pole became the south, and the south the north. Thus, as the crust moved, and the rocks recorded the magnetic history, it would do the same when the Earth went through its geomagnetic reversal period. Rocks that exhibit the same magnetism as present is said to possess normal polarity. Rocks that have the opposite are said to have reverse polarity. Vine and Matthews explained that as the magma solidified with the existing magnetic field, it would slowly increase in width as more crust formed as a result of the seafloor spreading. As this new crust formed, the two parts of the old crust would be carried in opposite directions. 2) Seafloor Spreading- there was a discovery made of the oceanic ridge system that wound its way through all the major oceans. Using the newly discovered facts, Harry Hess quickly came up with the hypothesis of seafloor spreading. He described that the oceanic ridges were located above areas of convective upwelling in the mantle. As this material rises and spreads, it carries the seafloor along, similar to a conveyor-belt. As the seafloor moved away from the ridge, new oceanic crust would move up through to replace it. Hess also described how the older portions of the seafloor would descend back into the mantle. Tuzo Wilson was a Canadian geologist who provided the missing puzzle to help formulate the theory of plate tectonics. He explained that there were large faults that ran through the Earth's out shell, that divided it into "rigid plates." He also described three different types of plate margins: 1) Oceanic Ridges: plates are moving apart2) Deep-ocean ridges: plates move together3) Transform faults: plates slide past each otherEventually, continental drift and seafloor spreading were combined into a theory known as Plate Tectonics. The rock cycle has no beginning and no end. The rock cycle describes the process by which rocks are formed, decomposed, eroded, transported, and altered. The mechanism behind the rock cycle is the energy from Earth's internal heat and from the Sun. The rock cycle is tied to the tectonic cycle. Rocks are grouped as either igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. Igneous RocksAs the magma from within the Earth begins cooling, crystals begin to form. Intrusive (forms within the earth, also referred to as plutonic) igneous rocks may consist of crystals that are either porphyritic (consists of at least two minerals with very differing crystalline sizes) or phaneritic (crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye). Igneous rocks also form extrusively (volcanic). These rocks form aphanitic crystals (crystals too small to be seen) due to the fast cooling of the magma. The crystals did not have enough time to develop. Intrusive igneous rocks may undergo upheaval due to tectonic activity and become exposed due to weathering and erosion. One amazing place to see very old, ~3 billion year old rocks is an area along the Beartooth Highway at the Montana/Wyoming border. Another great place is the Stillwater Complex in Montana (which is where I was able to find 2.7 billion year old igneous rocks!) Both regions underwent tectonic activities, that resulted in the plutonic igneous rocks to be uplifted. Examples of igneous rocks includes: pumice, granite, diorite, gabbro, rhyolite, andesite, basalt, obsidian, and quartz.Sedimentary RocksChemical and mechanical weathering break down the rocks. Mechanical weathering: rocks that are broken into smaller pieces through physical forces such as frost wedging, biological activity, expansion from unloading, and thermal expansion. Mechanical weathering does not alter the chemical makeup of the rock, however, it does aid in the chemical weathering by increasing the surface area. Chemical weathering: transforms the rock into one or more new compounds. The major processes for chemical weathering includes dissolution (dissolves in water), oxidation (reaction the rock comes into contact with oxygen), hydrolysis (reaction of any substance with water)Particles, called sediments, collect in areas such as oceans, lakes, and rivers and undergo lithification (process where sediments harden into rock). The sediments are either compacted or cemented as percolating water fill the pores with mineral water. This lithification produces sedimentary rocks. Examples of sedimentary rocks includes: shale, sandstone, limestone, chert, chalk, dolostone, coal, gypsum, Metamorphic Rocks Sedimentary and igneous rocks may become buried deep within the Earth or involved in mountain building and may undergo heat and pressure. This changing environment may cause the rocks to become a metamorphic rock. If metamorphic rocks are subjected to more heat and pressure, it may melt and become magma again.Examples of metamorphic rocks: marble, quartzite, slate, gneiss, hornfels, schist, phylliteOther paths in the rock cycle may occur, such as metamorphic rock undergoing weathering and erosion and breaking down into sediments. Sedimentary rocks may also undergo weathering/erosion and become sediments again. Quick Quiz! Which of the following is an example of a sedimentary rock?a) marbleb) granitec) limestoned) quartzCorrect Answer: C Sedimentary rocks forms when preexisting rocks undergo weathering, are transported, deposited, and undergo lithification. Limestone is a type of sedimentary rock that is composed of marine shell mineral calcite. In option A, marble is an example of a metamorphic rock. In options B and D, granite and quartz are both an example of an igneous rock. Other guide : Tectonic Processes - Current interpretation of paleomagnetic data shows: continents have moved and poles have remained stationary - Alfred Wegener = 1st scientist to promote continental drift (great evidence, but no mechanism) - Fossils of extinct late Paleozoic plant and animal species are found on widely separated continents - Mountain ranges and rock types provide evidence: Ex: Appalachian mountains that end at the sea off Newfoundland are the same age and rock type as the mountains in eastern Greenland, Ireland, UK, and Norway - Paleomagnetism= magnetic minerals in lava line up with Earth's magnetic field and are frozen in place as lava cools: records location of planet's magnetic north pole - Apparent polar wander =pole was stationary but only appeared to move Seafloor Spreading and Plate Tectonics - Driving force for plate motions: convection in the mantle: convection causes seafloor spreading - Magnetic stripes on the seafloor reflect ties when the magnetic poles are in their current position and times when north and south poles are reversed - At the upwelling limb of the convection cell, hot material creates mid-ocean ridges (see diagram below) - The outward flowing limb of the convection cell moves in the same direction as the spreading ocean floor - At the down welling limb of the convection cell a deep sea trench is created in the ocean crust - Mid-ocean ridge = longest topographic feature in the world - Discovery of stripes of different paleomagnetic polarity was the key to finding a mechanism for continental drift: about every 100,000 years, the poles switch polarity, if lava cools when field was opposite to now, the total magnetic field is low, creating reversed polarity - Magnetic stripes are centered on mid-ocean ridges and expand/get older in both directions as you move away from the ridge - Upwelling mantle material rises beneath the mid-ocean ridges. As a result, the ridges have high heat flow, which makes them buoyant and so they stand higher than the surrounding ocean floor. The heat also causes the upper mantle to melt, which produces the basalt lavas that erupt at the mid-ocean ridge. This creates new ocean crust. - Plate tectonics = continental drift + seafloor spreading - The upwelling limb of the convection cell erupts new lavas on the mid-ocean ridge axis; older seafloor rides the horizontally-moving portion of the convection cell perpendicular to the ridge axis; oldest seafloor rides the downwelling limb of the convection cell into the mantle Thermal processes - continental crust is thicker and more buoyant than oceanic crust - any object wholly or partly immerses in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object - Layers of earth: 1) gravity sucked the densest materials into the earth's metallic core: solid inner core 2) liquid outer core 3) mantle = very dense hot rock 4) crust= less dense rock Earth's layers by physical properties: 1) curst and uppermost mantle = lithosphere 2) mantle just below = asthenosphere à under stress, lithosphere will break and asthenosphere will flow - isostasy = concept that Earth's lithosphere floats on the denser asthenosphere - When 2 slabs of lithosphere meet, fate depends on their relative densities: the denser one sinks beneath the less dense one - Continental crust rises above oceanic crust because it is thicker and more buoyant, water then fills the basins created by the sunken ocean floor The Rock Cycle - Igneous rock: formed when magma or lava cools, large crystals grow and harden à cooling lava forms pumice, basalt - Metamorphic rock: any rock + heat and pressure à 2 types: 1) Foliated rocks, ex: slate, shale 2) Nonfoliated rocks (do not show banding), ex: marble - Sedimentary rock: form as particles of sediment settle out of solution in a body of water and are gradually compacted/cemented together à 3 types: 1) clastic: formed when broken pieces of other rocks are compacted + cemented 2) organic: formed from remains of plants and animals, ex: coal, limestone 3) chemical: from when dissolved minerals come out of solution

mechanica waves travel in _____ electormagnteic waves travel in a ____ or ____/ can fluids transmit trasvere waves ?

medium ( soilid , liquid or gas) medium or in a vacumm ( do not require but may go through solid liquid gas, or vacumm) fuids can not transmit transvesres waves !

a. Demonstrate knowledge of technologies that allow humans to influence the genetic traits of organisms.

n artificial selection, humans have the capacity to influence certain characteristics of organisms by selective breeding. One can choose desired parental traits determined by genes, which are then passed on to offspring. In summary, genetic engineering is the process by which scientists modify the genome of an organism. Recombinant DNA is a combination of DNA from different organisms or different locations in a given genome that would not normally be found in nature. GMO stands for genetically modified organism. A host is the organism that is modified in a genetic engineering experiment. The vector is the vehicle used to transfer genetic material into a host organism. A plasmid is a small circle of DNA typically found in bacteria that is separate from the majority of bacterial DNA located in the nucleoid. In our insulin example, scientists created recombinant DNA by adding the human insulin gene to a bacterial plasmid vector. By inserting this plasmid into a host bacterial cell, the resulting GMO bacterial cell was genetically engineered to produce human insulin. We'll explore the specifics of how this can be accomplished in subsequent lessons. Learn how gene therapy is used to treat disease, the history of the treatment and its trials, as well as the pros and cons associated with this controversial new technique. Proteins and Disease Gene therapy is a therapeutic technique that replaces damaged proteins by inserting the DNA for that protein into a cell. What is the significance of replacing damaged proteins, and how is this accomplished? Proteins are responsible for a multitude of cellular functions that are crucial to the survival of cells and the organs they populate. Proteins are produced through a process known as protein synthesis. During protein synthesis, a protein is built based upon the blueprint, or code, that outlines its structure. This code is found in the genes, also known as DNA. Many diseases are caused by improper protein production, when either too much or too little of a certain protein is produced or a defect in the production process occurs, it leads to a protein being formed incorrectly. How Does Gene Therapy Work? Gene therapy replaces proteins in the cell by artificially introducing the DNA code into the cell. It is different from other forms of medicine that might introduce a chemical or protein into cells but not DNA. If the precise code for making the protein that is needed to treat a disease is known, doctors can synthesize a strand of DNA in a test tube and then deliver it into the patient's cells. There are a number of DNA-delivery techniques possible. One common approach is to insert the artificial DNA into an un-harmful virus, which naturally inserts DNA into host cells, and inject the patient with the virus. The virus will deposit the artificial DNA into the patient's cells, and the existing cellular machinery engages in protein synthesis by reading the artificial DNA code and producing the desired protein. Gene Therapy Cons The concept of gene therapy is creative, unique and promising. But it is technically challenging and has a number of hurdles to clear: Gene therapy is not possible when the genetic code for a protein has not been discovered. The DNA introduced by gene therapy will be degraded naturally inside the cell; therefore, the treatment will be transient. The patient's immune system will recognize the DNA introduced by gene therapy as a foreign pathogen and attack it, a reaction that may either damage the DNA and prevent it from succeeding therapeutically or harm the patient. Gene therapy remains prohibitively expensive. For instance, there is a gene therapy drug on the market that costs around $1,600,000 per patient- the most expensive drug in the world! Gene Therapy Pros Despite these hurdles, the promise of gene therapy is worth the investment: Gene therapy makes production of a dysfunctional protein inside a cell possible. Gene therapy can theoretically be tailored to replace any protein imaginable, making it useful for a huge number of diseases. History of Gene Therapy The concept of gene therapy was first introduced in 1972, and the first trial in a human patient occurred nearly two decades later in 1990. Early gene therapy courses encountered a number of problems. Most notably, in 1999 a teenager with a liver disease received gene therapy as part of a trial at the University of Pennsylvania. His immune system had a severe reaction to the genetic material that was injected to produce corrected liver proteins, and he died shortly thereafter. Despite this setback and the public skepticism it fostered, gene therapy has had an increasing number of successes in recent years. A wide range of afflictions have been alleviated by gene therapy including retinal disorders, immune function disorders, various cancers, neurological conditions and the blood clotting deficiency haemophilia. To date, over 2,000 gene therapy treatment courses have been conducted and the biotechnology sector continues to increase investments in the technology. Example of Gene Therapy Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a model disease for gene therapy treatment. It is a genetic disorder caused by a problem with the DNA code for the protein CFTR that regulates mucous. Individuals suffering from CF have a mutation in their code for CFTR that causes them to produce a dysfunctional version of the protein. This leads them to experience a debilitating buildup of mucous in the lungs and have immense difficulty breathing. To treat CF using gene therapy, doctors synthesize DNA coding for the correct version of CFTR in a test tube. The DNA code is then packaged into a virus so that it can be delivered to the patient. Once the artificial DNA code arrives in the patient's lung cells, the existing transcription factors and ribosomes use it to produce functional CFTR. The new CFTR steps in and metabolize the patient's mucous, alleviating the symptoms. Lesson Summary Gene therapy is a strategy for treating diseases and disorders that arise from gene mutations that lead to a problem with the function of a protein. DNA containing the proper code for the protein of interest is synthesized in a test tube and delivered to patients, often by the use of a virus. There, the cell reads the proper DNA code and generates functional protein from it. Though there are a number of technical difficulties that have caused setbacks for gene therapy over the past several decades, the treatment therapy holds increasing promise for the future. DNA's Many Applications DNA technology is an exciting field these days. This is the study and manipulation of genetic material, and scientists are using DNA technology for a wide variety of purposes and products. A major component of DNA technology is cloning, which is the process of making multiple, identical copies of a gene. Cloning may bring to mind interesting sci-fi movies, but cloning also gives us pest-resistant plants, vaccines, heart attack treatments and even entirely new organisms. DNA technology has also had a major impact on the pharmaceutical industry, agriculture, disease therapy and even crime scene investigations. Let's take a closer look at the effects DNA technology has had on our world and the applications of such an important field of study. Pharmaceuticals and Medicine DNA technology and gene cloning are essential to the pharmaceutical industry and medicine. DNA technology is being used to help diagnose genetic diseases, such as sickle-cell disease and Huntington's disease. Since these diseases are transferred genetically from one generation to the next, those who have such diseases can be identified (sometimes even before birth) and be treated before symptoms appear. DNA technology is also critical to developing vaccines. Vaccines are harmless versions of a pathogen, such as a bacterium or virus. Vaccines can be used to 'trick' your body into fighting the harmless version so that if you are exposed to a harmful version of the pathogen, you have already built up defenses. There are many ways that DNA technology is used to make vaccines, such as altering the pathogen's genes and mimicking surface proteins of harmful pathogens. Therapeutic hormones, such as insulin and human growth hormone, are also the result of DNA technology in medicine. Millions of people with diabetes depend on insulin treatments, and human growth hormone is used to help children who suffer from dwarfism, because they produce inadequate amounts of the hormone in their body. Agriculture You have likely heard of genetically modified organisms, or GMOs. These are organisms that have genes from artificial means. GMOs are used for a variety of agricultural purposes, such as growing larger plants with higher yields, creating pest-resistant crops and improving the nutritional value of crops. For example, in India, a salt-resistant gene has been inserted into rice so that it can grow in water that is three times as salty as seawater! Another new variety of rice now exists that has very high beta-carotene levels to help reduce vitamin A deficiencies in certain parts of the world. DNA technology doesn't just make bigger, better food, though. It's also being used to create food products that have medicinal benefits. For example, a new rice strain has been engineered that has milk proteins that can be used to treat infant diarrhea. There are other medicinal food products being designed, like corn that can treat cystic fibrosis and duckweed to treat hepatitis. But plants don't get to have all the fun! Farm animals are also products of DNA technology. Just like plants, animals are also being engineered to grow faster and larger and to be more resistant to disease. We are also making sheep that have better wool, fish that have more healthy fats and cows with leaner meat. Forensics Forensics is the field of scientific analysis of evidence. Forensics is used in crime scene investigations, paternity cases and a variety of other legal applications. You can imagine how important DNA technology is to this field! In police work, DNA technology allows investigators to match DNA samples from suspects and crime scenes. This can easily be done by comparing small samples from each source and determining if a match exists. DNA technology doesn't just prove guilt though; it can also be used to prove innocence. Many prisoners have been exonerated because recent advances in DNA technology were able to prove that they were in fact not guilty of the crime for which they were convicted. This same type of technology is used to determine if certain individuals are related, such as with paternity cases and family tree analysis. People who are related will have DNA that is similar, so matches can easily be identified. Lesson Summary You can see that DNA technology, the study and manipulation of genetic material, has many applications in our everyday lives. Modern medicine and pharmaceuticals use DNA technology to improve our health and identify, prevent and treat diseases. DNA technology has practical applications in the agricultural industry, both with plant and animal products. Many farmers produce crops that grow faster, bigger and are more nutritious. The field of forensics relies heavily on DNA technology. Investigators are now better able to identify individuals involved in crimes, as well as exonerate those who have been wrongly convicted. DNA technology is not limited to these applications though. Science and technology are constantly improving, making it a very exciting field in our modern society. Learning Outcome You will be able to describe many uses of DNA technology after watching this video lesson.

Nervous system is made of what organs? Function of nervous system ? What is the function of somatic vs autonomic nervous system? Autonomic nervous system includes what kinds of system ? All parts of nerve system are made of what kind of cells ? So the nervouse system is made of two parts, what system are these ? The Central NS made of what, peripheral NS made of what ? Describe how the Central, peripheral, sensory, motor, somatic, and autonomic , parasymphathe , and sympatheic nervous system work ??? how do nerve cells transmit communicaton ? What are the functions and parts of hte brain ?

o Nervous system § Composed of brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It controls and regulates various parts of the body and collects and interprets sensory input. § The somatic nervous system control voluntary movements. The autonomic nervous system control involuntary functions and includes the sympathetic ( fight or flight) and parasympathetic (calming) systems § All parts of the nervous system are comprised of nerve cells § Nervous system overall is comprised of two parts, the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system . Central NS made of brain and spinal cord. Peripheral made of other nerves , broken down into sensory and motor. Sensory bring information from the body to the brain, hand takes information of hand burning to brain. Motor nerves is signal to move hand. Motor nerves divided into somatic and autonomic. The somatic nerves like muscle, sensory organism voluntary control. Things that are not in control like heart, respiratory, are by the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic is broken down into parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system. Parasympathetic like calming, rest, digestion, sex. The sympathetic flight or fight response. When the sympathetic system is on, the parasympathetic is shut down. nerve cells have axon terminals and at the other end they have dendrite. Dendrites receptor get electrical signal and send to axon to the axon terminal, the axon terminal give signal to synaptic gap to another dendrite, and keeps repeating. so the electical potention across axon, axon terminal release neurotransmitter, which then receptors from dendrites let them in. so you go from dentritie, to axon, axon terminal, sygnatpic gap, dentrite receptor, inside detnrdite,,.. and so on. · The frontal lobe is the focal point of conscious through , personality, reasoning and judgment, voluntary movement and speech production. · The parietal lobe interprets sensory information · The occipital lobe is where vision is processed · The temporal lobe processes smell and sound and is key to memory and speech interpretation · The cerebellum helps with coordinating movement and motor skills · Notes : people who suffer stroke, can suffer speech issues and temporal area is in charge of speech. The cerebral cortes outer park of brain has 4 main lobes. Then we have the cerebellum, little fibers perking fibers fire allow timing of when you swing bat. There is brain stem bellow cerebellum goes to spinal cord, heart rate, respiratrion , digetin by brain stem. There is also the intercortical structure, inside the cerebral cortex., things like the hypocampus ( memory), medulla (fight or flight), there is a lot of diffren types of portion of brain that serve a lot of diffren functions.

What kind of nitrogen to do plants and algae consume ? What kind of nitrogen do animal consumer? How does nitrogen enter the nutrogen cycle? most of the nitrogen is found where, what other places is nitrogen found ? why is nitrogen importnat for proteins ? why do plants rely on bacteria for nitrogen? Whhy are plants high in protein , why due to nitrogen? What happnes to nitrogen when animal dies? Most of the nitrogen is found where, what % ? why is nitrogen removed from the atmosphere ? can you diagram nitrogen cycle ?

o Nitrogen cycle § Plants and algae use inorganic ammonium and nitrate. Animals consume organic compound like amino acids and proteins. § Nitrogen mainly enters the system by bacteria synthesizing nitrogenous organic compounds, his is know as nitrogen fixation. § Most of the nitrogen is in the atmosphere, but it is also in the oceans, soil , and biomass. § Notes : nitrogen is important because it is part of what creates amino acids which form protein. Bacteria synthesize nitrogenous in the root area takes nitrogen as gases and fixes It as fixed nitrogen so It can be absorbed through plant roots, that is why bacteria important. The plants tend to have lots of the available so that is why beans are high protein, nitrogen gets fixed into amino acids to protein. Plants gets eaten by herbivores, and so on. When animal die, nitrogen returned to soil. Nitrogen moves through system. Most nitrogen is in the atmosphere that is important 77% nitrogen in the atmosphere. nitrogen out of atmosphere by bacteria .

For the phosphorus cycel, produces take up what ? How is phosphate retured to the soild ? Where is organic phosphorus found ? where is inorganic phosphoru found ? Most of the phosphorus is found in what layers ? is there phosphorus in the atmosphere ? phosphorus is found on earth as a _______. It is absorbed by ? What is lithosphere? What is hydrosphere vs biosphere > Where is this phosphoraus rich bed found ?

o Phosphorus cycle § Producers take up inorganic phosphates and turn ti to organic phosphorus, Plants are then eaten by consumers in the form of organic compounds . phosphate is retured to the soil either by decomposition or excretion.During decompositioon, phosphorus is turned to inorganic phosphorus again. § Most phosphorus is found in the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. There is very little phosphorus in the atmosphere § Note: phosphorus is solid generally on earth, unlike carbon dioxide and nitrogen. It is absorbed by plants. Lithosphere is the rock or soils that form earth. Hydrosphere are all water inerth surface ( lakes river) Biosphere are all the living things . § Organism ingest it, organism die, so bottom of ocean is full of phosphorus rich sea bed on location phoshpore rich in the environment ·

In photosynthesis, plant use light energy and convert it to ? IN plants, where does phtosynthesis occure? why doe sthe plant look green ? Does cyanobacterial have a chrlorplast? can they do photosynthesis? In photosynthesis whatare the reactants, what is the product, how does the plant get the reactant? Light reactions vs dark reactions (light independent reaction) what occurs in each for light reaction, what happens, starting grom light, and water, what is the product? what is produced in the light reaction? in what organells does light independnet occure? for the light independent reaction,what are we starting off with? what is going to be created? when is the electron released? what happens after? when does light reaction happen? when can light-independent reactions occur? what is made? In what part of the cell does light independent reactions occur? Equation for light dependent vs light independent ? NADPH is an ____ ______ inlight dependent reactions.

o Phytosynthesis § Process that plants use to convert light energy into stored sugar and other organic molecules § In plants this process happens in chloroplast. The chlorophyll in the chloroplast absorbs light energy and causes the plant to look green *Chlorophyll absorbes all colors except green, so green is reflected. Chloroplast does not exist on all phosyntheic , for example, cyano bacteria is photosynthetic but does not have a chloroplast the chlorophyll is just in the cyanobacterial cytoplasma sitting there that is the scenario for test, in plants the chlroophyll is in the chloroplast. The plants bring in carbon dioxide and water from roots, light energy from chlorophyll and use light energy todrive reaction to make glucose, and the byproduct is 12 oxygens and that is release as waster product. There are two phases for the test, the light reacions and the dark reactions or light independe reactions. Look at illustration, light hits plant, takes in water, the photons of light strike the chlorophyll and causes that to release an electron, that electron tarnsportes down a electron transport chain which creates energy that allows it to create ATP, it also also create NADPH and those two help for calvin cycle the second step. Light energy si stored in ATP. we have not made glucose yet. Light-dependent in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast. § The calvin cycle/ light-independent reaction that ATP is taken and that drives the creation of glucose and then NADP+ Is given off as well as ADP AND Pi (phosphate).The phosphate group got broken off the ATP TO turn it into ADP ( only 2 phosphates) , breaking off the phosphate allows energy for synthesis of the glucose during the calving cycle, so in calvin cycle the sugar is acuatlly produces. § The light reactions must happen during the day, the energy is sued to build up a concentration of electrons § During the "dark reactions " ( calvin cycle), the electron build up is used as energy through the electron trainsport chain ( very similar to the one in respiration). This energy drives the calvin cycle, which bonds carbon molecules together to form glucose. No light is required for the second half of the reactions Light idependine can happen day or night, no light needed., light-independent or dark or calving cycle in the stroma ( inner space of chloroplast) The plant is taking in water, 2 water molecules into the plant . also 2 NADP+ ( coenzyme ) . we also have 3 ADP and 3 phosphate groups ( Pi) and we have light energy powering this whole thing . The reaction that takes place creates 2 NADPH plus 2H+ plus 3 ATPs. The waste product of this is O2. Hence plants give out oxygen. 2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP So what happens it on the dark reaction ? the plant takes 3CO2 and 9 ATP and 6 NADPH and 6 H. What happens, is that creates C3H6O3 molecule with a phosphate attached to it , we call this glyceraldahidephosphate.so it stores energy as glucose. In order to break oxygen we needed the NADPH, so this redox reaction remove oxygen. So also created 9ADP and we also have 8 Pi plus 6NADP+ and 3 H2O. so this is what happens in the calvin cycle or dark reaction or dark independent reaction. Top equation light reaction, bottom equation is dark reaction. So if understand the diagram, you should be in good shape. 3 CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5 H2O + 9 ATP → glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + 2 H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi NADPH IS ELECTRON CARRIER in the light dependnet reaction

How is RNA different from DNA? RNA is found where in the cell? is RNA single or double stranded, what is the backbone of RNA, what are the bases of RNA, ? What are the three tyes of RNA ? What is the function of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA? How do you go from DNA to the building blocks of life ?

o RNA § Ribonucleic acid (RNA ) is a nucleir acid made of nucleotides. It is found in the ribosomes and cytoplasm of cells. · It is single stranded and contains ribos ( sugar) and phosphate groups as the backbone. The four bases are adenine, uracil, cytosin, and guanine. · There are three types of of RNA o Mrna= messenger RNA=used at templatem, takes info from nuclues to ribosome o tRNA = transfer RNA, matches aa to mRNA to help make protein o rRNA = ribosomal RNA, ribosomal subunit § NOTES l single stranded. Ribose instead of deoxyribose. Four bases are A, U,C, G. so lunline, no thymine it has uracil. That is diffenrt between RNA and DNA. These bases are divided in group of 3 called codons, clusters of coded information. Ther are three types of RNA. It is used for coding,decoding, and regulation of expression of genes. So it interacts in eurkaytos with dna. There mRNA send messege for synthesi of protein. tRNA takes amino acids and transfers them to ribosonmes ( location of nuclei acid). Ribosoma RNA takes amino acid and links them together to form protein. So together, these take instructions and info from DNA and act on that to build proteins to let things happen, build new cells, cause movement, so that is how it uses DNA. o DNA is used to code RNA which further codes for amino acids. The amino acids fold and interact to form proteins which are considered the building blocks of life ( proteins do a lot of function, build ne wcells, store information, . this illustrate a DNA double helix base pairs. The AT , CG match up. Remember that how base pairs line up. Built around double helix.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of the conversion, flow, and storage of energy in the cell. explain how cellular respriation and photosynthesis are interralated in terms of energy flow in our system with palnts and animals?

one example of energy conversion, flow and storage occurs during cellular respiration. Chemical bonds of the energy rich molecules, such as glucose, is converted into energy. Cells store energy, primarily within the chemical bonds found in fats, carbs ,and proteins. Fats store large amounts of energy which can be liberated by the breakdown of fat molecules stored within cells. Aerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is present and acts as one of the driving elements driving the process of cell respiration forward. Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy. Requires electron acceptors to replace oxygen. Plants convert light energy into chemcial energy, release oxygen, the chlroorplast makes gucose as a form of sugar during photosynthesis. THe sugar available asglucose is available for the plant for cellular respriation or can be consumed as other anmials asa sugar. the animas use sgar to produce energy in teh mitochoridal, making atp as the energy source for life. anmials release or throught cellular respiration convert glucose toand release carbon dioxide and water. carbon dioxide is absobre by platns. Cellular respiration is the process by which the chemical energy of "food" molecules is released and partially captured in the form of ATP. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can all be used as fuels in cellular respiration, but glucose is most commonly used as an example to examine the reactions and pathways involved. In glycolysis, the 6-carbon sugar, glucose, is broken down into two molecules of a 3-carbon molecule called pyruvate. This change is accompanied by a net gain of 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules. The Krebs (or Citric Acid) cycle occurs in the mitochondria matrix and generates a pool of chemical energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH 2 ) from the oxidation of pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis. Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses carbon dioxide to form acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon molecule. When acetyl-CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle, chemical energy is released and captured in the form of NADH, FADH 2 , and ATP. The electron transport chain allows the release of the large amount of chemical energy stored in reduced NAD + (NADH) and reduced FAD (FADH 2 ). The energy released is captured in the form of ATP (3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH 2 ). The electron transport chain (ETC) consists of a series of molecules, mostly proteins, embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The glucose required for cellular respiration is produced by plants. Plants go through a process known as photosynthesis. Photosynthesis can be thought of as the opposite process of cellular respiration. Through two processes known as the light reactions and the dark reactions, plants have the ability to absorb and utilize the energy in sunlight. This energy is then converted along with water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into glucose and oxygen. Since this is the opposite process of cellular respiration, plants and animals are said to have a symbiotic relationship. This means that plants and animals live together and benefit from each other. When humans and animals breath, they take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide is taken up by plants and oxygen is given off through photosynthesis. There is an equilibrium of oxygen and carbon dioxide created between animals and plants. Without one, the other would not survive for long.

from the past to present staring form late proterozoic to today, what are the main periods, eras, events, ?

quaternary -the evolution of human Neogene Paleogene-mammals diversity cretaceous- the extinction of dinosaurs 65 MYA, first primate, first flowering plants, 85% species died, asteroid. Jurassic- first birds, dinosaurs diversity.150 Triassic- first mammals, volcanic activity killed marine life, first dinosaurs.200 Permian- major extinction, reptiles diversity, 96 % organism died, permian extinction, largest extinction due to volcanic activity, and global warming.250 mya. carboniferous- ( pennsylvaniaa and Mississippi , ; glacial, global warning. first repitile, scale trees, seed ferns. 300 Devonian- first amphibians, jawed fishes diversity.350 Silurian=first vascular plants, global and glacial times.475 Ordovician- sudden diversification of metazoan families. glanciaL and warning times.450 cambrian= first fishes, first chordates, lots of diversity explosion!!!! 530 mya. Precambrian- first multiCELLULAR first on cell, origin earth, late proterozoic period, 650 mya. can old senators demand more political power than junior congressman tough questions!

From a diagram, what are the stesp in DNA replication. 1. Helicase 2, single strand binding proteins 3. The leading strand is synthesises continuouslyin the what direction, by what enzyme ? 4. On the lagging strand, wha happens , what ? 5.DNA pol III is donw wih what, what does it do? 6. . DNA pol I ? 7. DNA ligase ?

see diagram helicase unwinds the parental double helix molecules of single sttarnd binding prootines stabilize the unwound template starnds the leading strand is synthesized continiously in teh 5'-3' direction by DNA Polymerase III Primase begins synthesis of RNA primer for the fifth okazaki fragment on the lagging strand, DNA polymeriase is completing synthesis of the fourth fragmetn, when it reaches the RNA pirimer on teh third fragmetn, it will dissociate, move to the replication form, and add DNA nucleotides to the 3 end of the fifth fragment primer DNA pol I removes the primer from teh 5 end of the second fragment, repladcing iwth wiht DNA nucleotides that it adds one by one to the 3 end, of the third fragment. teh repelcaemtn of hte last RNAnucltodie with DNA leaves the sugar phosphate backbone with a free 3 end DNA ligase bonds the 3 end of the second fragment to the 5 end of the first fragemtn

DRAW SYMBOLS FOR ERSIOSTOR, CAPACITOR, battery, switch,?

see notes

draw concave lense., is it larger or smaller ? real or virtual? upright or inverted ?

upright , virtual , smaller

how does refracting telescope work?

uses two convex lens ove a longer distnce.

7.what occurs during refraction?

wave/ray of light coming in a medium hwere hte speed is faster, it bends away from the normal line

What is ATP made of ? What happens to ATP during hydrolysis what happen when you go from ADP to ATP, what happens to energy? What is energy coupling ? what happens in an exergoic reaction vs endergonic reaction ? is hydrolysis exergonic or endergonic? is going from ATP to ADP exergonic or endoergonic? is photosynthesis and cellular respiration endergonic or exergonic? equation for ATP being hydrolyzed ? the ? equation for ADP forming ATP ? DRAW DIAGRAM TO show connection , and describe how energy form is used to performcellular work by the use of exergno and endoergni r eaction, how do the cell get energy to move ions aross the cell membrean, ? diagram also the relationship of photysynte andcellulr resipriation in terms of aAPT synthesis nad hydrolysis ?

§ ADENOsine triphosphate ATP contains a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine and a chain of 3 phsophate groups § As a phosphate groups are broken off by hydrolysis, energy is released § When a phosphate group is added throguht phosphorylation (ADP _> ATP ) the reaction stores energy § Energy coupling is the process of using an exergonic reaction to drive an endergonic reaction. Energy coupling is when energy produces by one reaction or system is used to drive another reaction or system · Exergonic reactions release energy-hydrolysis · Endergonic reactions absorb energy-ADP to ATP adding phosphate · Photosynthesis is an endergonic (energy-consuming) process. Cellular respiration is an exergonic (energy-releasing) process. ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP in the reaction ATP+H2O→ADP+Pi+ free energy; the calculated ∆G for the hydrolysis of 1 mole of ATP is -57 kJ/mol. ADP is combined with a phosphate to form ATP in the reaction ADP+Pi+free energy→ATP+H2O The energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP is used to perform cellular work, usually by coupling the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with endergonic reactions. Sodium-potassium pumps use the energy derived from exergonic ATP hydrolysis to pump sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane while phosphorylation drives the endergonic reaction. § Energy coupling is when the energy produces by one reaction or system is used to drive another reaction or system.

How factors affect population types and size, what are the two main groups ? what are density dependent factors, what are density independent factors ? what are problems are situations arise with populations with high population?

· o Factors affecting population size fit into two main groups § Density independent factors · Weather conditions ( notes : polar bears survive cold ) § Density dependent factors · Availability of food ( depend on number of organism living there. The polar bear might have issues of other polar bears or other polar bears, so not a lot of food if too much competition. So independe weather keeps competition away. Independin would be bear fighting another bear for food. So both factors affect polar bear. o Additional factors associated with high population density § High population densities can · Spread disease and infections more quickly · Make It easier for predators to find prey · Cause metabolic byproducts and waste to build up ( some areas become soild due to too much feces from animals ) · Cause change in abiotic factors such as soil conditions( cattle can overgraze and plants are gone and erosion becomes higher so changes the landscape) · Cause stress and increased aggression, that can limit reproduction (animal that live in overly dense population can slow their reproductive rate , so all of these can cause population to die off for equilibrium. If the quilibrum does not happen , it can cause a large change to that ecosystem. Understand these conscepts how population size effect ecosystem)

A. Demonstrate knowledge of how astronomical instruments are used for collect data and how astronomical units are used to describe distances What are the two types of telescopes, what is the diffrent of refractors vs reflectors ? which are beter ? what is a light year ? how much is that in km and au? What is an Astronimcal unit ? wavelenghts are measured in ? how muhc is that in meters ? explain how telescopes help scientic witht information about hte universize ? for telescopes, which ones have higher resolution? How is resolution measured ? for visual or optical telescopes, what are two main features ? what does the light-collecting area of a telescope tell us ? WHAT DOES ANGULAR RESOLUTION TELLS US ? rEFRACTING VS RELFECTING TELESCOPES, our eyes are more similarto which type ? how do radio telescopes work? how do infrared telescopes work? what is needed to observed ojects with infrared ? how do xray telescope work , what do they meausre ? what do gamma ray telescopes meauser ? what is a is AU ? light year is a measure of what ? 1 parsec is how many light years ? What is the distance from the earth to the sun in KM ? How much is taht in miles ? How long for jupiter and pluto to orbin? how far is the nearest star , alpha centauri? what is a light years in km? the loses dozen stars are how far waya? milky way galaxy is how many ly acorss ? how far is the andromeda galay ? for optical telescopes, how does a larger aperture help? the angle in the sky is divided into what ? how can xrays be reflected by a miror ?

· Astronomical instruments and astronomical units o Astronomical instruments § The two types of telescopes focus light · Refractors which came first use a lens to bend the image and focuse it but it cannot bring all the colors into focus · Reflectors use a mirror to focus the light and do not have the same problems with color · Notes : know diffrentce. Problem with refractors is that different wave lengths of light get band differently , red more bent than blue, so they go out of focus and cant get a good image for evry wavelength of light. Reflectors focuse them the same way. § Astronomical units · A light year is a unit of distance equal to the distance light would traive in a year which is 10 ^13 km ( about 6000 au) · An astronomical unit au is roughly the distance from the earth to the sun 150,000,000 km · Wavelengths are measured in nanometers nm which are 10^9 m. · Telescopes- Telescopes allow scientists to analyze the light the telescopes collect. Using this data, scientists can help reveal the chemical composition, temperature, or even the speed of an object light years away.Telescopes collected light, the bigger the aperture, the more photons can be collected. The high the aperture, the higher the resolution.Resolution is measured in Arcseconds, degrees, minutes, seconds ( hubble). i. Visual or optical: There are two main features of a telescope: light-collecting and its angular resolution. The light-collecting area tells us how much light a telescope is able to collect at a time. Angular resolution tells us the smallest angle that two stars are distinct. In other words, our own eyes has an angular resolution of about 1 acriminute. So, if two stars in the sky are separated by less than 1 acriminute, then our eyes do not see them as being two individual stars and we will see them as one single star. Some telescopes have an angular resolution of about .05 arcsecond. Larger telescopes have even smaller angular resolution. Telescopes come in two designs: refracting and reflecting. Refracting works much like our eye. It uses transparent glass lenses to focus on light from distant objects. Reflecting telescopes uses mirrors to collect and gather light. ii. Radio Telescopes- studies wavelengths that are much longer than visible light waves. Very large radio telescopes are needed in order to achieve good angular resolution. The structure of these telescopes are vary in design, size, and configuration, but are typically very large, parabolic shaped antennae. They are built far from cities to avoid detection of artificial radio signals. iii. Infrared: studies objects that emit an infrared wavelengths (temperature of objects must be above absolute zero) iv. X-Ray telescopes- x-ray telescopes measure X rays in space. v. Gamma ray Telescopes: Used to detect the very short, high energy wavelengths of gamma rays. Sources of cosmic gamma-rays are extremely weak and require long observations in order to obtain accurate measurement of the source. · 1 AU=DISTNACE earth and sun · Light year- measure how much light travels in one year (tens of thousands of astronomical units ), diatance traveled by photon ( light) , measure of distance not time! · 1 parsec=3.26 ly Study guide : Astronomical Distance Measurement - Astronomical Unit (AU): average distance between the Earth and the Sun (1.5 x 10^8 km), about 93 million miles o Jupiter orbits at about 5 AU o Pluto orbits at about 30-50 AU - Light Year (ly): is the distance traveled by one photon of light in one year (9.5 x 10^12 km) o 1 parsec = 3.26 ly o Benchmarks § Nearest stars: the Alpha Centauri triple star system (about 4 ly) § Closest dozen stars (8 ly) § Milky Way Galaxy is about 100,000 ly across § Andromeda Galaxy is nearest 2.5 million ly away Telescope - Optical telescope o The aperture/size of the mirror characterize the telescope § Larger aperture allows more photons to be collected (study fainted images) and also increases the resolution of the telescope o Arcsecond § An angle in the sky is divided into degrees, minute, seconds of arc o Types § Refractors · Collect light through a lens § Reflectors · Collect light with a mirror o Xrays must be nearly parallel to the reflected by the mirror

who were primary scientist of DNA ? WHERE IS DNA in euk vs pro? What is the backbone of DNA , what are the bases? How is DNA diffrent in prokaryoties ? In DNA, what is found at the 3 prime end, what is at the 5 prime end ?

· CODING OF DNA AND EXPRESSION OF TRAITS o DNA § DNA has a complicated history of discovery. The primary scientist were Watson,crick,franklin, and wilkins. § Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA ) is a nucleir acid made of nulceotides ( the building blocks of nuclei acids ). It is found primarly in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells and in the cytoplasm of prokarytoes · It is a double helix in shape and contains deoxyribose ( sugar) and phosphate groups as the backbone. The four bases are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. § Notes : prokarytoes have no nucleus. It stores genetic info it is resistant to cleavage. It is double helix, so you have duplicate on either side, so It has a built in back up. Inside the double helix base pairs adenine, thymine,cytosine,guanine.

Compare and contrast uniformitarianism and catastrophism.

· Catastrophism is theory that eart shaped by sudden short lived violent events, possibly worldwide. Examples are massive floods, major earthquakes, meteorites, leading to exteniction. · Uniformitarianism is that slow incremental changes , such as erosion, created earths geological features. Most geological changes are gradual and uniform, but catastrophes that causes geological change have occurred. Examples are wind erosion, water erosion, lava cooling into rock, deposit of mud, glaciation, day-day processes. · Similarities: Both are similar in that they explain that earth has natural process, some changes can be related to plate movements, and can be weather related. Both explain how earth landscapes have formed and shaped by natural evens over geological time. TEACHER PREP: · Uniformitarianism and catastrophism o Uniformitarianism is the idea that the same physical processes of the past are still happening today at a very slow rate. All changes are gradual and continuous. § Example erosion Ex : big bang, evrymoving moving has been going on for billions of years, still happening today since the begging of time o Catastrophism is the idea that huge, violate envens hange the appearce of earth § Asteroid impact o The theory of plate tectonis contends tha all of earth continets were once joind together as a super continuent called pagnea, then drift apart. Supporting eviden for continental drift includes observable changes in land mass and distances, puzzle piece argumanet, fossil eviden. Is the catahsohp or uniformatism? § Atlantic sea floor spreading,this is uniformatism happening slowsly and progressive. Other guide: Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism - Catastrophism = biological and physical history of earth was the result of sudden, rapid events à idea was abandoned because there was no physical evidence to support it - Uniformitarianism = conditions on earth even out and remain unchanged over time, the present is the key to the past

a. Recognize the factors that can alter the flow of energy into and out of Earth's systems (e.g., tectonic events, ocean circulation, volcanic activity, vegetation). why is and what is earth radiation balance, why is it importnta ? Plate tectonics, or the movement of plates (in an earthquake for example), act as an________ ________ ________, or radiative forcing, that occurs within the climate system itself. External forcing, on the other hand, impacts the climate from outside of the climate system such as a volcanic eruption as we will later see. Mountains are caused by ________ acitivyt, and mountains affect local and regional ________. Due to tecnotic acitivity, the continet are always in motion, which affect ocean ________. Oceancirculation is movement of large bodies of water that isdependone on the location of land, so if there is land movement, it affect ocean ciruclation , which affects global ________. how does the oceancirculation affect flow of energy ? how do volcanos affect earth climate ? hwo does vegetation affect earth energy flow ? whta happens if there is more carbondioxide in the atmosphere ? what is albedo, and how can vegetation affect albedoe ?

· Concept of Energy Flow · Have you ever noticed when clouds suddenly appear in the sky on a sunny day that it immediately feels cooler? What do you think would happen if we could hypothetically make the sky cloudy everyday for a year? Do you think these clouds would offset global warming as reported in climate science research? · Whether they would offset this warming or not, they would certainly change the Earth's surface temperature over time, either causing it to become warmer or cooler. Clouds are just one of many factors that can affect the Earth's energy flow, or Earth radiation balance. This term is essentially a balance between the incoming energy from the Sun and the outgoing energy to space that is radiated in the form of infrared radiation. Without such a balance, the Earth would either continue to heat up or cool down. The radiation balance of the Earth. · Whenever a factor such as clouds are introduced, they may affect this balance and result in a radiative forcing. We will now look at other radiative forcing agents and how they might alter the flow of energy into and out of Earth's systems. · Factors Affecting Earth's Energy Flow · Tectonic Events and Ocean Circulation · Nearly everyone is familiar with tectonic events, such as earthquakes and volcanoes, either from watching them on TV or experiencing them firsthand. But do you think that such events could affect the Earth's climate or its energy balance? Well the answer to that question is yes they can. Let's see how this is possible. · If tectonic events can affect the Earth's radiation budget, that means that rocks are connected to the climate. Well not actually the small rocks you see on the ground, but the larger ones beneath you covering thousands of miles in distance. Plate tectonics, or the movement of plates (in an earthquake for example), act as an internal forcing mechanism, or radiative forcing, that occurs within the climate system itself. External forcing, on the other hand, impacts the climate from outside of the climate system such as a volcanic eruption as we will later see. · If you live in an area surrounded by mountains or have visited such places before, they are caused by tectonic activity. These mountains are known to affect the local and regional climate. Also, because of tectonic activity, the continents are always in motion, which affects ocean circulation. Ocean circulation is the movement of large bodies of water and is dependent on the location of the land. If a part of the land is extended due to the movement of the continents, it affects the circulation, which, in turn, affects global climate. · The ocean circulation acts as a conveyor belt that transports the uneven amount of solar energy at the equator towards the poles. Any change in this that system that may be caused by tectonic activity would alter the flow of energy. · Tectonic activity also causes volcanoes to erupt and occurs when plates bombard each other or when they are pulled apart. Once they erupt, they can alter the energy flow of the Earth. For instance, when a volcanic eruption occurs, large amounts of dust particles are injected in the atmosphere for long periods of time. · These particles have a cooling effect on the planet as they reflect the incoming solar radiation. This acts as an external forcing on the climate thereby acting to cool it, which can last months to years, depending on the amount of dust particles in the atmosphere. · Vegetation · The effects of changes in vegetation can impact the Earth's energy flow. One way is through deforestation, which occurs through the clearing of land by human activity. This can have a tremendous effect on the climate. Trees are known to absorb carbon dioxide from the air, and if they aren't in abundance like before, much of the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, adding to the already high concentration of this gas. If we add more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, the Earth becomes warmer as this gas absorbs the infrared radiation that is emitted from the Earth and back down towards the Earth. Example of deforestation. · Loss of vegetation, through deforestation or another event, can also play a role in impacting the Earth's energy flow through a change in the albedo or the reflection of the surface. Clearing a large forest would enhance the surface albedo, which causes a cooling at the surface as more of the incoming sunlight would be reflected. · This cooling of the climate is similar to our example of the dust particles that are released into the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption. Such a cooling changes the energy flow of the Earth by causing more energy going out of the Earth's system. · Lesson Summary · Factors that impact the energy flow of the Earth's systems, or its radiation balance, include tectonic events, such as earthquakes and volcanoes. These factors act as an internal forcing mechanism, or radiative forcing. Tectonic activity may also cause changes in the ocean circulation, which, in turn, causes a change in the energy flow. Another factor includes changes in vegetation that may occur due to deforestation, causing an imbalance of energy, or either a warming or cooling of the Earth's

Why does DNA replication occur ? What are the steps in DNA replicaation, discuss ? DNA is unzipped by what enzyme? The leading strand is made in the direction..relative to the fork? The lagging strand is being made ... okazaki fragments are bonded together by ? What isthe function of DNA polymerase? What is the function of DNA polymeras? AfterDNA replication, the cell can undergo?

· DNA Replication o Process § DNA replication must happen so that as cells divide each one has a complete copy of DNA § Replication is considered semi-conservative because at the end of the process each of the two DNA molecules is half old and half new 1. The DNA is unzipped by helicase, which is an enzyme. There will be two strands, the leading stand and lagging strands that meet at the replication fork 2. The DNA polymerase works along the strands matching nucleotides. The leading strand is being made in the direction away from the fork. The lagging strand has the opposite orientation so the DNA polymerase works in small chunks called Okazaki fragments 3. The okazaki fragments are bonded together by the enzymes ligase § On exam know these steps . C-G, . we see the original strand , 3 and 5 prime, that refers to the carbons that are on the phosphate structure creating the double helix. Replication pair only goes in the 3 prime direction as it adds new nucleotides so easy on leading strand, DNA polymerase adds new bases creates new double helix of information. A-T. G-C. It adds matching nucleotides . single strand binding proteins just hold things apart. DNA polymerase proof reads the strand. Have new replicated piece of that DNA. The problem on the top with lagging because if it goes in the direction of the zipping it adds to the 5 prime end and it cant do that, it needs to go in the opposite direction, so it has to go back and skipping, so that is why it happens in frangmetns, the polymerase adds new pair bases as okazaki fragments, and in this case we need dna ligase that seals those okazaki fragment to make a continuous strand, it needs a little more work, the DNA polymeras proofreads, now two strands DNA, now continue mitosis,divide, now child has new set of DNA just like parent cell.

What is a dihybrid corss ? Practive problem: detached ears are dominant over attached ears. Brown hair is dominat over blonde hair. One parent is heteroxygous for both trais and theother is homoxygous recessive for both traits. What is the phenotype ration of the offspring ?

· Dihybrid cross o Dihybrid cross is a cross between first filial generation offsprings that differ in two traits that are of interest o In may be helpful to think of the FOIL method when determining the genotypes of the first filial generation o Notes : in this case, cat that is white and short tail. And cat brown and long tail. So the tail length the short is dominant so the S for short tail . the brown cat has recessive traits two recessive trai fortail shortness which allows it to rexpress recessive trait for long tail. Then for brown cat, BB B for browness. For white is bb. We see the first filial generation ( child generation). In the F1 we can think of the foil method, so we take the first possibility . · so in the second generation, we see what can happen. 9 cats show both dominate traits brown color short tail. Then have 3 cats show dominate trait of brown color but reccsie white tail. Then one cat that has recessive of all white color and recessive of long tail. Soby diagram you can see what happens. Practive problem: detached ears are dominant over attached ears. Brown hair is dominat over blonde hair. One parent is heteroxygous for both trais and theother is homoxygous recessive for both traits. What is the phenotype ration of the offspring ? Here is another example, here it tells us that detached ears are domnat over attached ears. So for the first one is dominat expression for both traits. Then we have recessive and dominat trait. Then we have recessive trait and dominat trait. And so on. So you have 1:1:1;:1, so you have one of each and the ratio is 1:1:1:1. They might ask you somethine like this on the test Online : Reginald Punnett created this tool, Punnett square, to predict the likelihood of inheriting particular traits. Setting up and using a Punnett square: 1. You begin by drawing a grid of perpendicular lines (think tic tac toe) 2. Next step is to put the genotype of one parent across the top and the other down the left side (it does not matter which parent is on the side and which is on the top). For example, if a parent pea plant genotypes were TT and BB, then the setup would look like: S S T T 3. Next step is to fill in the boxes by copying the row and column letters into each square. Doing this will give us a prediction of all potential genotypes each time reproduction occurs. S S T TS TS T TS TS In the above example, 100% of the offspring will likely be heterozygous- TS. Let's say the T allele is dominant for tall and S allele is recessive for short, then 100% of the offspring will have a tall phenotype. Another example: Let's say both plants are heterozygous (TS) genotypes. T S T TT TS S TS SS The result will be:25% SS- Homozygous, short25% TT- Homozygous, tall50% TS- heterozygous, tal

15. UNDERSTAND EARTHS PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE A. Demonstrate knowledge of the evidence for the big Bang Model ( ex: light spectra,motion, of distance galaxies, spectra of primordial radiation) hwo does the red shift oflight explain that the universide is expanding ? what two elements expalin the big bang theory? When was the universide created ? how did the universe start? what things provide evidence of the big bang ? how does the Doppler red shift explain the big bang? hwo does galaxeries beinf far and moving explainthe big bang, how does this relate to hubbles LAW? How does CMB explain the explain or support the big bang theory/ How does elemental composition of theuniverside support the Big Bang ? What chemicals did the Big Bang produce ? Explain how heavier elements are recylcined ? what isthe univerisde complised f of ? most stars are made of what % hydrogen and what % helium? How are other elements beside hydrogen and helium crated ? what are exosolar plentes or exoplanets ? what is gravitational lensing? what is planetary transit method ? what id dopplerwobble method ? what is open cluster ? are spiral galaxies large or samll? what sizes are elliptical galaxies ? what kind of galaxies are the most numerous type and are small and low in star density? why are black holes black? which type ofgalaxies are associated with active star formation ?

· Emphasis is on the astronomical evidence of the red shift of light from galaxies as an indication that the universe is currently expanding(red shift of distant galaxies indicate expansion) , the cosmic microwave background as the remnant radiation from the Big Bang, and the observed composition of ordinary matter of the universe, primarily found in stars and interstellar gases (from the spectra of electromagnetic radiation from stars), which matches that predicted by the Big Bang theory (3/4 hydrogen and 1/4 helium). There is an abundance of helium and deuterium in the universide than could have been produces by stars. · Approximately 13.7 billion years ago, all the matter and energy in the universe were created in an enormous explosion known as the "Big Bang". i. The Doppler red-shift of light observed from distant stars and galaxies gives evidence that he universide is expanding ( moving away from central point). This allows for the big bang theory because after the bang occurs, all the matter moves away from the point of origin. As light moves away from an object the distance between its waves becomes greater, this is displaced by red light, where waves are further apar ( longer ). The opposite is with blue light, as the objects move closer. When spectroscopic information is processed, an object that displays a red shift ( moving away) away from viewer ( blue light moving towards the viewer). ii. The further galaxies are , the faster they are moving. Red-shift data provides evidence that universe itself is expanding.This is in accordance with Hubbles Law, which states that the redshift in light coming form distant galaxies is linearly proportional to its distance from earth. iii. Cosmic microwave background (CMB) , also called cosmic background radiation, of spectra of primordial radiation. Electromagnetic radiation filling the universe is the residual effect of the big bang 13.8 billion years ago. Since the expanding universe has cooled since the primordial explosion, the background radiation is in the microwave radiation of the electromagnetic spectrum. iv. The Elemental Composition of the Universe -Using powerful telescopes, scientists have made extensive spectroscopic surveys of distant stars and galaxies. The data indicates that hydrogen and helium make up nearly all of the nuclear matter in the universe. The most abundant element, hydrogen, accounts for 74% of the mass while helium contributes 25%. Heavier elements comprise less than 1% of the total. The observed 3:1 ratio of hydrogen to helium along with the relative scarcity of heavier elements yield critical clues about the density, temperature, and expansion rate of the early universe. The correlations between these observations and the predictions of the Big Bang Describe the chemical composition and physical structure of the universe Chemical Structure-The gas/chemicals that give birth to the solar systems are the product of billions of years of galactic recycling. The whole universe is thought to have been born in the Big Bang. The Big Bang produced two chemicals, hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements were produced later by stars through nuclear fusion or the explosion of the star during its death. These elements can be recycled into new generation of stars. Heavier element content increase with each generation of massive stars. The chemical composition of the galaxy has remained predominately hydrogen and helium. Chemical composition of the universe is roughly 74% hydrogen and 24% helium by mass.Other elements are in trace amounts. Physical structure- Just within the observable universe, scientists estimate that there are 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 or 10^22 stars! The universe is still expanding, forming new stars, and contains decaying star corpses. The universe is very large, perhaps infinite in volume. The observable matter is spread out over a space of at lease 93 billion light years across. There are probably more than 100 billion galaxies in the observable universe. The observable matter in the universe may be condensed into stars, which are part of galaxies, which may be part of a cluster (groups of galaxies with a few dozen members). Each region of the sky contains roughly the same content. The most precise estimate of the universe's age is around 13.7 billion years old at the current microwave temperature of 2.73 K. TEACHER PREP: · Chemical composition and physical structure of the universe o Physical structure § From largest to smallest § The universe is theorized to have begun with the big bang. The big ban theory states that the universe was previously contained in an infinitely small but infinitely massive point § The universe is mostly empty space, dust, and gases with stars and planets interspersed § Notes : key component of how we look at universe. Solar system is star and all other planets. Galaxy made of lots of solar system. Red shifting supports that univeside is expanding, light moving away from us, light sprectrum gets shifted more to red side due to gopplers effect. o Chemical structure § Most stars are made of 90% hydrogen and 10 % helium § Other elements and compounds are created through fusion and other processes that occur during a star's life cycle. § Notes : these are main chemical and physical characteris keep in mind when describe the universe in a general sense Other study guide: Evidence for Plants around other Stars 1. extrasolar planets or exoplanets = planets around other stars 2. Detection of exoplanets: a planet transiting the central star, the star "wobbling" in from of background stars, the star exhibiting red and blue shifts in its spectrum, gravitational lensing -3.Gravitational lensing = the brightening of a background star by the star with a planetary system, refers to the masses of the star and planet acting as a lens to brighten background stars 4. Planetary transit method: most direct way to detect exoplanets by measuring the drop of brightness of a star as an orbiting planet passes by 5. Doppler wobble method: detects the star's wobble through subtle red and blue shifts in its spectral lines (most found using this method) -Around 300 exoplanets have been discovered - Open cluster = a group of stars loosely held together by gravity - Spiral galaxies tend to be large - Elliptical galaxies come in all different sizes - Dwarf spheroidal galaxies = most numerous type of galaxy and are small and low in star density - Many black holes have supermassive black holes at their center (formed from the mass of millions/billions of stars, such strong gravity that light cannot emergeà can't be seen) - Spiral and irregular galaxies are most associated with active star formation!

a. Apply knowledge of anatomical, embryological, and genetic evidence of biological evolution and common ancestry and interpret branching diagrams (cladograms). b. What is evolution? Who published Origin of species by means of natural selection in galapagos ? microevolution vs macroevolution? what is intra-species genetic change ? wvidence of transitional species ? What are homolgous structures ? what are analogous structures ? What kind of strucures suggenst evolutionar evidence ? What is evolution ? Mircoevulation? macroevoltiion> What 4 theory support that species descent from other species , and natural selection drives biological evoluion, ? How does embryotlogiy support theory of evolution? How do homologuys structure support evolution? vestigial structure ? breeding experience hw do they support evolution theory? How does the fossile record support theory of evolution? Reproductoin isolaton may lead to what ? how do genets support evolution?

· Evidence supports theory of evolution o Theory of evolution § Evolution is the change in the genetic composition of a population over time § Charles Darwin published " on origin of species by means of natural selection" after vising the Galapagos islands § It is often misunderstood that Darwin said we came from monkeys, but this is not true. It appears we have common ancestors with the primates § Notes : single trait changing is microevolution ( bigger wings). Macroevoluation is fish changing to amphibious creature. Monkeys and humans have ancesteral common ancestor, but it does not mean we came from mokeys, that on test. The evolution which occurs on a small scale and within a single population is micro evolution. The evolution that occurs on a large and surpasses the level of the single species is macro evolution. Changes in the gene pool, which results in a few changes in the same species also called Intra-species genetic change. o On origin of species by means of natural selection § Darwins two primary points · Man species of organism presently inhabiting earth hare descendants from ancestral species that were different from their modern counterparts · Natural selection is the mechanism for evolutionary process. Populations change over generation due to individual possessing certain heritable traits that allow them to leave more offspring than other individual withing the population (reproductive success ) · Notes : wolfs are ancestral to dogs. If a giraffe with longer neck, it might have more food,reproduce more, and pass on that trait for longer necks. § Evidence of evolution · Biodiversity of the planet shows that closely related species tend to be in the same geographic region, also know as biogeography. This suggest that populations were separated and evolved independently of each other o Example: finches of Galapagos island similar to finches other islands · Embryology has contributed to our understanding of evolution. We have entire stages in the womb that serve no purpose after we are born suggesting that our ancestors may have needed these stages. · Notes : we have a tail at embryonic stage, but disappears, why did it exist? Probably earlier ancestral species had tails, but newer species of human don't need tail so tail is gone by the time we are born. This is evidence that share common ancestor for wide variety of species. § Scientist have found transitional species in the fossile record. These transitional species exhibit characteristics connecting ancestors and descendants. § The fossil record also conforms to geological superposition, allowing scientist to make deductions about the course of evolution ( notes birds closes to dinosaurs, a feathered dianasour is an example of transition species allows to make connection of that evolutionary process. The idea that sedimentary layers in which fossillied organism get stacked, so the deeper, the older, and we can date things based on the layers, and we can see changes in organism, so we can track evolution ove time. § More modern evidence of evoluation · Study of macromolecules has shown very little difference between the amino acid structure of specific protines in different species o Hemoglobin in chimpanzees and humans is only different by a few amino acids. Hemoglobin in fish has more differences, but a majority of the amino acids are still the same · Medical researchers are finding drug resistant versions of bacteria in hospitals, where bacteria is more common and can move through many generations very quickly (certain anitibiotics kill bacteria, but bacteria reproduces quickly and those resistant enjoy reproductive success, so bacterial evolves to be resistant to antibiotics) · Shared characteristics of fossil and living organism o Homologous structures have different functions but have very similar structures.Homologous structures are organs or skeletal elements of animals and organisms that, by virtue of their similarity, suggest their connection to a common ancestor. These structures do not have to look exactly the same, or have the same function. § Example human forearm, cat leg, whale flipper, and bat wing o Analogous structures have the same function but develop differently. they are not evidence of evolution and often cause confusion. § Example : bird wing and fly wing. Similar function to fly, but not evidence of evolution, and does not indicate common ancestry. o notes : homologous structures suggest evolutionary evidence. o Vestigial structures are homologous structures that have marginal function or even no use at all for an organism. These structure appear to be leftovers from ancestral species § Example : human appendix and wisdom teeth. Our ancestors may have needed these structures because of their different dietary requirements § Notes : idea of going to meat higher protein allowed greated brain mass, allowed increased intelliganes, so we can see these vestigial structure that we don't need like appendix. Wisdom teeth and vestigial leftover structure. Goosepumbs when scared or cold, and reason raise hairs, in earlier ancestor species the hair will make them look larger to potential predators, it does not help us we don't have long har all over. Those examples vestigial functions and vestigial structure. Evolution in organisms refers to changes over time. At the smallest scale, individuals go through changes during their lifetimes. These changes are called ontogentic changes. Microevolution are changes that occur within species or population from one generation to the next. Parents pass on their traits (morhpoogy behavior) on to their offspring. Macroevolution is evolution at the species level and includes speciation, changes in the tree of life, and extinction. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Georges-Luis Buffon demonstrated that species descended from other species an were not morphologically fixed (plants and animals remained unchanged from their first appearance on Earth). Natural section, the driving force that drives biological evolution, explained that organisms best suited to their environment are expected to survive in their reproductive age and produce offspring. Whereas individuals less suited their their environment will be eliminated. Evidence for this theory: 1. Embryology- this is the study of embryos. Scientists observed that in the early stages of embryo development, vertebrates, such as fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals, are nearly indistinguishable. The similarities is the result of shared common ancestry. As they progress, they develop characteristics that differentiates them from other species. The development of different characteristics mirrors the macroevolution ancestry of each animal. This also shows in microcosmic view of how species have evolved in different ways. 2. Homologous structure-these are morpho9lci features in organisms that have similar positions and evolutionary origin. They do not necessarily have identical structure or function because the structures have evolved as a result of adaption to differing environmental influences and ways of life. For example, the forelimbs of vertebrate animals have the save evolutionary origin but have developed differently in response to differing uses for the appendages. Amphibians have legs adapted to walking/crawling; Birds have wings that were adapted to flight, especially with the addition of feathers; bats have elongated finger bones and a thin membrane of skin stretched between the fingers to form a wing; whales have shortened, thickened bones for propulsion as they swim; horses have toes that were reduced to one enlarged two. 3. Vestigial Structure- a vestigial structure in an organism is one that is in the process of disappearing. They are typically reduced in size or function compared to species in earlier evolutionary lineage. These structures were once function in an ancestral species. In humans, we have a coccyx at the base of the vertebrae even through we have no use for a tail. In whales, they still have their pelvic bones even though they lost their rear legs. 4. Breeding Experiments-focus is to accelerate change in a population and concentrating on desirable characteristics. In selective breeding, humans decide which traits are desirable (whereas in natural selection, nature decides which ones are the best). For example, dogs originally were domesticated from while gray wolves. Today, thousands of breeds with desirable traits have been bred. 5. Fossil record- According to Darwin, the fossil-record is a long-term documentation of evolution. Natural selection was proposed as the mechanism to explain how descent with modification or evolution happened. Natural selection is based on the observation that populations are usually composed of more individuals than the environment can support. Because more offspring are produced that can possibly survive, individuals in a population must engage in a struggle for existence. They compete for food, shelter, survival (avoid falling to preys) and reproductive mates. Individuals show variations in their traits and those that survive to reproductive age are able to contribute their traits to the next generation. The differences in individuals with traits that make them more superior may be slight and over a long period of time, those advantages to variations in traits will accumulate in a population. Reproductive isolation may lead to the evolution of new species. 6. Genetics and the molecular record- another evidence of evolution is the common genetic and molecular make up. All organisms have the basic hereditary units for all life made up of the same four nucleotides and proteins that are arranged in different arrangements.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of the theory of natural selection, including how genetic variation and its expression leads to differences in characteristics among individuals in a population, adaptation, speciation, and extinction. which organims are most likley to reprouce? What is evolutionary adaptation ? natural selection will results in an evolutionar adapation over what period of time ? how does adaptation result in a wide variety of organims ? How are species distinguished ? what is speciation? what is a source of biodivestiy? what is allopatric speciation? what is peripatric speciation? what is parapatric speciation? what is sympatric speciation? reasons for extintion? what is extinction? what is co-extinction? what is mass extinction? wvolution by natural selection is respoinsible for what ? natural selection stats what ? define speciation ? is this macroevolution or microevultion? what is allopatric ? what is dispersal speciation ? what is vicariance ? what is sympatric speciation? what is parapatric speciation? what is adapationa relative to an organims / what is extinction ?

· Evolution thorught natural selection o Population limitations § Population sizes would increase exponentially if all individuals that are born reproduce successfully. However, populations generally tend to remain stable in size except for seasonal changes § Resources are limited. Populations that have more individuals than the environment can support must then struggle to survive and only a fraction of the offspring survive each generation § Notes: equilibrium gest created because resources are limited. In nature, lots of offspring die. Abundance of resources means more survive, so it depends on resources of the environment for equilibrium o Population changes § No two individuals are exactly alike . survival depend in part on inherited traits. Individials that inherit traits that help them survive and reproduce is a given environment are more likely to leave offspring with similar traits § The unequal ability of individual to survive and reproduce will lead to a change in the population. More favorable characteristics will develop over generations § Notes : with sexual more genetic variation. Gray represent trait, one organism has 3 offspring. The gray is similar to parent, white is variation due to some mutation or difference at genetic level. The mutation ended up not being favorable to that environment. The light gray reproduced. The darker gray reproduced. The variation of darker gray was favorable. So the darker gray was superior so got more food, like bird with ideal beak for food, that variation is superior so more successful so the original end up dying. So the new subset lives on.. · Adaptation ,specification and extinction o adaptation o an evolutionary adaption is an accumition of inehrite characteristics tha enhance organism ability to surve and reporuce in a specific environment o Natural selection will result in an evolutionary adaptation over numerous generations, not within a lifetime Notes : we seed bird beaks. Difference in beaks due to random variations during many generates that were suited for their particular environment. That Is about how adaptation results in this wide variety of organim. · speciation § Species are distinguished mostly on reproduction incompatibility, meaning that two groups of organism cannot successfully produce offspring § Speciation is the appearance of new species, which is the source of biodiversity diagram visualizes the steps of speciation. Allopatric speciation- a physical barrier divides a continous population peripatric- small founding population enters a new or isolated niche.Samll group breaks off a poulation to form a new species. Parapatric where go into new joining area but still interact with the old group so they have not isolated themsleft. ,.a new niche found adjacent to the oriingal niche ! The species is spread out over a large geographic area and a new species is formd, . Sympatric still in same group but some difference, makes them some diffren that make sthem appeal them more to one another. Speciation occurs without physical separation inside a continous population. New species, no geographic separtion, withing a population new species forms withing same area. All of these different ways in which specifiaion can occur. Interbreeding between new subset, sometimes they interact with old set, new set, and futher change. So all of this over time and this way end up with new variations on traits, that is specification. · Allopatric speciation happens when populations are divided geographically -----Example : group of insect are divided after astream developes because of heavy rain · Sympatric speciation happens in the same geographic area but reproductive behavrio and timing are different enough to lead to subpoulations o Example - two groups of frogs use mating chirps that are different pitches. One reactions to one pitch, another reacts to the other pitch, so in same population. Orcas in pacific, in artic areas resident orcas and do not breed with transient orcase that come and go, so get two subspecies. So understand these. · Extinction o Extinction is considere to be the death of the last member of a species § Reason for extinction include genetic pollution, disease, predators, changes in resource availability, environmental changes and co-extinction ( the extinction of one species causes the extinction of another ) (genetic pollution altered genes , drive to extinction, loss of genetic diversity) o A mass extinction is a sudden and widespread decrease in the abundane and diversity of life on earth § Based on fossile records, sceintices think earth has had a least 5 mass extinction in 4.6 billion years Notes : volcanos carbon dioxide. Water leves increasing , .asteroid, atmospheric changes, killed lots of organism. Natural Selection- Evolution by natural selection is responsible for the tremendous diversity of species found in fossils and living organism. Natural selection is the mechanism that influences which varieties are more likely to survive and pass their genes onto the next generation. Natural selection states that organisms that are best applied to their environment are more likely to survive and transmit their genetic characteristics to successive generation than less adapted organisms.The specific traits that favor an organism depend on the environmental conditions that affect the survival of some organisms with certain traits more than others. Speciation- this is a macroevolutionary process in development of new species from existing ones. There are three types of speciation: 1. allopatric speciation- occurs when there is a disruption of gene flow between population due to physical barrier. The population then diverges genetically. Isolation can occur by dispersal movement of vicariance. a) Dispersal- this may occur if there are a chain of islands. One island is inhabited by a certain type of species. A group migrtes to another island and the small population diverges genetically from the parent population.Dispersal occurs when part of a population crosses a barrier that already exists. b) Vicariance- a region, populated by a species, is split and breaks apart into two. Species on both regions diverge genetically.Isolation by vicariance occurs when a population that is already widely distributed is divided by the appearance of a barrier 2. Sympatric speciation- two diverging species within a region have overlapping ranges. Genetic isolation follows a change in ecologic strategy, such as a change in feeding preference, among some individuals of the parent population. 3. Parapatric speciation- two species may diverge from a single species following hybridization of a population that have limited gene flow. When partially isolated population established contact, a zone of hybridization can develop. Divergence of nonhybridized stock would result in speciation. Adaptation-involves the modification of an organism or its parts so that it is better fitted of survival in the condition of its environment.Extinction- The death of the last individual of that species. Typically, species become extinct after 10 million years of its first appearance.

3. a) Demonstrate knowledge of how the coding of DNA controls the expression of traits by genes and influences essential life functions (e.g., how DNA determines protein structure and other heritable genetic variations). How many chromosomes in humna cell? Each chormosome is made of what ? How is DNA found in the nucleius ? The four bases create many sequences of DNA that code for what ? Genes are sections of DNA that hold the code to waht ? A single strand of DNA is bundled together with some protein to form what ? What makes one person genes diffrent from another , we have what percent diffrent of genes ? The passing down of genes is called what, what do we get from our parents ? Genes code for proteins, these proteins give us what ?

· Genes are found in our cells. Cells are the building blocks of all life. Every living organism is made out of cells. Each cell has an important and unique job to do. The nucleus is considered the brain of the cell because that is where the cell gets all of its information and instructions from. · Inside the nucleus of human cells are 46 chromosomes, actually found as 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each chromosome is made of 1 very tightly coiled strand of 'deoxyribonucleic acid', or DNA. The DNA is tightly wrapped around proteins like a thread around a spool. They need to be compacted or else they would not fit into the nucleus. · DNA · DNA is a long structure made up of four types of bases: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, represented by the letters A, C, G, and T. These four bases create many different sequences that each code for something. This code goes on and on and has all of the information and instructions for each cell to form into the proper structure and to perform the proper function. Genes are sections of the DNA that hold the code to make a single molecule, usually a protein. · So genes are a tiny sequence on a strand of DNA that holds a code. This code tells the cell what type of protein to make. Genes are small sections of DNA. A single strand of DNA is bundled together with some protein to form chromosomes. These chromosomes are found in the nucleus of the cell. Cells are what make up all living things. · Everybody has basically identical genes; but don't worry, we're still unique by about 1%. Only about 1% of our genes are slightly different than those of the person sitting next to us (unless they are our identical twin). The genes with these slight differences are called alleles. · Like chromosomes, genes too are found in pairs. We receive our genes from our parents. We get one part of each pair from each parent. This passing down of genes is called heredity. In other words, we inherit our genes from our parents. · Please recall that genes code for specific proteins. These proteins each give us a trait. Therefore, genes ultimately code for our traits. Traits are specific features that belong to us such as eye color, height, hair texture and skin color.

12 b Demonstrate knowledge of the interrelationships within and among ecosystems and recognize factors that affect population types, size, and carrying capacity in ecosystems (e.g., availability of biotic and abiotic resources, predation, competition, disease). What do herbivores eath what is predation what is symbiosis? what is parasitism?, ex? parasitoidims? what is brood parasitism? mutialism definition? commensalilsm?

· Interrelationship withing a ecosystem o Herbivory is the process of a herbivore eating part of a plant or algae § Plants dvelope toxicity, spines, and thorns § Herbivores develop the ability to distinguish between toxic and nontoxic platns o Predation is the process of one animal species predator attacking another species prey and feeding upon it § Many predators have evolved skills to hunt prey and prey have in turn evolved skills to avoid predators o Complex relationships (symbiosis) § Parasitism is a type of symbiosis ( two organism live close to one another, ) where a parasite extracts nourishment from another organism ( host ) which is harmed in the process ( mite, tick). · Parasitoidism is a type of relationship in which the host is killed or sterilized · Pathogens, microscopic disease-causing agents, are considered micro-parasites ( bacteria , virus) · Note : brood parasitism is when one bird lays eggs in nest of another bird. § Mutualism is a type of symbiosis in which both species /organism benefit · Example sea anemone and clow fish. § Commensalism is a type of symbiosis in which one species benefits and the other unaffected · Example titan triggerfish and smaller fish nearby.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of major events that affected the evolution of life on Earth (e.g., climate changes, asteroid impacts). the firs organims where ? DUring what time did diversity of life on earth increased rapidly? volcanism contributed to changes in ? land was first colonized by what organims ? how did eukaryote come about ? land was first colonized b have organism ? when the ozone layer formed, what happened ? formation of the ozone helped what creates live or move from to where ? what did pangea cause ? what happned after the extinction of dinosaurs ? what knd of events have happend multiple periods of throug out geologica histroy ? what is continential drigt, what did contidential drift reulst in ? how did asteroid impacts affect earrth? how did an asterioid impact cause global warning ? what asteroid during what time caused 16% of marine and 18% of vertebrate families to become extinct ? how did volcanic activity affect live of earth ? volacnic period during what time may have triggered a deadly global warning resulting in 22% of marine families to become extinct ? During what ttime periods was earth going throught globa warning, ths period was during what time period ? this time period can be split into two evens , what happend? during what period a drop in sea leve when glacias formed then have rise of level resulted in destruction of habitat and changed and killed 25% of marine life ?

· Major events that affected the evolution of life on earth o Early life was simple single celled organism ( bacteria first organism) o During the Cambrian explosion, the diversity of life on earth increased rapidly o Factors such as volcanism contributed to changes in the atmosphere o The land was colonized by platns, fungi, and eventually animals. The platns helped make oxygen more abundant. o Notes : Overview of history of life on earth, and major events that effected evolation and how life changes. Single cell bacterial. Then prokartic, then eukarytoice ( nucleus) . theory prokaryot engulfed another prokaryotie. So eukaryote becamse multicellular organism to more complex creatures. Mammals are extremely recent. o Notes : know major areas for exam. Precambrian area, palazoic area, Mesozoic , Cenozoic areas. o Be aware that during Cambrian era, the Cambrian explosion, the diversity increased rapidly 530 million years ago, this great increase, lots of phyla of animal that suddenly appears. Then 80 million years ago, this grew into phylas that we have today. So huge burst of diversity of life. Volcanism led more carbon dioxide, so more for plants, more food for animals, ect. Most creatures life began in sea and moved to land. Land colinez by paltns fungi and animals. The ozone layer formed , creatures could live withought being harmed by radiation. So formation of ozone helped creatures move from sea to land. So these are main points keep in mike. o The breaking of pangea is thought to have created geographic isolation for many species, causint them to evolve separately o The extinction of the dinosaurs led a shift from a repite dominated plant to a more mammal domnated planet o There have been multiple periods of climate change throughout geologic history, including ice ages and periods of warning Notes : The coastlines of our different continets fit together. contidential drift is a well respected theory. Moving of continnts changed temperature, led to species adapting over time, so we have diffren species in different part. So allopatric separation of organism for speciation.all of these events contributed to the evolutionary chages to the life on earth. So keep these basic concepts in mind Asteroid impacts- impacts from asteroids sends dust and debris into the atmosphere. Enough dust and debris may cause the sunlight to be blocked from the surface of the Earth. This limits photosynthesis from taking place. Earth may also become darkened from the dust covering Earth and plunge it into a cold, winter-like condition. This may have also produced sulfuric acid-tainted rain which may have poisoned life forms. After the dust settled from the atmosphere, the greenhouse gases may have stimulated rapid warming of Earth. For example, the asteroid that hit the Earth during the Cretaceous-Tertiary time caused 16% of marine and 18% of vertebrate families to become extinct. Volcanic activity- similar to the effects of an asteroid impact in that ash and debris fills up the atmosphere, blocking Earth from sunlight. Oceans also fills with volcanic ash, which affects the chemical makeup of the ocean affecting marine life. Volcanic activity during the end of the Triassic Period may have triggered a deadly global warming resulting in 22% of marine families to become extinct. Climatic change- often linked to biotic changes. During the carboniferous period, the Earth was going through a greenhouse stage. The second half of the carboniferous period was followed by rapid glacial cycles. These changes affected life on Earth. During warm periods, sea level rose, flooding continental shelves with marine water. When Earth switched to an icehouse world, the polar caps expanded, covering many areas with a blanked of ice sheet. For example, during the Ordovician-Silurian time period, a drop in sea level when glacials formed then the rise in sea level when glacials melted resulted in the destruction of habitats and has changed in a way that it is unfavorable to a group of species. 25% of marine families became extinct. Continental Drift- movement of continents altered global distribution of species called alloptatric speciation.

Explain how the carbon cycle involves photosynthesis,? Carbon can be stored in ? How is animal respiration involved in the carbon cycle ? Carbon dioxide is exchaged whwere ? How is carbon produced ? Carbon get stored as ?

· Matter transfer in ecosystems o Carbon cycle § Photosynthetic organisms consume CO2 and convert it into simple carbon compounds that are used by other organism § Carbon is stored in fossil fuels, aquatic sediment, the oceans, plant and animal biomass and the atmosphere § NOTES : nitrogen cycle, carbon, phosphore cycle are all important. For carbon cycle, most of the carbon moving is coming as carbon dioxide. That CO2 gets absorbed by trees as photosynthesis and broken away from oxygen attached to water to form carbohydrates stored in plants. Animal eat plants and get carbon. Carbon from air by photosysthesis to plants, to animals, and animals eat other animals. When animals respirate, take in oxygen , and waste product Is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide exchanged at surface of oceans and other bodies of water . carbon is produced in variety of ways, like burning of fossile fuiesl, volcanos, gets stored as fossile fuel, stored in acquatic sediment, stored in platns, animal biomass, and in atmosphere.

a) Apply knowledge of how genetic variation may be the result of errors that occur during DNA replication or mutations caused by environmental factors and explain their causes and effects. what is silent mutation what is point mutation what is substitution ? what are the implications of frameshift mutations ? DNA IS READ IN GROUPS OF ? WHAT IS WORSE, chromosome mutation or gene mutation? When does gene duplication occur? What occurs in gene translocation ? Mutagens , what are they? Why are xrays and uv light bad ? _______ is a permanent change in the DNA sequecse of a gene? what is germline mutations ? What are the diffrent types of point mutations ? Silent vs nonsense, vs missense mutation ? What occurs in a frameshift mutation?, what is result? Wha occurs in Deletions ? What occurs in insertion? What occurs in inversion ? what occurs in duplication ? DNA expresion can affect what ? When a purine is replaced by another purine , this is know as what ? When purine is replaced bya pyrimidine or vice vrsa, this is called ? In summary , point mutations are divided into two groups what are they? What are the types of base substitution? insectiosn and deletions cause what kind of mutations ?

· Mutations and their causes o Mutations are changes to the DNA of a cell o Many mutatons are silet mutations because they go unnoticed o When only one single nucleotid is changed it is considered a point mutation § A substitution is one type of point mutation in which a single base pair is traded for a different pair. Most of the gen can still be read as before · Ex : AU subtitutue for TC o the RNA synthesis wrong protein when fram shift occurs, it causes dramatic changes. o Frame shift mutations are theresult of either insertion or dleetions of base paris o Normally , DNA is read in groups of 3 (called the reading fram). If one nucleotide is added or remove,d the entire gene could be read incorrelty o Normal : The dog ate the cate o Point mutation : Tbe dog ate the cate o Frameshift : ted oga tet hcc at. (the first h is deleted ) o Chromosomal mutations tend to have more of an effect than gene mutations because of the amount of genetic material involved o Gene duplication happens when crossing over does not happen n precisely the same location for both chromosomes.Gene duplication , get sometimes extra gene coded there. So an example trisomy 21, the 21st chromosome gets a duplicate copy , so now have 3 paris, this causes down syndrome that example of what happens when gene duplication occurs. o Gene translocation part of a chromosome moves to a nonhomologous chromosome. In translocation, its not the same as the other chromosome, as show by picture, it gets put in another area and messes up the messege. o Mutagens are physical and chemical agents that interact with DNA and cause mutations o Most carcinogesn are mutagens and most mutages are carcinoges § Ex x rays and uv ligt ( notes : some genes are passed on to offspring that can be detrimental , in many cases mutations are disadvantageous) Mutation-a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene.How does it happen?DNA sequence is interpreted in groups of three nucleotide basis called codons. Each codon specifies a single amino acid in a protein. Some times there is a simple copying error that are introduced when DNA replicates itself. A mutation in the DNA alters the genotype, however is may not affect the phenotype. Environmental agents such as sunlight, certain chemicals, ultraviolet radiations or other external factors may cause a mutation to occur. Our cells have the ability to repair the changes that occur during DNA replication or from environmental damage. However, as we age, our DNA repair does not work as effectively and we begin to accumulate more changes.Some are not passed on to our children (such as changes that occur due to sun exposure(, but other errors can occur in the DNA of cells that produce the eggs and sperm, called germline mutations and can be passed down.If a child inherits a germ-line mutation, then every cell in their body will have this error in their DNA. This is responsible for hereditary diseases.A gene is kind of a sentence that is made up of the bases A,T, G, and C that explains how to make a protein. There are various way to change this "sentence": 1. Point Mutations- Changes in one base pair of a cell's DNA sequence. There are a few different types of point mutations. a) Silent- no effect on the functioning of the protein. This is the least harmful. b) Nonsense- Change in one DNA base pair. The altered DNA sequence interrupts the building of a protein. The result may cause a shortened protein that may or may not be functional. c) Missense- changes a codon so that a different protein is created Example: Before: Max and Nan hit the can. (Each three letter "word" represents a codon) After: Max and Fan hit the can. 2. Frame shift mutation- this occurs when one or more bases are inserted or deleted. Since our cells read in three letter "words", adding or removing one "letter" changes each subsequent word, shifting the "letters" over. For example if we remove the x in the word Max, then all of the bases would shift over. The result would be a shortened protein, most likely non-functional.(Insertions, deletions, and duplications can all be frameshift mutations).Before: Max and Nan hit the can.After: Maa ndN anh itt hec an. 3. Deletion- a removal can be something small, such as removing 1 "word", or longer deletions that affects large numbers of genes on the chromosome. Deletion can also cause frame shift mutation. The deleted DNA may alter the function a protein. Before: Max and Nan hit the can.After: Max and hit the can. 4. Insertion- this is an addition of one or more types of nucleotide base pairs in the DNA. Can cause frame shift mutation. This may result in a nonfunctional protein.Before: Max and Nan hit the can.After: Max and hub Nan hit the can. 5. Inversion- an entire section of the DNA is reversed. May be a few bases or a large region of the chromosome.Before: Max and Nan hit the can.After: Max and nac eht tih naN. 6. Duplication- A piece of DNA that is abnormally copied or more time times. This may affect the function of a protein. DNA expression- this affects where and how much of a protein is made. Protein can be made at the wrong time or in the wrong cell types. This results in either too much or too little protein being made. All mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA, which occur by way of random mistakes. While some mutations involve large sections of DNA, point mutations are changes in the genetic sequence that occur at a specific point along the DNA strand. Some point mutations are base substitutions, in which a single nitrogenous base is replaced by a different one. When a purine is replaced by another purine, or a pyrimidine by another pyrimidine, we call it a transition. When a purine is replaced by a pyrimidine, or vice-versa, we call it a transversion. Point mutations also include insertions and deletions. An insertion is when base pairs are added to a DNA sequence, and a deletion is when base pairs are removed from a DNA sequence. A base substitution may have three different effects on an organism's protein. It can cause a missense mutation, which switches one amino acid in the chain for another. It can cause a nonsense mutation, which results in a shorter chain because of an early stop codon. And a base substitution can also cause a silent mutation, in which the protein's function doesn't change at all. Base substitutions are responsible for disorders like sickle-cell anemia, which is caused by a missense mutation, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which is caused by a nonsense mutation. Point mutations are small changes that happen to the DNA sequence. They're divided into two groups: base substitutions and insertions and deletions. Base substitutions cause relatively minor mutations, like missense, nonsense, and silent mutations. But, insertions and deletions cause a change in the length of a gene, which causes a shift in the codon reading frame. A frameshift mutation occurs when a protein is drastically altered because of an insertion or a deletion

A. Demonstrate knowledge of the formation and structure of the solar system, its place in the Milky Way galaxy, and the characteristics of various objects in the solar system. whta is the nebular hypothesis ? how old is our solar systme ? what is our solar systme amde of ? Our sun is mostly made of what ? Whatare the planets in our system ? The inner solar syste is comprised of what ? which planet is retrograde and is tick atmosphere and warms via greenhouse effect ? radius of earth ? what moon does mars have ? ceres is what kind of planet ? The asteroid belt is betwen what planets , comprised of what ? The outer systm has what kind of planets ? Why is there gian plants in the outer solar systme ? Which planet is rings made of ice and rock, largest 71000 km radius, and has moon IO ? This is a gas giant! which planet has rings and is gas gian and has moon enceladus ? Which planet with rigns has retrorde spin, ice gianat , amde rocky frozne water, carbon dioxide, methane , and ammonia ? Does neptune have rings ? moons of neptue? neptue is what kind of giant ? Pluto is a planet that is what kind of sping, ? size? Eris is a what kind of planet ? What is the kuiper belt, where is it found, what is it made of ? Where in our milkuy way galaxy is our solar systme found ? earth > Solar System > ____ >_____ > ______ > Universe. how may stars does our galaxy have, whatshape is our galaxy? What is prograde motion, its the same motion as what ? Which planets have retrograde spin? which are dward planets ? Whatis orbit ? What is diffrent about plutos orbit ? What shape is earth orbit ? earth eccentricity is neary what ? Which planets are visible with our yees? Which planets do we need a telescope what is a planet ? The inner planets are the smallese and ___. Wht arethgas giants ? which are ice giants ? Where is the kuiper belt ? which planet is close to size of earth? wat are the 4 rocky planets ? asteroid belt made of what ? Which are gian planets ? Which are Dwar planets ? Do coments orbit the sun? What is the trend in compositon in our solar systme for plants ? what doe sthe nebularhypothesis explaine ? what steps took place for our solar system to form ? Does darkmatter have electromagnetic raidaiton? mOONS rotate in what direction to the planets around the sun ? what color is sirius star? colorbeteguiese star? color aldebaran star ? color cygnus star ? What is the radius of our sun? in meters? size of Dward star ? size red gian star ? size supergian star ?

· Nebular hypothesis: Gravitational collapse of a nebula into a flat thin spinning disck and the development of a protosun and protoplanets (planet embryo), orbits of planets in plane, orbit sun same direction, outer planets have more gas and ice then inner planets , planets formed from thing spinning . nebular disk. Nebular ( dust and gas) Basic Steps: 1. Nebula collapses: a cloud of hydrogen and helium gas begins to collapse with a gravitational inward pull, which causes the cloud to begin to spin all material in the same direction. 2. Disk formation: as the nebula continues to collapse inward, it spins faster flattening the shape of the cloud into a disk ( this explains why all planets orbit in same direction and same plain) 3. The inward squeezing ( nebula shirking) heats the center of the disc ( energy conservation) and progressively cooler along the edges, forming the future protosun. 4. Accretion: particles in the disk, all orbiting the forming protosun clump together and collide, sometimes aggregating. Cores of the protoplanets form and spin the the same direction due to initial spin of nebula, ice that forms near protosun melts, ice that forms in outer portions remains.(conservation anguler momentum) 5. Largest planetesimals sweep up and acquire material from the nebula clearing out most of the material around them 6. Planet formation and sun formation: the sun forms from the increasing hot gases in the middle., protoplanets fully develop.the outermost planets are gas because the cooler environment makes it easier to hold to the gas gravitationally. Solar system is 4.6 billion years old! · The components of the Solar System are these: the Sun (a star that contains more than 99% of the mass of the system), planets (divided in internal plantes ( rocky to metallic) , and external or giant planets(gassy and icy)), dwarf planets (spherical bodies without a clean orbit :ceres rocky body between mars and jupiter), satelites (big bodies orbiting planets), and asteroids (minor bodies mainly located in the asteroid belt,kuiper belt, oort cloud ), Kuiper belt objects (frozen external objects in stable orbits), and comets (frozen small objects coming from the Oort's cloud,orbit sun). planets orbit counter-clockwise o Sun : mostly H and He o my very education mother celia jus showed us named planets-eleven! (mercury , venus, eartrh, mars, ceres,Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, pluton and charon, eris.! o Inner solar: sun to asteroid belt. Four terrestrial/rocky bodies. Few or no moons in inner solar system , a lot in outer planet. most moons orbit in direct orbital motion.inner planets small , dense, high temp. § Mercury § Venus: retrograde. Except venus ( tick atmosphere and warms via greenhouse effect,venus closes size of earth!) . § Earth:6300 km radius § Mars : moon phobos and deimos § Ceres: dwarf planet o Asteroid belt: between mars and Jupiter. , low mass does not allow them to have regular shape,rocks and metals) rocks and metals, and dwarf planet ceres. o Outer system: ice and gas, rock. Giant planets: hydrogen-rich: jovian planets.outer colder temp allow hold more gas gravitationally. § Jupiter: rings(ice ,rock). Largest ( 71000 km radius) Moon: Io Gas giant § Saturn,: rings ; Moon: Enceladus Gas giant § Uranus,:rings, retrograde spin ice giant! (rocky,frozen water ice, carbong dioxide,methane,ammonia ) § Neptune: NO rings. Moon: triton . ice giant!!! (rocky,frozen water ice, carbong dioxide,methane,ammonia ) § Pluto & charon: pluto is retrograde and dwarf planet § Eris: dwarft planet § Kuiper belt objects : vast cloud small icy bodies beyond orbit of Neptune and pluto,.leftover from formation of solar system. (frozen external objects in stable orbits) The Solar System is a planetary system of the Milky Way galaxy that is found in one of its arms, known as the Orion's arm. It is formed by the Sun, eight planets and their satellites, asteroids, comets and meteoroids, dust, and interplanetary gas. Earth > Solar System > Milky Way Galaxy > Local Group > Local Supercluster > Universe. We do know that our galaxy holds 100 billion stars. It is a spiral galaxy. From the side, it is flat with a bulge in the center. The entire galaxy is about 100,000 light years in diameter. Our solar system is located in the disk about 28,000 light years from the milky way center.Astronomical Unit: the average distance of the Earth from the sun, which is about 150 million Km. · Extra notes: o Prograde motion/direction motion is orbital or spin motion of planetary body in the same direction as the rotation of the solar system,right hand urled, couter clockwise,parallel, same direction. Most of the planets and moonts rotate about the axis in the same direction motion,planet orbit same direct orbital motion Venus and pluto and Uranus have retrograde spin about axes o Dwarf planet: pluto and eris,ceres § Plane: orbits of the plaent lie nearly in one plane, with pluto highly inclined relative to the plane of the earth-sun, great tilk with respect to plne of earth orbiat around sun § Orbit: path one bady takes around another oar around the center of amss due to a gravitational attraction between two § Elliptical orbits · Plutos orbit is highly eccentric, elongated in one direction , thin , narrow § Earths orbit is nearly circular, eccentricit is nearly zero. · Eccentricity: how squashed and elliptical orbit is ( a circle has zero eccentricity) § Planets visible: unaided: mercury , venus, mars, Jupiter, Saturn · Aided: Jupiter mon,saturns rings, Uranus, Neptune, pluto § Planet vs, dwarft planet · Planet: round shape-massive to have acquired round shape · Cleared our small rocky objects from its orbital zone by o Accreting stick to planet o Gravitational disturbance -such that they move into different orbits § INNER PLANET Small and desnet. Outher large and low densetiy. Satellite of outer planet are ice. Cratered surface everywhere. · Gas giant : Jupiter and Saturn · Uranus and Neptune:ice giants : rocky,frozen water ice, carbong dioxide,methane,ammonia ) Other study gudes: the Solar System - Kuiper belt = a cloud of small icy bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune - All planets and planetary bodies (ex: asteroids) orbit in the Sun in the same direction - Venus is the planetary body with the closest size to earth (Venus is only slightly smaller) - Pluto has a highly inclined orbit that takes it far above and below the plane of the solar system - Four rocky planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars - Asteroid belts are composed of rock and metals and are found beyond Mars - Dwarf plant Ceres= a rocky body between Mars and Jupiter - Giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune - Dwarf planets: Pluto and Eris - Comets also orbit the sun and form part of the solar system - My Very Education Mother Celia Just Showed Us Named Planets- Eleven! - Mars' moons =Phobos and Deimos - Sun = composed of mostly hydrogen and helium - Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn can be seen by the naked eye - Eccentricity: how 'squashed' and elliptical orbit is (a circle has zero eccentricity) - Dwarf planet vs. planet: planet is massive enough to have acquired a round shape and to have cleared out small rocky objects from its orbital zone (pluto has not done so) - Earth's radius = 6,300 km - Jupiter= largest planet (71,000 km radius) - Planets orbit around the sun counter-clockwise - Prograde motion/direct motion =orbital or spin motion of a planetary body in the same direction as the rotation of the solar system - Venus and Pluto have retrograde spin about axes - The planets all orbit the sun in the same direction - Most of the planets and moons rotate about an axis in the same direct motion, although there are some examples of retrograde rotation. - Most moons orbit their parent bodies in direct orbital motion. - the "inner solar system," from the Sun to the asteroid belt, is composed of rocky and metallic objects. The "outer solar system" planets — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune — are large and have extensive atmospheres. Jupiter and Saturn are often referred to as the gas giants, and Uranus and Neptune as the ice giants. In the interiors of Uranus and Neptune we find a mixture of rocky material, frozen water ice, and carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia in liquid form. In general, the trend in composition is from rocky and metallic in the inner solar system to gassy and icy in the outer solar system. - Venus is warmed by the greenhouse effect due to its thick atmosphere Formation of the Solar System: - Nebular hypothesis: accounts for the formation of the solar system (its basic features): the orbits of the planets lie in a plane, orbit sun in same direction, outer planets have more gas and ice then the inner planets - The nebular hypothesis does explain the fact that the outer planets have more gas and ice than the inner planets. Closer to the Sun, the ice would be vaporized and the gas more difficult to capture gravitationally. The nebular hypothesis also accounts for the fact that the planets lie in a plane, and orbits the Sun in the same direction: the planets formed from material in a thin, spinning disk. - Nebular = cloud of dust and gas - Solar system formed from a great could/nebula of dust and gas: gravitational collapse of nebula, shape was flattened, development of protosun and protoplanets - STEP 1: hydrogen, helium, and dust collapses (possibly triggered by explosion of nearby supernova), gravity pulls dust and gas inward - STEP 2: Nebula spins faster as it continues to collapse and flattens its shape to a disk, inward squeezing heats up nebula, hottest in middle: protosun forms and cools towards the edges. - STEP 3: particles in disk clump together (accretion), cores of protoplanets form and spin in same direction due to initial spin of nebula, ice that forms near protosun melts, ice that forms in outer portions remains - STEP 4: largest protoplanets 'sweep up' material from nebula - STEP 5: Sun forms from the increasingly compressed and hot gases in the middle, protoplanets fully develop - The outermost planets are gas because the cooler environment makes it easier to hold on to the gas gravitationally - Solar system is about 4.6 billion years old Characteristics of Galaxies - globular cluster = assemblage of stars - visible component of galaxies= stars and nebulae - dark matter = emits NO electromagnetic radiation, about 90% of all matter in the universe, presence inferred from the gravitational effect it has on luminous matter - our galaxy is shaped like a flat disk What is the Milky Way? - Is a Galaxy composed of all the stars that we can see UNAIDED - Is also indentified as the band of light seen at night; the dark spots and ragged edges seen in the band are due to clouds of gas and dust The Solar System - Composition o Trend of composition is from rocky and metallic in the inner solar system to gassy and icy in the outer solar system o Planet's density tends to be higher in inner solar system vs the outer solar system o Temperature in the planets decreases with distance from the sun § Except Venus, which has a thicker atmosphere and warms via the Greenhouse effect § Colder temperatures allows outermost planets to hold gas gravitationally · Thus outermost planets tend to be larger in size o Existence of Moons § Few or no moons in inner solar system to many moons among giant planets in the outer solar system o Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune all have rings § Composed of small bodies of rock and ice o Inner Most Planets are rocky where as outermost planets are both rock, ice and gas because of the temperature difference (ice evaporates innermost and remains cool outermost) - Orbit o The path one body takes around another or around a center of mass due to a gravitational attraction between the two o Elliptical Orbits § Pluto's orbit is highly eccentric, meaning it is elongated in one direction (thin, narrow) § Earth's orbit is nearly circular, eccentricity is nearly zero o Plane § The orbits of the planets lie nearly in one plane, with Pluto's orbit highly inclined relative to the plane of the Earth-Sun. Meaning it has a great tilt with respect to the plane of the earth's orbit around the Sun o Orbital Motion § All Planets and planetary objects orbit around the Sun in a counter clockwise direction · The planets orbit nearly in the same plane, and the planets all orbit the sun in the same "direct orbital motion" § Prograde Rotation · Moons follow the right hand rule in orbiting their parent bodies · Counter Clockwise, parallel, same direction as the planets around the sun § Retrograde Spin · Uranus, Venus and Pluto spin in retrograde direction with respect to their axis of rotation - Kuiper Belt o Vast cloud of small icy bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune, left over from the formation of the Solar System o These icy rocky bodies orbit beyond Neptune and Pluto - All of the planets or planetary bodies orbit the Sun in the same direction (prograde); few have a retrograde spin about their axis of rotation - Solar System (" My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Named Planets - Eleven") o Four Terrestrial or Rocky Planets § Mercury § Venus § Earth § Mars · Moons : Phobos and Deimos o Asteroid Belt § Composed of rocks and metals § Dwarf Planet Ceres o Giant Planets § Jupiter · Moons: Io § Saturn · Moons: Enceladus § Uranus § Neptune · Moons: Triton o Dwarf Planets § Pluto § Eris o Comets also orbit the sun and are part of the Solar System - The Sun o Composed of primarily hydrogen and Helium o Shines because of nuclear reactions going on in the core - Planets Visible o Unaided § Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn o Aided § Jupiter's Moons, Saturn's rings, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto - Planet vs Dwarf Planet o Planet § Round Shape - massive enough to have acquired round shape § Cleared our small rocky objects from its orbital zone by · Accreting - stick to the planet · Gravitational Disturbance - such that they move into different orbits Formation of the Solar System - Nebular Hypothesis o Is thought to account for the formation of the solar system o It includes the gravitational collapse of a nebula into a flat thin spinning disc (all planets lie in the plane) and the development of a protosun and protoplanets (a planet "emryo" formed when planetisimals collide and stick togetherà when these collide they may form real planets) - Basic Steps in the Formation of the Solar System è Nebula collapses: a cloud of hydrogen and helium gas begins to collapse with a gravitational inward pull, which causes the cloud to begin to spin all material in the same direction. è Disk Formation: as the nebula continues to collapse inward it spins faster flattening the shape of the cloud into a disk o The inward squeezing also heats the center of the disc and progressively cooler along the edges, forming the future protosun. è Accretion: particles in the disk, all orbiting the forming protosun clump together and collide, sometimes aggregating è Largest Planetesimals "sweep up" and acquire material from the nebula clearing out most of the material around them è Planet Formation and Sun Formation: the sun forms from the increasingly hot gases in the middle Characteristics of Galaxies - Galaxies consists of stars, gas, dust and dark matter all bound together by gravity and orbiting about a center o Star Organization within a Galaxy § Globular Clusters · Hundreds/Thousands of stars tightly packed into a spherical shape § Open Clusters · May only have a few hundred stars and are formless o Gas Organization § Interstellar clouds: accumulation of dust and gas (Hydrogen and Helium) § Emission nebulae: ionized gas that glows from energetic photons from stars within them o Dark Matter § Accounts for the majority of a galaxy, but it is not visible - Galaxy Types o Spiral Galaxies § Flat, disk shaped (like a Frisbee), rotating with two or more arms emerging from the central region and curving around the disk · Milky Way is a spiral galaxy o Elliptical Galaxy § They may be spherical or "squashed" spheres (ellipsoidal); egg shaped and has a smooth distribution of stars § Have much less star formation than spirals o Irregular Galaxies § Have no regular structure § Like spirals they have some gas and young stars (active star formation) o Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy § Most common galaxy type § Have lower star density than ellipticals Star Color, Temperature, Size, and Luminosity - Benchamrks o Sirius (brightest star in the night sky, also the eye of the hunting dog following Orion) § Is white or blue white o Beteguese (on Orion's Right shoulder) § Is red o Aldebaran (near the horns of Taurus) § Is Orange o Cygnus (double star) § Made up of a very yellow star and a fainter green one - Star Coloration o Depends on the surface temperatures of the star § Hottest Stars (tens of thousands of degrees) are blueish § 6000 K, appear yellow (i.e. Sun) § Much Cooler Stars (Betelguese w/ 3500 K) are red o The star radiates across the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths, but the emission has a peak at a particular wavelength, depending on the temperature - Star Size o Stars measured with respect to the radius of the Sun (7 x 10^8 m) Unit : Rsun o Sizes § Dwarf or Normal (0.1-5 Rsun) · Ie Sun § Red Giant Star (70 Rsun) · Ie Aldebaran § Supergiant (100 Rsun) · Betelguese - Star Luminosity o Is the energy it radiates per unit time, in unit of Watts o Not to be confused with "Apparent Magnitude" (how bright the star appears from earth) o Luminosity is a function of the star itself and does not depend on distance § However distance from earth must be used to determine the stars luminosity

Describe how photosynthesis , autotrophs, nitrogen and phosphate, are interrelated? Respiration is carried out by which consumers? , How is carbon and phosphate involved in respiraiton? Are fungi photosynthetic?are fungi autotroph or heterotroph?

· Photosynthesis and respiration in an ecosystem o Photosynthesis is carried out by the primary produces also called autotrophs, and uses CO2 , water, and sunlight to create organic carbon and nitrogen based compounds using phosphate groups as energy§ ( notes : ATP where phosphate group is important, releases oxygen) o Respiration is carried out by both producers and consumers also called heterotrophs, in which oxygen is consumed and carbon dioxide expelled. it uses up carbon based compounds an also uses phosphate as a catalyst ( notes : takes in oxygen. Here carbohydrates are ingested not created, and release carbon dioxide as waste product. CO2 is released. Animals can only respirate so heterotroph depend on something else for food. Respiration uses phosphate as catalyst. So respiration and photosynthesis are opposite , one creates carbohydrate and release oxygen the other consumes and breaks apart carbohydrate to release its energy and expel carbon dioxide as waste product. Illustration things like plants, algae and bacteria are autotrophs use chlorpyll stored in chloroplast. In case of bacteria, they don't store chlorophyll in the chloroplast. Keep in mind fungi and other bacteria ( nonphotosynthetic ) are also heterotrophs. So for test, don't assume, fungi are not photosynthetic so it's a heterotroph.

A. Recognize how evidence from the study of lunar rocks, asteroids, and meteorites provides information about Earth's formation and history ( not done just need to summarize) radioactive dating of what rock shows that we are about 4.5 billionyears ago? how dod asteroid bring life to earth? how id our moon form ? how old are the oldest rocks on earyt ? tje oldenst rock on moon are how old ? the oldest meteorites recovered are how old ?

· Solar system formed 4.6 billion years ago, same for earth. Evidence includes ages of ancient materials (radiometric dating of meterorites, moon rocks, earth oldeset minerals, sizes and composition of solar system objects, and the impact of cratering record of planetary surfaces. Studying objects can help scientist deduce the solar system age and history, including the formation of planet earth. · Meteroites can help determine age of our solar system 4.568 billion years. They also provide clues of element present in our solar system. We know from meteorites that earth has a center or core made of nickel and iron metal.lighter materials form a rocky crust and mantle on the outside. Rule of thump is that older surfaces have existed longer so have more impact crater. earth has few craters due to plate tectonic (soil erosion). By measuring the ratio of isotopes on meteorites, we are given staring point of earth composition, and that crust formed on surface of earth around 4.5 billion years ago. · Radioactive dating of Apollo rock (lunar rock) yield age 4.5 billion years ago. Radioactive decay lifetimes and isotopic content in rocks provide a way of dating rock formations and thereby fixing the scale of geological time. giant impact scenario comes from rocks collected during the Apollo Moon landings, which show oxygen isotope ratios nearly identical to those of Earth,indicate that they originated from the same time. part of solar system. Pollo mission indicated 3.9-3.85 bya period of large asteroid impacts, · Moon lacks water,atmosphere, tectonic activity for soil erosion, so it has more crater visible. Lunar rock from the Apollo mission is mostly made of plagioclase, rock formed out of molten magma. Rocks like this make up moons crust and indicate a violent beginning. its believe earth was hit by another planet maybe size of mars, forming earth, ejected material melted and formed moon, it was covered in ocean of magnant , settled and cooled, theory this happened 4.5 biollion years ago. Plagioclasee is not very dense, and arise on surface of magaman as it cools, so the plagioclase material rose creating moons crust. craters on moon indicate moon and earth suffered from many asteroid hitting over and over again. Scientist have used or studied craters on continent using radiometric dating of rocks to determine age. Moon rocks ejected by asteroid impacts have landed on earth. · Measure of lunar rocks show earth was bombarded 3.9 billion years ago by radiometric dating to determine when rocks had melted after being struck by meteorites. meteorites may have wiped dinosaur 65 mya. When asteroid or part of it crashes, its meteorite. · Moon rocks tell story of creating, violent beginning earth collided with mars meteorite, ejecting moon. amino acids are found on meteorites, building blocks of life, possibly flow in by asteroid or meteorites. Asteroid and comet may have delivered water, ice, and other carbon molecules to earth.Fused and evaporated fraction have chemical traces of exploded asteroid, including trace element ( iridium meteorite), this rarely is found in sediment material on earth. Impacts trigger transition in structure and composition of earth crust · Ages of moon rocks, meteorites, by decay of radioactive isotopes. · Oldest rocks on Earth 4 billion years · Oldest rocks on Moon 4.4 billion years · Oldest meteorites 4.6 billion years

a. . Demonstrate knowledge of the major anatomical structures and life processes (e.g., reproduction, photosynthesis, cellular respiration, transpiration) of various plant groups. what kind of reproduction , vascular , avascular, dominant reproduction cycle vs alternaitie reproduc cycle for each algae, mosse, ferns, gymnosper, and agniospern? what enviroment conditions do they require for reproduction ?

· The lifer processes of various plant groups * algae sexually or asexually. Vegetative, filametnous agale break down into filament, each fragment is new plabt, this is binary fission reproduction. In asexual, there is production of difrent spores , the zoospores are flagellated motile and on germination give rise to new plants. non vascular. reuires water for sperm to travel. no xylem pholome or stomate. gametophytie dominatn. alternative generation is sporophyte. o Mosses show both the sporophyte and gametophyte is dependen on the gametophyte while it releases the spores. vegetative,seuxal and asexual reproduction. nonvascular, no root stem or leaves. dominat is haplid gaemet.alternative life cycle is sporophyte.rquires water. photsynthesis occure in the gametophyte stage. no roots, but rhizoid resemble roots. po o Ferns have alternation of generations meaning that they alternate between gametophyte and sporophyte . a gametophyte will produce haploid gamets . a sporophyte is diploid and process spores that can grow into new plants. sexual AAND ASEXUAL reproduction. vascular root stem and leaves. the diploid sporophyte is the main dominant form. alternative generation is gametophyte. requires water. o Gymnosperms are plants with unenclosed seeds, such as cones. sexual reproduction, need pollication, plants with unenclosed seeds, like cones are female and then pollen cones are male part, truck of tree has spores, so it reproduces by making seeds not flowers. vascular tissue. dominat is sporophyte tree. alternative is gametophyte pollen cone and cone ovule. wind, insect, brids. o Angiospers are flowering plants.They have male and femal partes, sexual reprouction. they need pollination. dominat is sporophyte, alternati is gametophytes polle ovary. by wind insect and land. In the male gametophyte, or pollen grain, each pollen sac ( microsporangia) contains diploid microsporocytes (microspore mother cells ) that undergo meiosis. each microsporocyte divides by meiosis to produce 4 haploid microspores, . thE 4 HAPLOID MICROSPORES undergo mitosis to develop into pollen grain . aFTER THE POLLEN gRAIN LANDS ON THE STIGMA OF THE CARPEL AND THE POLLEN TUBES BEGIN TO GROW, a pollen grain becomes a mature male gaemtophyte when it generative nucleus divides to from two sperm. withing the ovlule, megasporagiun is a large diploid cell called megasporocyte or megaspore mother cell. the megasporocyte divides by meiosis and gives rise to four haploid cells , . Three mitotic division (mitosis) of the megaspore form the embry sac, a multicellular female gametophyte. the ovule consist of embray sac aloung with surrounding integuments.

What is dominant species? foundation species?example? define keystone species, give anexample ? what is a niche?

· The role of key organism withing an ecosystem o The dominant species is the most abundant species or the species with the largest biomass ( total mass of all individuals in a population) . o A foundation species causes physical changes in the environment that affect the overall structure of the ecosystem § Ex kept forest, with ought It no food for fish, few living things o A keystone species plays a critical role in the community structure within an ecosystem, and has a disproportionately strong affect on the environment relative to its abundance § Example beavers building a dam ( not a lot of beavers, but without them they are important because they build dams and create environment for other fish) . another example sea otter eat sea urchin, sea urchin eat kelp roots, so no more kelp, so fish loose home , so without other the kelp forest goes away and the homes disappear) o A niche is the specific role of a population or individual organism within an ecosystem

7.what is the refraction index?

refracted index= sini/sinr

19 a. Understand natural resources and natural hazards. (SMR 4.5) a. Demonstrate knowledge of renewable and nonrenewable energy resources (e.g., fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, solar, biomass

· Renewablre resources o Renewable resources Are resource that are natural replaced at the same rate as consumption or faster o Some naturally occurring resources are in no danger of being exhoused § Solar, wind, and water power o Other resources must be replaced by humsn to be considered reneweable § Trees and corn § Note : we can use trees to build houses, but we have to plant new trees. · Non-renewable resources o Non-renewable resources are replaced at a slower rate than consumption § Fossil fuels are forming at a slower rate than we are using them § Minerals and metals are extracted and there is no process for replacing them o Some resources have the potential to be renewable but must be consciously replaced regularly o Notes : renewable by humans we can recycle, replant. · Energy resources o Fossile fuels are forms of energy that are the result of ancient organism breaking down. The major drawbacks are the limited supply and resulting pollution § Petroleum/crude oil-organic material from ancient biomass found underground that is highly flammable and toxic § Natural gas/methan - gas found underground that ocmes from methan producting organism and nonliving biomass § Coal-combustible metamorphic/sedimentary rock from atmospheric carbon and plants that were buried underground § Notes : be aware of how we can harness energy. Plants and animal get barried, many layers sedimentary rock, millsion years, lots pressure, become crude oil . that oil can saturage carbon giving us coal, release fumes natural gas, comes from compression of biomass over million of years. Supply is limited, not renewable . burning causes pollution. Those are main fossile fules, energy production depend on fossil fuesl. o Biomass § Energy can be stored in biological structures and organism as biomass · Wood- primary used for cooking and heating but also can be used to power a steam engine. ( most commonly used type of biomass fuel) · Corn- converted to ethanol which is a biomass alcohol used for energy o Nuclear energy § Normally uranium is used as a source in nuclear energy . uranium is very prevalen on earth § The uranium is used ina chain reaction of fission that gives off energy in the power reactors. This energy is then converted into a more usable form § Plutonium can be used for the energy given off as it decays radioactively § Notes : fission split atoms to release energy stored in bonds. Occasional coal fussion bond two nuclei to release energy thorught nutrenos and gamma radiation. Those are all ways of releasing energy thorught nuclear reactions. Issue is how store waste ,its radioactrive. Another issue is getting material to use for that. Uranium all over earth surface, but only 1 isotope is U0 235 is useful , so we have to isolate that, and enrich it, conmplicated process. For the test, remember fission splits atoms apart to release energy. Fusion fusing together 2 or more nuclei to release energy. Online : Energy resources can be categorized into two categories: Non-renewable resources: formed in Earth, but the process that is used to create them are so slow that can take millions of years to produce significant quantities. They cannot be replaced as fast as humans use them up. Examples: fuels such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal; metals, such as iron, gold, copper. Some of these resources can be recycled such as aluminum. Renewable resources: resources that can be replenished over a relatively short time span. Examples: energy derived from water (hydropower), solar power, geothermal, wind energy, and ocean thermal; animals; and plants. ssil fuel: Includes natural gas, coal, and petroleum. Fossil fuel is a nonrenewable resource that comes from plants and animals that died millions years ago. Fossil fuels are made out of hydrocarbons. The transformation from dead organisms into fossil fuel involves pressure, heat, and time. The overall efficiency of extracting energy from fossil fuels and converting it to electricity is approximately 35%. Coal: Forms from the remains of plant and tree. Coal contains significant amount of sulfur, which becomes noxious sulfur oxide gases which undergoes chemical reaction to convert into sulfuric acid. There are different types of coal that can be burned for fuel. Listed from lowest rank (least efficient) to highest rank (most efficient): lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and then anthracite (which is the most metamorphosed type of coal and burns the most efficiently). Most abundant and burned fossil fuel in the world is coal. Natural Gas: Forms when the buried layers of plant and animal remains undergo intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. Petroleum: Formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms that were buried under sedimentary rocks. After undergoing intense heat and pressure for millions of years, they were transformed into the carbon-rich fuel. Nuclear fuel: comes from power plants that converts radioactive materials into energy through nuclear fission. This process involves the bombardment of a heavy nuclei, normally uranium-235, with neutrons. The ejected neutrons then, in turn, continue to bombard nearby heavy uranium nuclei and a chain reaction results. This reaction produces heat energy. No production of greenhouse gases but it does produce radioactive waste. Solar energy: This is the direct use of sun's light rays. This process is either passive solar collector or active solar collector. Passive solar collectors involves simple equipment such as south-facing windows (sunlight comes through window and heats room up). Active solar collectors involve elaborate systems of roof mounted blackened boxes that are covered with glass. This system collects heat, which is then circulated through pipes to where it is needed.Wind: a form of solar energy. Winds are the result of the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the Sun as well as the rotation of the Earth and the irregularities of the Earth's surface. The wind is harvested by wind turbines to generate mechanical power or electricity. Biomass: a method of burning organic matter (firewood, charcoal, crop residues, animal waste, ethanol, biodiesel) directly as fuel. Some people confuse biomass with fossil fuel. While both uses organic matter as fuel, fossil fuel formed millions of years ago.Hydro-power: energy that comes from hydro-power is harnessed from moving waterQuick Quiz!The fuel that is being mined in this illustration is:a) fossilb) nuclearc) windd) solar other study guides: Fossil Fuels: Natural Gas - NOT a renewable resource - Natural gas and oil are often found together because both form the remains of living creatures that have been squeezed under thick layers of sediment - Order of rock layers from bottom to top in a deposit of oil and gas: 1) Source rock :layer of sediment where oil and gas originate 2) Reservoir rock: porous 3) Impermeable trap: prevents oil or gas from moving out - ½ of natural gas in CA is used to generate electricity -Btu/ birtish thermal unit = measure of energy in a given weight or volume of fuel -natural gas = occurs naturally in underground reservoirs, mixture of hydrocarbons, type of fossil fuel that takes thousandsà millions of years to form, most formed from remains of plankton - most of world's natural gas reserves are in the Middle East and Eurasia - About 22% of energy consumed in US is produced by natural gas, 84% is produced domestically - Natural gas burns more cleanly than other fossil fuels, can be transported without pipe lines as a cold liquid, and components of natural gas are used to make plastics Fossil Fuels: Oil - sweet crude oil = low in sulfur (a pollutant), best for producing gasoline - anticline = a rock arch under which oil and gas may be trapped - Petroleum/Oil = mixture of many types of hydrocarbons and organic compounds - Crude Oil : can be separated into : fuel oil, lubricating oil, diesel, kerosene, gasoline, butane, propane - Oil = not a renewable resource - Refining oil takes advantage of the fact that different components have different boiling points Fossil Fuels: Coal - coal: formed from peat (decaying plants), found under layers of sedimentary rock - Wyoming has lots of coal! - Electrostatic precipitators: trap soot particles to eliminate pollutant from coal-burning plants - Pollutants: mercury, soot, sulfur and nitric oxide - Coal gas is more expensive than coal - NON-renewable resource Energy from Nuclear Reactors - Fission of U-235 causes when nucleus is hit by a relatively slow-moving neutron - Reprocessing: separating plutonium from reactor's spent fuel (reactor waste) - Control Rods: control the rate of energy generation in the reactor by soaking up neutrons in fission rxns and slow down those rnxs and then removing the rods allows the reaction to pick up again - Energy from nuclear pwr plant comes from: fission/breakup of nuclei of uranium + plutonium - Advantages: fuel is abundant and cheap, uranium is easily transported, concentrated sources, no greenhouse gases are produced - Disadvantages: cost of plant, damage from mining, security concerns, radioactive waste - US gets about 1/5 of its electricity from nuclear energy - NOT renewable Fossil Fuels: Natural Gas - Natural Gas o Is a mixture of hydrocarbons § 70-90% methan and small varying proportions of ethane, propane, and butane · Methane o Odorless o Dry Natural gas - refers to pure methane o We Natural gas - is the unrefined version o Is highly flammable and makes explosire mixture with air § And carbon dioxide, with traces amount of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide and rare gases as Argon, Helium, Neon, and Xenon o Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) § Natural gas coole to about 163 degrees for storage o Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) § Stored in high pressure o Natural gas is a fast growing energy resource § Natural gas is a fossil fuel (as coal and oil) § Most natural gas formed from remains of phytoplankton and zooplankton that accumulated in marine sediments § Source Rock/Bed · The layer of sediment where oil and gas originate · For oil and gas to accumulate must have § Reservoir bed · A layer of relatively porous and permeable rock in which the gas can reside) § Trap layer · A cap to confine the oil and gas, and must be impermeable to the gas; found over the other layers § Note · If oil gas and water would be present together, these will separate according to density (gas above >oil>water § Anticline § Gas/Oil Deposit Traps · Structural traps o Formed by foldin or faulting rock layers § Ie. Anticline (An arch of stratified rock, that if impermeable can accumulate natural gas and oil) · Stratigraphic Trap o Formed by changes in rock type/sedimentary features that create space where hydrocarbons are confine by impermeable layers § Natural Gas reservoirs · Most found in the US are underlying Texas and the Gulf of Mexico and Alaska · Most found in the World are in the Middle East and Eurasia - Convention and Unconventional Natural Gas o Conventional Natural Gas § Flow to the surface from an underground reservoir when a well is dug o Unconventional Natural Gas § Exist in various forms · Ie. Shale gas, is where oil and gas particles become tightly bound to the sedimentary rock - Units of measurements o Natural gas volumes may be expressed in cubic feet occupied at normal temperature and pressure o Quantities may also be expressed in Btu (is the amount of natural gas that when burned with raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 degree · Utility companies charge residents by 100,000 btus - US production/consumption of Natural Gas o About 22% of the energy consumed in the US comes from burning of natural gas o About 84% of the natural gas consumed was produced domestically o Natural gas provides almost 1/3 of the California total energy requirements § About 43% is used for generating electricity in gas-fired plants - Environmental impacts of natural gas o Extracting, treating, transporting and burning gas generates § Nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide and other emission § Overall produce less pollution and greenhouse gasses than coal-fired plants Fossil Fuels: Oil - Appears thick, brown/black and has a rotten egg smell because of the sulfur compounds - Different uses of crude oil o Fuel oil - an industrial fuel, also used to make petroleum products o Lubrication oil - for lubricating motors o Diesel oil - fuel for trucks o Kerosene - fuel for jets and tractors o Gasoline - fuel for cars o Petroleum gases - for heating and cooking and making plastics - Components o Heavy § Contains a mixture of relatively dense hydrocarbons o Light § Mixture of less dense hydrocarbons · requiring less refining to be turned into gasoline o Sweet § Oil with little or no sulfur (an undesirable impurity) - Origin of Oil o Oil is a fossil fuel, formed from organic remains of plants and animals over very long time periods and it is not a renewable source - Oil reservoirs are the same as for natural gas o Source Rock<Reservoir Bed<Trap/Cap Layer o Same types of traps exist for both oil and natural gas § These two are typical found together - The US has a strategic emergency petroleum reserve of crude oil - Conventional Extraction of Oil o Primary oil recovery § Is the process of drilling for oil and pumping it out where enough pressure exists naturally in the reservoir bed to bring some oil up o Secondary Oil Recovery § Begins when the oil no longer rises naturally to the surface, where companies then inject water or gas to increase the pressure there o Tertiary Oil recovery § Involves making the oil remaining in the reservoir more fluid (less viscous) so as to bring it up more easily · Thermally enhanced oil recovery (TEOR); where companies inject steam into the reservoiràsteam heats the oilàmaking it more fluid - Unconventional Extraction of Oil (difficult and expensive to extract) o Oil shale § Is a type of sedimentary rock that when heated releases hydrocarbons o Tar Sands § Consist of clay, sand, water and bitumen, a type of oil - Refining o The process of refining takes advantage of the fact that the different components of crude oil have different boiling points o Distillation process § Crude oil is heated until it is converted to superheated steamàpasses through a distillation column (hot bottom and cool at the top) · Low vaporization o Fractions can rise all the way to the cool top before liquefying § Includes butane, propane · High vaporization o Become liquefied lower down in the column § Include diesel and industrial oil · Heaviest residue at the bottom o Liquefies more easily § Used to make paraffin wax and asphalt o Chemical Process § Heavier hydrocarbons can be converted into lighter hydrocarbons if necessary · DiesielàGasoline - Environmental effects o Many environmental problems are associated with the search for oil, its extraction, refining and consumption § Ie. Groundwater pollution, destroying natural habitats, greenhouse gas emissions - Data on consumption, production and imports o US consumes about 25% of the world petroleum o About half of the crude comes from western hemisphere (Canada, Mexico, and Venezuela) o 70% of US oil consumption is for transportation - Ratio of Energy Return to Energy Invested o EROI = energy obtained/energy required to extract, transport and refine - Peak oil o Gas production behaves in a bell curve fashion, thus peaking at a certain time and then becoming more difficult to extract as it become scarce Fossil Fuel: Coal - Is a fossil fuel that comes in the form of a black sedimentary rock - Coal formed from PEAT which in turned formed from plants (thus coal is mostly formed from plants) - Form so coal o Energy Content § Bituminous (soft coal)>with Light/Sub Bituminous Coal >Anthracite (hard coal) - Coal is found under layers of sedimentary rocks such as limestone, shale, over sandstone o Mostly found in the Asia Pacific Region and in North America o US major coal reserve states includes § Wyoming, West Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania and Texas - Uses of Coal o To generate electricity in traditional coal-fired plants § The coal is burned to produce steam, which later powers turbines that generate electricity · About half the electricity in the US is from burning coal o In production of steel, where coal is burned at high temperatures to make coke, which in turn is used to melt iron ore into the iron for steel - Traditional Plants Pollute o Soot § Particles of ash an dust (removed by electrostatic precipitators) o Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides § Cause acid rain (removed with scrubbers, which absorb sulfur dioxide onto limestone) § Nitrogen removed by controlling the oxygen concentration of the coal burning process o Mercury Emissions § Accumulate in fish (removed by absorbing it on the surface of activated carbon) - Improved ways to burn coal o Fluidized bed Combustion § Burns coal at lower temperatures o Conversion to gas before burning § This is an expensive yet effective process Energy from Nuclear Reactors - Uranium and Plutonium o Energy comes from fission (break up) of nuclei of uranium/plutonium o Uranium occurs naturally, where as plutonium is a byproduct of some nuclear reactions (can be used as a fuel) o Canada produces about 1/4 of the worldwide production of uranium o Natural Uranium is composed of three isotopes § Mostly U-238, but it is U-235 the one used to make energy · Thus natural uranium must be enriched (remove other forms) for more efficient energy production o Energy from uranium § Acquired by fission, that is the break- up of the uranium nuclei § A neutron escapes from the nucleus of the U-235 atomàthe neutron travels fast and bounces off any other U-235 nuclei and sticks to a U-238àslow down the moving neutron such that it lodges itself into the U-235 nucleus (only slow) and breaking it apartàreleasing energy § How to slow down the neutron? · By bouncing a neutron off of nuclei in a specially chosen type of material (moderator) inserted into the reactor o Graphite can serve as a moderator § Control Rods · Made of boron/cadmium absorb neutrons without fissioning o U-238 that catches neutron becomes Plutonium-239, which can be used as a fuel in reactors contributing to energy production though significantly less than that produce by U-235 - The energy released by the series of fission reactions (heat) is absorbed by water in turn converting into steam o This steam turns the blades of a turbine, motion that is later converted into electricity by a generator § This steam is later cooled and condensed back into water § Cooling towers - are where the water coming from the turbine can be cooled and sent back to the reactor - Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy o Waste § Immobilizing nuclear waste by · Glassfication or vitirfication where the waste is molten to a glass-waste mixture and sealed up until the radioactivity declines to a safe level § Where to store it? - Types of Reactors o Breeder Reactors § Generate more fuel that they consume; which rely on plutonium fission, so they require the reprocessing of nuclear waste § Advantage is the significantly less waste production, but Plutonium can be stolen to produce nuclear weapons - Use of Nuclear Energy o France, about 3/4 of its electricity comes from nuclear plants on its own territory o Lithuania, about 3/4 electricity from nuclear energy . Identify resources as renewable vs. nonrenewable 1.) Five most used forms of renewable energy: Biomass, hydropower, geothermal energy, wind and solar energy. 2.) Advantages and Disadvantages a.) Advantages Little or no waste, can be renewed. b.) Disadvantages: depend on the weather. Produce energy at lower rates, fossil fuels and nuclear energy are still relatively inexpensive. c.) Wind farms can pose a problem to migrating birds and hydroelectric dams can impede the migration of salmon. 3.) Sustainability a.) Growing food sustainable might mean to grow enough for the present time without depleting the soil, polluting water that runs off the farm, overusing groundwater, harming pollinators through pesticides or exposing workers and consumers to chemicals. b.) To determine if something is sustainable, consider its effects in relation to three components: needs of the people, protection of environment and health of the economy. i. Renewable energy generally sustainable because it does not deplete sources and generally not much pollution is generated ii. Energy efficiency is generally considered to be an aspect of the sustainable use of energy because it prolongs the use of a resource and reduces waste. 4.) Renewable energy in CA a.) 11.8% of energy is renewable. Large hydroelectric plants are not generally considered renewable sources due to their environmental impact. 5.) hydropower a.) 20% of global electricity comes from this, mostly large dams. Some famous dams and associated hydroelectric power projects: i. Three Gorges Dam in China - fully operational in 2011. Will provide 22,500 MW more than any other in the world. The Grand Coulee Dam in the US provides 6,500 MW. ii. The Itapu Dam as border of Brazil and Paraguay has a total capacity of 12,600 MW, enough to power most of CA all by itself. iii. Grand Coulee - biggest in the US, third largest in the world iv. Hoover Dam - was the largest in the world and most challenging to build b.) The Aswan high Dam was built to control flooding on the Nile. Dam provided about half of Egypt's electricity. 6.) A newer form of hydroelectric energy is from small-scale projects, supplying less than 10-30 MW. Small scale projects usually do not completely dam a river. They can often avoid the environmental problems of large-scale projects such as interfering with salmon. Are also less expensive to build and maintain. 7.) Hydroelectric power in CA a.) 16% of its electricity from hydroelectric power plants, higher than the national avg 8.) Geothermal energy a.) CA largest geothermal energy capacity in the US, at Napa and Sonoma. Nor Cal b.) At the Geysers in San Francisco, generating electricity since the 60s. The city of San Bernardino heats at least three dozen buildings, including city hall, directly from geothermal sources. 9.) Solar energy a.) CA legislature has encouraged homeowners and businesses to use small scale solar heating. b.) Solar energy photovoltaic or solar cells to change sunlight into electricity. Solar Thermal/Electric power plants generate electricity by concentrating solar energy to heat a fluid and produce steam that is used to power a generator. 10.) Wind Energy - CA first state to develop large wind farms. CA wind farms produced 90% of all wind-generated electricity worldwide. Wind farms operational today are located on mountain passes, which act like natural wind tunnels, channeling the movement of air. 11.) Energy from the Ocean a.) Some countries are just beginning to make use of energy from ocean waves. Scotland built the first commercial 'wave farm'. CA has good potential for the development of ocean wave energy conversion facilities. Waves could produce 17 MW per miles of coastline. 12.) Ethanol a.) California has 5 operating ethanol plants. Most corn to supply the plants arrives by train from the Midwest. Gasoline currently contains 6% ethanol, supposed to rise to 10% in 2010. 13.) Biomass a.) At least 36 biomass power plants in CA. Fuels burned include wood, lumber mill waste, agricultural waste and urban wood waste. 700 MW of generating capacity. b.) 14.) Biodiesel fuel a.) More than 4 millon gallons of diesel fuel are used each year in CA. US Navy largest consumer. Other study guide: Renewable Sources of Energy - Forms of renewable energy o Biomass - organic material from plants and animals, such as wood and ethanol, can be burned to release energy in the form of heat o Hydropower - moving water, can be harnessed to give mechanical energy or electricity o Geothermal - heat from within the earth, can be used to heat buildings or generate electricity o Wind - can be harnessed to give mechanical energy or electricity o Solar energy - radiation from the sun, can be used directly for heating, or it can be converted to electricity - Advantages and Disadvantages o Pros § Are renewable, no worry for running out § Produce little or no waste o Cons § Some depend on weather conditions § Less effective at energy production, producing at lower rates § Relatively expensive - Sustainability o Is meeting our present needs while preserving resources for future generations o How is sustainability determined? § The needs of the people § The protection of the environment § The health of the economy - Hydropower o Is one of the most widely used forms of renewable energy o Examples (most energy producers listed first) § The 3 Gorges Dam (China) § Itaipu Dam (Brazil and Paraguay) § Grand Coulee Dam (Washington) § Hoover Dam (Colorado River) § Aswan High Dam (Egypt) - Geothermal Energy o California has the largest geothermal energy generating capacity in the US § Generating plants mostly in Napa and Sonoma o Geothermal energy sources are found in places with volcanous, geysers and fumaroles - Solar Energy o Mojave Desert, California - Wind Energy o California is the world leader in development of wind energy o Wind farms are located in mountain passes which act like natural wind tunnels channeling the movement of air - Energy from the Ocean o Agucadora Wave Park (Portugal) o Harnessing energy from ocean waves - Biomass Energy o Ethanol § California has five operating ethanol plants § Mixing with gasoline o 36 biomass fueled plants in California § Fuels include burned wood, lumber mill waste, agricultural waste, and urban wood waste o Biodiesel fuel § More than 4 million gallons of iesel fuel are used each year in California § Biodiesel vs Diesel · Has lower sulfur content · Is renewable · Is non toxic § Municipal Solid Waste · Can be burned in a waste-to energy plant Methane gas from the was can be collected and burned Renewable Sources of Energy - Solar Energy: radiation from the sun: can be used directly for heating or it can be converted to electricity - Wind: mechanical energy or electricity - Geothermal energy: heat from within the earth: can be used to heat buildings or generate electricity - Hydropower: moving water can be harnesses to give mechanical energy or electricity à provide about 20% of global energy à Grand Coulee Dam in Washington = biggest in US, 3rd in world - Biomass: organic material from plants and animals can be burned to release energy in the form of heat - Municipal solid waste: can be burned to produce energy directly, other landfill gas (methane) that is emitted can be collected and burned - Advantages: little or no waste products will not run out - Disadvantages: depend on weather, produce energy at lower rates, fossil fuels and nuclear energy are still relatively inexpensive - Sustainability = meeting our present needs while preserving resources for the future

what is succession? what is primary sucession? what is secondary sucession? most newly introduced population experience the greatset grown during what phase ?

- Succession: gradual changes in the ecosystem over time. the process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time. - Primary succession: takes place in an area that is devoid of life (lava flow, rocky mountaintop).In primary succession, newly exposed or newly formed rock is colonized by living things for the first time. o Pioneer organism invade o As they die, soil builds up and larger plants grow o Growing grasses shade out lichen and moss which ide out o The process continues with each community being replaced: bushes, small trees, then larger trees - Secondary Succession: takes place after an exiting ecosystem is damaged or destroyed by a natural disaster or by human activity. in secondary succession, an area that was previously occupied by living things is disturbed, then re-colonized following the disturbance - Most newly introduced populations experience the greatest growth during the log phase

12. Understand ecosystems: interactions, energy, and dynamics. a) Demonstrate knowledge of the abiotic and biotic factors in an ecosystem and their relationship to the growth of individual organisms\ knwo diffrent abiotic vs biotic factors an ecosystme is comprised of ______ and _____ factors. biotic factors include ... abiotic factors includes oganims rom ocean ge energy from

Abiotic and biotic factors in an ecosystem o Ecosystem contain abiotic and biotic factors § Abiotic is nonliving factors like temperature, water, light ,air, or nutrient § Biotic are living factors including all the organism These factors can limit distribution or range of the species and the abundance (population size) Abiotic Factors- Organism in a biosphere are acted upon by abiotic (non-living) factors. Factors include things such as: 1. Temperature: affects metabolism, range is 0 to 50 degree C 2. Water: adaptations for water balance and conservation help determine a species' habitat range 3. Light: Solar energy drives nearly all of the ecosystem. Availability of light can determine habitat. In aquatic environments, where water reflects and absorbs certain wavelengths, most photosynthesis takes place near the surface of the water. Animal and plant behavior is sensitive to photoperiods (duration of an organisms' exposure to light). 4. Soil: physical structure, pH, and mineral composition of soil limit distribution of plants and hence animals that feed on them. 5. Wind: amplifies effects of temperature by increasing heat loss by evaporation and convection. 6. Natural Disasters: fires, hurricanes, typhoons, volcanic eruptions all can devastate biological communities. Abiotic factors does not include dead animals or plants.Biotic Factors-livings things that shape an ecosystem. The biotic components found in a location are affected by abiotic factors in that area. There is a finite amount of items that can be alloted for growth, reproduction, obtaining nutrients, etc.Biotic factors include: 1. animals- mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, fish, amphibians 2. plants 3. fungi 4. bacteria 5. decomposers 6. herbivores 7. carnivores 8. producers other : Introduction to Ecology - biotic environment: all living organisms - abiotic environment: all non-living parts of a biotic environment: soils, weather, solar radiation, gravity, atmosphere, water, rocks... - Ecosystem à Communities à Population (same species) à Organism - Ecosystem: abiotic and biotic components that function as a unit in a specific habitat.Biotic and abiotic components interact with each other resulting in transfer and replenishment of energy and nutrients. - Biotic factors : herbivores, carnivores, decomposers, primary producers - Abiotic factors: sunlight, temperature, precipitation, water or humidity, dry soil - Organisms at bottom of ocean get energy from chemosynthesis (happens in bacteria)

IN AEROBIC respriation, the goal of krevs cycle is to take the pyruate and produce ? The goal of krebs cycle is to make what, hwere does this take place ? How many ATP made in animal vs plant? Animal get ATP from what organlle, vs plants ?

Aerobic respiration- a type of internal respiration that takes place in the presence of free oxygen. Most organisms obtain the majority of their energy through aerobic respiration. Oxygen is carried by the blood and taken into the cell and reacts in the mitochondria with the pyruvic acid produced in anaerobic respiration. Carbon dioxide and water are the products of this reaction. Chemical energy is stored as "ATP". This process is an example of oxidation where a substance is broken down in the presence of oxygen. Krebs cycle: the goal is to take the pyruvate and produce NADH and FADH2. This process takes place in the mitochondria and has two steps. First is the conversion of pyruvate into Acetyl CoA, the second is the Krebs Cycle proper. Carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens end up as CO2 and H2O. Chemiosmosis is the production of ATP in cellular respiration. The goal of chemiosmosis is to break down NADH and FADH2, pumping H+ into the outer compartment of the mitochondria. The Electron Transport Phosphorylation (ETP) creates a gradient which is used to produced ATP. The ETP typically creates 32 ATP's**. ATP is generated as it moves down the concentrated gradient through a special enzyme called ATP synthase. 32 molecules of ATP can be produced for each glucose molecule as a result of the Krebs cycle reactions (2 ATP's), the electron transport system, and chemiosmois. In addition, 2 more ATP molecules are produced through glycolysis, giving us a net total of 36 ATP molecules**. Each ATP molecule can release 7.3 kilocalories of energy per mole. ** Note, some science books will list that a net of 38 ATPs is produced. This number has more to do with plants as they do not spend some of the ATP. Also, these numbers are ideal, and the maximum number of ATP's won't always be produced from every glucose. Some differences between plants and animals: 1) While both plants and animal cells contain mitochondria, animal cells contain much more 2) Animal cells get most of their ATPs from mitochondria 3) On the other hand, plant cells get most of their ATP from chloroplast

Whare whare the method of asexual reproduction? What organims undergo binary fission ,what is binary fission? What organims undergo vegetative reproduction? What is fragementation, which organims undergo fragementation? What is germation, is that asexual ? What is sporulation ? what are the two methods of sporulation ? What occurs in regeneration ? In asexual, what happens before a sex divides ? Compare and contrast sexual vs asexual reproduction ?

Asexual reproduction is a from of reproduction occurring in many simple plants and animals. The resulting offspring often have the exact same genetic information as the parent. There are a number of different types of asexual reproduction: 1. binary fission- process of simple organism dividing into two identical ones. 2. vegetative reproduction- multicellular structure becomes detached and develops into new individuals. 3. Fragmentation- Most likely occurs in mold, yeast, and mushrooms. These organisms produce tiny filaments called hyphae. The hyphae obtains nutrients from the bodies of other organisms. When a piece of the hyphae breaks off, it grows into a new individual. 4. germation- form of fission where the parent cell forms a bud-like cell that separates and forms an independent existence. 5. sporulation- this is the production of bodies called spores. This can occur in two ways: 1) develops in complex fungi, mosses, and ferns by a special cell division. New plants are not the same at s the parent plants. 2) produced in simple plants which are identical to the parents. True asexual preproduction occurs with this type. 6. Regeneration- this process takes place with invertebrates of the animal kingdom. This process produces offspring that is identical to the parents. Planaria, for example, is able to reproduce by dividing in two and then regenerating the missing parts. Before a cell divides, it's nucleus undergoes division. Each chromosome is copied and each nucleus receives the same genetic material. As each cell divides, the two resulting daughter cells are exact copies of one another. seuxal-meiosis, 2n_>4ncell, ; fertilizaion, gene variaiton, pop grows slowly, lots energy, asuxual- 2n form 2n, no fertilization, limite variation, pop grwos faster, little energy. common-genes passed on, parent cell divides.

CNS coordinate all mechanical and chemcial actions w, working with hromones. CNS is made of brain and spinal cored. Brain is only organ able to produce intelligne actions and made of neurons arranged into sensory and motor areas. Sensory receive info from body and analyze impuls and make deicion. moto area send impulte to ... The spinal cord is made up of hat two groups....for these groups , which bring singals in and which bring signals ot? what are they called ? what are the two types of brain cells, where are they found in the brain? which brain cell produces meylin for coating ?

Central Nervous System:The CNS coordinates all mechanical and chemical actions, working with hormones. CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord. There are millions of nerves in the body that carry "massages" to and from the central areas of the CNS.Brain- only organ able to produce "intelligent" actions and is made up of millions of neurons that are arranged into sensory associations and motor areas. Sensory associations received info from all parts of the body and analyzes the impulses and makes decisions. Motor areas sends impulse to muscles or glands. The impulses are carried by the fibers of 43 pairs of nerves, 12 pairs of cranial nerves serving the head and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Spinal Cord- is a long string of nervous tissue running down from the brain inside the vertebral column. Nervous impulses from all parts of the body pass through it. Each spinal cord is made up of two groups of fibers: a dorsal, or sensory root, bringing impulses in and a ventral, or motor root, taking impulses out. Neuralgia (glia)- stiffened cells which support and protect the nerve cells, some produce myelin that coats the long fibers found in the connective layer of the spinal cord and leads to areas known as white matter. Grey matter consists mainly of cell bodies and their short fibers. It's neuralgia do not produce myelin.

For the circulatory ssytem, what kind of tissue lines the blood vessels ? arteries vs capillaries ,vs veins, in terms of the width of their walls ?where do they carrye blood to or from? Diagram arterin, capillari,vein,venules, vein ,artioles ,artery,capillaries. Blood is composed of what ?

Circulatory System: This is a system of blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries). Endothelium is a tissue that lines the arteries and veins and is the only layer of the capillary. The pumping of the heart, the muscles within the veins/arteries, and the pressure all help blood to flow through the body. Major organs include: Blood Vessels: Arteries- carry blood away from the heart. Arteries consist of a wide, thick walled blood vessel. As it moves away from the heart, they begin to branch out. Capillaries- these are small, thin walled vessels that branch off from arteries. They pass oxygen and dissolved food through their thin walls into the body cells while carbon dioxide and waste is passed in. The capillaries of the digestive organs and liver also pick up food. Capillaries then join up to form venules.Except for the pulmonary artery, arteries and capillaries carry fresh oxygen, dissolved nutrients, and waste that was transferred by the veins in the heart. Arteries and capillaries transfer food to the cells. Waste is carried to the kidneys. Veins- these are wide, thick walled vessels that carry blood back to the heart. They have valves that prevent blood from flowing back due to gravity. Veins are formed from merging venules. Venuels are formed from merging capillaries. 2) Heart- a muscle that pumps the blood3) Blood- plasma, blood cells (red, white, platelets)

Why do stars have diffrent colors and what do colors tell us ? what is the order of spectrial types ? why is the HR diagam importnatn and what does it tell us ? what color are the hottest stars, what color are cooler stars ? How do astromers measures a stars size or weight ? what does keplers third law tell us about he spped of other planets orbiting ? In order to use newtons version to measure the mass of a star, we need to use what ? what do we need to know to know a stars mass ? describe how we can measure ortinat peiord ina visual inary star system , in a eclipsing binary star system , and in a spectroscopic binary system ? hOW CAN WE MEASURE SEPARTIONA ? Doppler shift tells us what relation to velocity? Using eclipins and other types of binary star system, astronomers can know what about a star ? If we consider our sun medium size, low mass stars of small medium size live longer or shorter ? Stars that are bigger , to they live longer ? The larger the star, what happens to fusion and hydrogen? Gian and supergian stars are what color , where are they in the HR diagram? What does the color indicate about temp? what is the luminosity of giant and supergiats compare to our sun?In order for these gains and supergians to be bright, they must have what ? What is luminostiy ?is the the total what ? wha is apparent brightness? when meausreing a tars luminost=ity, what do we need to know ? What are the class descriptions for hte size and luminosty of stars, what happens to the raddi as we move down the classes ? For a star, the more temp, what happnes to luminosty? How do astronomers measure light? what is the equation for luminosty and brightness? what is the equation for luminosty and radiens,? what is the equation luminosty with mass ? When astronomers calssify star,s they use what ? What direct method can be used to measure distance ? The parallax angle needs to be measured in order to calculate what ? The further the star, what happens to the parallax angle? 1 parsec=parallax angle? = light years ? example is if a star had a parallax angle p=1/10 arcsecond, how far away is it ?how far is it in light years ? color of a star depend on ? Betelguse star is a red star becuase it has what temp? Aldebaran is what color star ? Albireo is what color ? Why is the sirius the brightnes star in the sky,what color is it ? Suns temp in Kelvin? The hottens stars are what temp in K? what is luminoisty a meaure of ? What determines how big a star gets? Stars form out of what ? The initial mass of the proto stellar nebula determines what ? for small and large stars, which ones arecooler or hotter, which are birghter orfainter, which are red in color vs bright blue or white ? The gravity aroun a star wants to squeeze ot , how does a star avoid being squezzed by gravity? what are 4 evidence of exoplanets? How does the planetary transit method help us detect exoplanets ? How does the astrometric wobble helps us detect exoplanets? How does radial velocoy or the doppler method work? How does gravitational lensing work as evidence ?

Color- stars come in almost every color of the rainbow. Colors of the stars tells us something about their surface temperature. Stars come in different colors because they emit thermal radiation. The thermal radiation spectrum depends on the surface temperature of the star. Astronomers classify stars according to their surface temperature by assigning a spectral type. The order of the spectral types goes from hottest to coolest, OBAFGKM (Oh Be A Fine Girl Kiss Me). The H-R diagram became a very important tool in displaying star's surface temperature (spectral type) and its luminosity. A general trend when observing stars' luminosity and color is that the brightest and hottest stars are white with some blue. The coolest dim stars are reddish. Stars, such as our Sun, are more modest in temperature and are yellowish-white. Size- Weighing a star is much more difficult than measuring its surface temperature or luminosity. Astronomers use Newton's version of Kepler's third law in order to measure a stars weight. Kepler's third law: "The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit". In other words, distant planets orbit the sun at slower average speeds.Kepler did not know how this law worked, he just knew it did. Another issue with this law is that it doesn't work for objects that do not orbit the sun, such as the Earth's Moon. Newton was able to solve both issues with his Theory of Gravity by identifying that the masses of orbiting bodies play a part. Newton adapted Kepler's Third Law so that it can apply to any two orbiting objects with a common center of mass. Thus, in order to use Newton's version to measure the mass of a star, we need to use two stars that are in a binary star system. We also need to know the orbital period and the separation of the two stars. To measure an orbital period: 1) in a visual binary star system (one that we can see with a telescope) can be measured by observing how long each orbit takes. 2) in an eclipsing binary star system (star system that orbit in our line of sight. when one star eclipses the other, their apparent brightness drops. When neither star is eclipsed, then we see the combined light from both stars) can be measured by measuring the time between eclipses. 3) in a spectroscopic binary system (neither visual or binary, use Doppler shifts in its spectral lines), we measure the time it take for the spectral lines to shift back and forth. Measuring separation is more difficult. Rarely, astronomers are able to measure the separation directly. In other cases we measure it using their Doppler shifts. When studying an eclipsing binary star system (they lie in our line of sight), we can use their Doppler shift to tell us their orbital velocities. Using eclipsing and other types of binary star systems, astronomers have been able to identify the mass of may different stars. The size must be between 150Msun (150 times the mass of our Sun) and 0.08Msun (0.08 times the mass of our Sun). If the star were larger than 150Msun than the energy output from the core would drive the outer layers out into space. On the other hand, if the star were to be smaller than 0.08Msun, than its gravity would be too weak to contract the core to where it could reach 10 million K needed to fusion to take place. If this occurred, it is known as a "failed star" and is called a brown dwarf. Low mass stars of small-medium size tend to live long lives. Stars that are bigger than the sun have main-sequence lifetimes shorter than the suns 10 billion years and stars smaller than the sun have a longer life. The larger the star, the faster the rate of nuclear fusion takes place, thus the sooner hydrogen is being used up. Giants and supergiants are the red stars that are found to the right of the main-sequence in the H-R diagram. The color red indicates that they are cooler, but these types of stars are much more luminous than our Sun. In order to be very bright, they must have a very large surface area. These giants are near the end of their lives as they have already exhausted hydrogen as their fuel for fusion. As a result, these stars try to avoid gravity from crushing it together and so it begins a furious fusion that causes the star to expand to an enormous size. Luminosity- Luminosity is the total amount of power energy per second that a star emits into space regardless of their distance. Luminosity is different from apparent brightness as apparent brights is the amount of light from a star that reaches earth (energy per second per square meter). Apparent brightness is how bright a star appears to our eyes. Think about a 70-watt light bulb. Its luminosity is always constant, however its apparent brightness will change depending on your distance from this light bulb. The closer the bulb is, the brighter it will appear. When measuring a stars luminosity, we need to know its distance from Earth and its apparent brightness. Astronomers assign each star a luminosity class, using Roman numerals I to V. Luminosity class is actually more closely related to is size than its luminosity and tells us about its radius. Class: Descriptions: I These stars have the largest radii and are known as supergiants. As we move down the classes, the star's radii decreases. II Bright giants. III Giants IV Subgiants V Main-sequence stars. 1. The more the temp, the more luminosity. Astronomers measure light by suing a photometer at end of telescope. Luminosity=brightghtnessx 12.5xd^2 2. Luminosity=(7.125x10^-7)R^2T^4 LUMINOSITY=MASS ^3 Thus, when astronomers classifies a star, they use the spectral type and luminosity. For example, our Sun's spectral type is G2 and its luminosity class is V. Thus, a G2 V star is a star that is yellow-white, and is a main-sequence star that is fusing hydrogen. Betelgeuse is an M2 I star. This means that it is a red supergiant star that is dim due to its small size and is no longer fusing hydrogen. Distance- Distance can be measured through a direct method called the stellar parallax. This is the small annual shift in the star's apparent position cause by Earth's motion around the Sun. You can actually observe parallax by holding your finger at arm's length and then looking at it alternately with first one eye close and then the other. Astronomers measure stellar parallax by comparing observations of a nearby star made 6 months apart. This nearby star appears to shift against the background of the more distant stars because we are observing it from two opposite points of the Earth's orbit. Astronomers are able to calculate a star's distance if they knew the precise amount of the star's annual shift due to parallax. The parallax angle needs to be measured in order to calculate a star's distance. This angle would be smaller if the star were farther away, so distant stars have smaller parallax angles. All stars are actually so far away, that they have very small parallax angle. The nearest stars have parallax angles smaller than 1 arcsecond. Current technology allows astronomers to measure parallax accurately only for stars within a few hundred light-years. A parsec is the distance to an object with a parallax angle of 1 arcsecond. This is equivalent to 3.26 light-years. The word parsec comes from combining the words parallax and arcsecond. To find a star's distance is to measure the parallax angle p in parcseconds, the starts distance, d, in parseccs is d=1/p. Then you multiply by 3.26 to convert from parsecs into light-years. So, an example is if a star had a parallax angle p=1/10 arcsecond, it would be 10 parsecs away, or 10 x 3.26 = 32.6 light-years. Star Color, Temperature, Size and Luminosity - color of a star depends on its surface temperature - Betelguse = red star (much cooler surface temperature) - Aldebaran = orange star - Albireo = yellow star - Sirius = white or blue-white, brightest star in the sky - Sun's temperature = 6,000 Kelvins - Hottest stars are up to 50,000 K and are blueish - Radius of sun =Rsun (average sized star: sizes of stars vary from 1/10 of the Sun's size up to 100 times the size) - Luminosity = energy a star radiates/time (Watts) à doesn't depend on distance Stellar Balance and Evolution - mass determines how big a star is as it condenses out of a proto-stellar nebula - stars form out of proto-stellar nebula: the initial mass determines its size, temp, color, how fast it evolves, what nuclear reactions may occur in the core, and luminosity - SMALL low mass stars = cooler, fainter, redder (less energy released in their cores) - LARGE/high mass stars = hot, bright blue or white - equilibrium between pressure and gravity: the pressure inside a star, which results from the nuclear fusion reactions, balances the force of gravity, which tends to make a star contract (tendency of a star to contract under the influence of gravity is counterbalanced by the pressure from internal heat) - larger stars burn hydrogen faster, so they run out of hydrogen faster; very low mass stars live a long time (the rate of nuclear fusion is very sensitive to temperature) Evidence Around for Planets Around Other Stars - Exoplanets: are extra solar planets o How to detect for them? § The planetary transit method: · astronomers look for drop in brightness as planets pass in front (transit) our line of sight o The mass and radius can be determined from the transit data § Astrometric Wobble · Detecting the back and forth wobble of a star against a background of stars § Radial Velocity or Doppler Method · This method detects the star's wobble through subtle red and blue shifts in its spectral lines § Gravitational Lensing · refers to the masses of the star and planet acting as a lens to brighten background stars o The gravity of the star with the planetary system can bend the light from a background star that happens to be in the line of sight, the gravitational lens formed by the star (considered) makes the background star appear brighter

8a. Apply knowledge of heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation, including analyzing examples of each mode of heat transfer. what type is the the following and explain " ice cube, ironing, what type of process occurs with heat? how is heat tansfreed in liquid and gases, by what method? example how this relates to ocean and land, mangle ofeart, and hot air ballon? radiation , how relates sun, campfire? spoon getting heated is example of ? water boiling in pot?

Conduction- transfer of energy through matter from one atom/molecules to the next within a substance. Conduction is most effective in solids, but can also take place in fluids. For clarification: the atoms/molecules do not move from one place to another. The energy is transferred by the electrons that are able to move about. An example of conduction is putting a lit match up to a metal needle. The heat is transferred along the needle as the heated electrons gain kinetic energy. The electrons begin to move fast in all directions, colliding with other atoms, passing on heat energy. The atoms, themselves, only vibrate and collide with their neighbors.Aluminum, bronze, copper, gold, iron are just a few examples of materials that are good conductors. More Examples: Ice cube- an ice cube in your hand will eventually melt. The heat is being conducted from your hand into the ice cube.Ironing- when ironing an item of clothing, the heat from the iron is transferred onto the clothing item. Convection- heat is transferred in liquids and gases. It is due to the actual motion of the atoms/molecules by movement of currents. If liquid is heated, it expands, becomes less dense, and rises. The cooler, less dense fluid then sinks to take its place. An example of this transfer of heat is by the ocean. During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea. The cooler air over the sea sinks and takes the place of the air over the land, which is warmer (less dense) and rises up in the air. As this air cools over the ocean, it sinks and the cycle continues.More Examples:Mantle-The rocky mantle of the earth is slowly moving due to the convection currents that transfers heat from the interior of the Earth towards the surface. This is the reason why the tectonic places are slowly moving around the Earth. Hot air balloon- The heater inside the balloon heats the air. This warm air moves upward causing the balloon to rise as a result of the hot air trapped inside. In order to descend, you release some of this hot air, allowing cool air to replace it. Radiation- heat energy in the form of electromagnetic waves is transferred from a hotter to a cooler place without the use of a medium. An example would be the sun. Since there is no large object connecting the Earth and the sun, then conduction cannot take place to bring energy to Earth. In addition, since there is no fluid or gas in space, then convection cannot take place. Thus, the only method in which energy can reach the earth is through electromagnetic waves from the sun.More Examples: MicrowavesRadio wavesCampfire's heat- the energy of heat can make light. This light, being a wave, carries energy and moves from one place to another in straight lines. This is the reason that when you are facing the fire, only the front is warmed. · Teacher prep: The methods of heat transfer o Conduction is the transfer of heat energy by the direct contact of particles matter ( occurs in solid, particles close to eachother to make contact, lets saw take spoon and put it in pot. The tip of the spoon gets hot because the molecues of soup bump into eachtoehr and goes up the spoon so even the part of spoon not in the soup gets hot, example conduction) o Convection is the transfer of heat energy by movement of molecules within a fluid ( like liquids, gases. So if you hae water boiling, the hottest part is in the botton and rises and the cooler portions flow in from the top to takes its place. In liquids and gases! ) o Radiation is the transfer of heat energy through empty space.( radiowave, ultraviolet, ect. All forms of radiation. Radiation in microwave oven , radiation in nuclear explosion, powerplant (fission). These are the 3 main methods of heat transfer )

Which prokaryotic polymerase is primarily responsible for filling in DNA nucleotides into the gap created by the removal of RNA primers? Possible Answers: DNA polymerase III DNA polymerase II RNA polymerase DNA polymerase I Reverse transcriptase Which describes the role of primase during replication? a) It catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds using NTPs as substrates. b) It coordinates synthesis of the leading strand and the lagging strand. c) It functions as a holoenzyme that polymerizes in the 3'→ 5'direction. d) It uses an exonuclease activity to remove incorrect nucleotides Which function can be carried out by DNA replication proteins? a) Topoisomerases wind the DNA into a double-helix. b) DNA ligase can initiate new DNA chains c) SSB converts double-stranded DNA into single-stranded DNA. d) Helicases break hydrogen bonds in the DNA. Which protein can catalyze the formation of phosphodiester bonds? a) DNA ligase b) Dna A protein c) Dna B protein d) Tus protein Which protein can break covalent bonds? a) helicase b) primase c) SSB d) DNA gyrase

DNA polymerase I replaces the RNA primer gap with DNA nucleotides. This polymerase is unique in that it has 5' → 3' exonuclease activity. This RNA primer is created by primase, it is removed and replaced with DNA by DNA polymerase I, and the remaining nick is sealed by DNA ligase. Bacterial DNA polymerase III, in contrast, is the main polymerase for bacterial elongation. The function of DNA polymerase II is not completely understood. The remaining answer choices are not involved in prokaryotic DNA replication. It catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds using NTPs as substrates. HELICASE BREAKS HYDROGEN BONDS LIGASE dna GYRASE OR TOPOISOMERASE

13. a) Demonstrate knowledge of how the coding of DNA controls the expression of traits by genes and influences essential life functions (e.g., how DNA determines protein structure and other heritable genetic variations). DNA is made of what nucletodies ? The nitrogen base of DNA is made of what ? Paired genes found on paired homologou chromosome run down the chromosomes in the same order and control the same characteristics and many have the same instructions. What happnes if the instructions are diffrent ? What is incomplete dominatnce ? What is codominance ?

DNA- Found in the nuclei of cells. Each molecule is very large and is composed of many individual units called nucleotides that are twisted around each other forming a shape called double helix. N= nitrogen base (linked nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms). There are five types:A= adenine T-thymine (Always paired in DNA)G= guanine C= cytosine (always paired in DNA)U= uracil (this is only found in RNA and replaces thymine of DNA)Each DNA molecule contains around 1,000 genes. Genes are the sets of coded instruction. Since the order of the connected genes vary, each gene has a different code that relates to one specific characteristic of an organism. Except for sex chromosomes, paired genes are carried on paired homologous chromosomes and run down the chromosome in the same order. The paired genes control the same characteristic and may have the same instructions. If the instructions are different, then the dominant gene will "mask out" the recessive gene. Otherwise different sets of instruction may be found in incomplete dominance or codominance.Incomplete dominance is where a pair of genes have different instructions, but neither one is dominant. A blending occurs. For example, a white flower + red flower= pink flower.Codominance is where pair of genes have different sets of instruction, but neither is dominant and both genes are visible in the phenotype. For example, the human blood type AB is the result of equal dominance between a gene for group A and group B.

Organs in digestive systme are held by? what tissue closes the trachea? small intestive is broken up into... Villis project upward from the lining of the intestive, each have capillaries and descrbine hoe the food is absorbed here, how does the lymphsystme help?The rest goes to the large intestine. Large intestive is broken up into what parts ? what kind of cells are responsible for the mucous secretions in the digestive system

Digestive system:Major organs include mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. Food ingested is passed through the digestive system. It is gradually broken down into simple soluble substances that are absorbed into the blood vessels and transported to the body cells.Alimentary canal/gastrointestinal tract- is a collective term for all the parts of the digestive system. The GT is a long tub running from the mouth to the anus. They are held in place by mesentines. Pharynx is the cavity at the back of the mouth where the mouth and the nasal cavity meet. When food is swallowed, a soft tissue flap closes the nasal cavity and the epiglottis closes the trachea. Esophagus is a tube that food travels through to the stomach. A piece of swallowed food is called a bolus. Cardiac sphincter is a muscular ring between the esophagus and stomach that relaxes to open and let food through. Stomach is a large sac. Its lining has folds that flatten out to let it expand. Some substances pass through the wall of the stomach into the blood vessel while the semi-digested food moves into the small intestine. Intestine It relaxes to let food through after certain digestive changes have occurred. Small intestine is a coiled tube that has three parts: duodenum (main area of digestion), jejunum, and ilium. Villus project upward from it's lining with each containing capillaries into which most of the food is absorbed and a lymph vessel (lacteal) which absorbs recombined fat particles .The remaining semi liquid waste mixture passes on into the large intestine. This has a thick tube that receives wast from the small intestine. It consist of the cecum (redundant sac), colon, rectum, and anal canal. The L.I. Contains bacteria that breaks food down and makes vitamins. Most water passes through the colon walls into nearby blood vessels, which leaves semi-solid mass (feces) pushed out via the rectum, anal canal, and anus (hole surrounded by a muscular ring anal sphincter). Mucous membrane is a thin layer of tissue lining all digestive passages. Special type of epithelium that contains many single-celled exocrine glands (mucous glands). These secrete mucous, a lubricating fluid, that protects the walls against the digestive juices. Peristalis is a wave of contraction produced by muscles in the walls of organs that moves substances along.

whatis environmental sustainability ? what are applications of environmental sustainability? whta is sustainable forestry? whta is selective logging ?how is sustainabile energy related to environemntal sustainability?

Environmental Sustainability Environmental sustainability is defined as responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term environmental quality. The practice of environmental sustainability helps to ensure that the needs of today's population are met without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet their needs. When we look at the natural environment, we see that it has a rather remarkable ability to rejuvenate itself and sustain its viability. For example, when a tree falls, it decomposes, adding nutrients to the soil. These nutrients help sustain suitable conditions so future saplings can grow. When nature is left alone, it has a tremendous ability to care for itself. However, when man enters the picture and uses many of the natural resources provided by the environment, things change. Human actions can deplete natural resources, and without the application of environmental sustainability methods, long-term viability can be compromised. Lesson Summary Environmental sustainability is defined as responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term environmental quality. Applications of environmental sustainability include sustainable agriculture, which is the use of farming techniques that protect the environment. With sustainable agriculture, farmers minimize water use and lower the dependence on chemical pesticides and fertilizers. They also minimize tillage of the soil and rotate crop planting each year to ensure higher soil quality. Sustainable forestry is another application of environmental sustainability. This is defined as the practice of regulating forest resources to meet the needs of society and industry while preserving the forest's health. Sustainable forestry includes selective logging, which is the practice of removing certain trees while preserving the balance of the woodland. Sustainable forestry may also involve allowing young trees time to mature before they are harvested, planting of trees to expand forestlands and the creation of protected forests. Another way environmental sustainability is practiced is through sustainable energy, which is energy that is produced from a renewable source, such as the sun, wind, moving water or energy crops.

10da. Analyze the similarities and differences among prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and viruses. what are the ORGANELLS of eurkaytes, and describe their function! cell membrane nucleus nucleous endoplasmic reticulum smooth er -3 functions? golgie apparatus? mitochondrai? cytoskeleton? flagellums cilia centrosomes centriolies ribozomes lysosomez peroxisomes ?

Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles, plants and animal are made of eukaryotic cells § Organelles are subcellular structures with different functions ( similar to organs in the body) § Organelles animal cells · The cell membrane ( plasma membrane) is the outside membrane that controls what goes in and out of the cell. It is made of semipermeable phospholipid bilayer ( hydrobobic and hydrophilic to keep some things in and out, ) · The nucleus is the storage area for DNA . it is contained within a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The envelope has very small openings called nulclear pores. The DNA is normally very loosely wrapped around proteins. When it is in this form it is called chromatin, not chromosomes. The very center of the nucleus is the nucleolus, which is where ribosomes are made. ( DNA STAYS INSIDE , loosely wrapped in a protein called chromatin. The DNA to big so has to be out as RNA. . transcription and translation is what the ribosome aid in). · Directly outside the nucleus is the endoplasmic reticulum. There is both rought and smooth. Rough is where protein synthesis occurs lots of ribosomes there. Smooth ER involved in lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, and detoxication. · The Golgi apparatus (Golgi bodies ) are often confused with the ER. The Golgi tend to be further away from the nucleus and looks like a stack of pancakes instead of a maze-like the ER. The Golgi is important for modifying, soring, and secreting protein and lipids. · The mitochondrion is the site of respiration. It is sometimes referred to as the powerhouse of the cell because it produces ATP. ( interesting mitochondria has its own DNA ) · Cytoskeleton made up of proteins and reinforces cells shape. It is involved in cell movement o Flagellum is made of microtubules and assists in the movement o Cilia are also made of microtubules that sway in unison to assist in the movement o Centrosomes produce and organize molecules o Centrioles are important for moving chromosomes during mitosis. o Ribosomes synthesize protein ( take info coded in RNA and ribosome that RNA info and translates into syn proteins) o Lysosome is the location of digestive processes, get rid of waste products, digest organelles, digest intrusive bodies, suicide cells digest themselves, also recycle certain materials that may be useful to the cell o Peroxisome breaks down fatty acids, have oxiddative enzymnes

Which of the following reactions is required for proofreading during DNA replication by DNA polymerase III?a) 5' to 3' exonuclease activityb) 3' to 5' exonuclease activityc) 3' to 5' endonuclease activityd) 5' to 3' endonuclease activity 9. Which of the following enzymes is the principal replication enzyme in E. coli?a) DNA polymerase Ib) DNA polymerase IIc) DNA polymerase IIId) None of the mentioned Which enzyme used to join bits of DNA?a) DNA polymeraseb) DNA ligasec) Endonucleased) Primase Which of the following proteins is not necessary during DNA replication? Possible Answers: Single-strand binding proteins Helicase DNA polymerase RNA polymerase Which of the following proteins is known for its ability to break hydrogen bonds? Possible Answers: Topoisomerase Primase DNA ligase DNA helicase __________ is a protein that synthesizes RNA primers on __________ during DNA replication.

Explanation: The 3' → 5' exonuclease activity removes the mispaired nucleotide and the polymerase begins again. This activity is known as proofreading. Explanation: Only DNA pol III is the principal replication enzyme in E. coli. Explanation: DNA ligase can be used to join the nicked sites. RNA POLYMERASE IS FOR transcribing RNA from DNA, not DNA replication. DNA HELICASE Primase . . . both the leading and lagging strands Explanation: In order for DNA polymerase to begin synthesizing base pairs, an RNA primer is needed to assist the binding of DNA polymerase to the DNA template strand. This primer is synthesized by the enzyme primase. Because DNA polymerase always needs an RNA primer before it can bind, primase must synthesize RNA primers on both the leading and lagging strands. RNA polymerase transcribes molecules of RNA from DNA sequences during transcription, and is not involved in DNA re

The organs for reproduction are found where ? What are the 3 types of flower types ? What are hermaphrodiet platns what are monoecious platns what are diocecious plants Draw and descrbine femal organs, pistil, ovaries, ovule, stigma, style, gynoecium, ? In the ovaries, the ovule is fixed by a stalk or ....... to the ovaries placenta. The stalk is attached to the ovule at a point called a ____. What does the stigma do? What does the style do ? The gynoecium refers to what ? How does a female gamete become after being fertizlied by pollen? The female gaemnet consit of oval cell surround by tisuse integumetn. Before fertilization, what changes are done to prepare for fertilization? For male organs, where is the stamen, anthers, where are the polllec sacs located or the male gametes where are they, ? What is the collective term for male gameets ? How is pollen formed, what is special about each pollen cell? In pollication, grain of pollen is sends male nulcie into ovary. and enters the ovule. One male nucleisu fuses and makes what, what happens to the other nuclie ? Cross pollication vs self pollination? what is vegetative preproduction ? How are pollen grains reproduces by waht cellular process? What is pollication, how can pollen be tranfered ? What are the steps in pollication ? What is the end results, what part becomes the fruit ?

Flowering Plants- The organs for reproduction are located in the flowering part of a plant. There are three main types of flowering plants: Hermaphrodite Plants- these plants contain both male and female reproductive organs. Monoecious Plants- these plants have two types of flowers on one plant: staminate flower (has just male organs) and pistillate flowers (which has just female organs). Dioecious Plants- these plants have staminate flower on one plant and pistillate flowers on a separate plant. Female Organs- Pistil- consists of an ovary, stigma, and style Ovaries- each is the main part of the pistil and contains tiny bodies called ovules (contains a female sex cell). An ovule is fixed by a stalk (funicle) to the ovaries placenta. The stalk is attached to the ovule at a point called a chalaza. Stigma- the sticky upper part of a pistil that collects grain of pollen (pollination) Style-part of the pistil that connects the stigma to the ovary. Gynoecium- the whole reproductive structure that is mad up of one or more pistils. Female gamete becomes a seed after fertilization (by the pollen). Consists of an oval cell surrounded by tissues called integuments. Before fertilization, the embryo sac nucleus undergoes division which results in new cells and two naked nuclei fused together. One of the new cells is the female gamete. Male Organs-.... Stamen- this is the male reproductive organ that consists of a think stalk (filament) with an anther at the tip. The anthers are made up of pollen sacs filled iwth pollen (male gametes). Androecium- collective term for all male parts of a flower Pollen- formed by the stamen. Each pollen is a special cell with two nuclei. When pollen grain land on an ovary, one nucleus (generative nucleus) divides into two forming two male nuclei. That other into a pollen turb during pollination. When pollination occurs, a grain of pollen transfers its male nuclei into the ovary. The grain lands on the sticky surface of the stigma where it then forms a pollen tube. This tube travels down through the ovary tissue and enters an ovule through the micropyle (tiny hole in the integument tissue). The two male nuclei then travels down this path. The one male nucleus fuses with the egg cell in the ovule to form a zygote (fertilization). The other male nucleus joins with the two fused female nuclei to form a cell which develops into the endosperm. Cross-Pollination- this is the pollination of one by plant by pollen grains from another plant. Self-Pollination- the pollination of a plan by its own pollen grains. Vegetative Reproduction- this is a type of asexual reproduction without spores or seeds.Bulbs, corn, rhizome, stolen/runner, tuber are all kinds of vegetative reproduction. Pollen grains contain the male gametes. Pollen grains are produced through the process of meiosis by the microspore mother cells, which is located along inner edge of the anther sacs. The outer part of the pollen is the exine (composed of polysaccaride, sporopollenin). Inside the pollen are two to three cells that comprise of the male gamete. The tube cell (or tube nucleus) develops into pollen tube. The germ cells divide by mitosis to produce 2 sperm cells. Division of the germ cells can be before or after pollination. Pollination- this is the transfer of pollen from the male anther to the female stigma. Can be transferred in a number of ways: by entomophyly (insects) Anemophyly (wind) birds water humans self-pollination or some plants have methods to ensure self-pollination Once pollination has been achieved, the pollen tube grows through the stigma and into the style, heading towards the ovary. 1.The germ cells in the pollen divides and releases two perm cells which now move down the pollen tub. 2. The tube grows through the micropyle and into the embryo sac. 3.One sperm fuses with the egg producing a zygote. The second sperm fuses with the two polar bodies in center of the sac, producing an endosperm tissue (provides energy for the embryo's growth and development). 4.The ovary wall will then develop into a fruit.

Define food chaing? What is at the first trophic level? What are heterothrophs? What is found at the second trophic level? what is found at the third trophic level? what is found at trophiclevel 3 what is found at 4th trophic level what are decomposers ? why are they importnat ? examples of decomposers? Is the transfer of energy between organism efficient? How does energy exits the food web? , this principle of energy exitis is know as what principle ? what does a food web show ?

Food Chain- a possible route for the transfer of matter and energy through an ecosystem from autotrophs through heterotrophs and decomposers. An example of a food chain:Trophic (energy) levels are positioned within a food chain. The trophic levels are: 1) Producers (trophic level 1)- these are green plants that produce their own food (known as autotrophs) through the process of photosynthesis. Example: plankton 2) Consumers- animals that consume other plants and animals (heterotrophs) Primary Consumers (trophic level 2)- herbivores that receive their energy directly from the producers. Example: rabbits, cows Secondary Consumers (trophic level 3)- carnivores receive their energy from consuming the bodies of primary consumers (herbivores). Example: foxes, lions Tertiary Consumers (trophic level 4)- carnivores that obtain their energy by consuming other carnivores. Energy obtained is in the most indirect method- from the bodies of secondary consumers. Example: foxes, owls, killer whales 3) Decomposers- these are organisms that feed on dead matter and break it down to release chemical energy back into the soil for plants to re-use them. Example: fungi, bacteria, worms At each successive level, a great deal of energy is lost. The transfer of energy between organisms is very inefficient. As a result, only a small amount of energy is obtained when a secondary consumer eats a primary consumer. Therefore, the higher up the trophic level, the fewer the number of animals since they must eat larger amounts of animals of food in order to obtain enough energy. Because so much energy is lost as you move through the food chain, there are typically no more than 4 or 5 links in the food chain. Most of the energy exits the food web as heat from metabolic processes by the organism itself or by decomposers that use the organism's waste as food. This principal is known as the pyramid of numbers. Food Web- this is a complex network of food chains in an ecosystem (group of animals and plants which interact with each other and their environment). Because there can be no more than 4 or 5 links in the food chain, animals eat a variety of food in order to meet their energy needs. These interconnected food chains form a food web.A changes in one population in a food chain can affect the other populations in the food chain. For example, let's use the tree, giraffe, lion food chain. If there are too many giraffes, then there will not be enough trees for the giraffes to eat. Eventually, the giraffes will starve and die. Fewer giraffes will allow the trees to grow and multiply. However, fewer giraffes will result in lions starving to death. Fewer lions may lead to more giraffes.

What is the hydrological cycle? Describe how the cycle begins with evaporation, then discuss how or what happens to the water particles during percipitation? What happnes on ground when water molecules are heated and evaporate? what if water does not evaporate from the ground, where does it go? The water that seeps in the ground is called ?what happnes to this water ? how do animals return water back to the environment ? How do plants return water back toe the atmosphere ? the top level of ground water is called ?

Hydrological Cycle- Water is constantly moving in a cycle through organisms and the environment. The cycle typically begins with the process called evaporation, that is driven by the sun's energy. As the water molecules are heated, the water becomes gas particles and moves up into the atmosphere where it condenses around small particles, forming clouds. If the temperature stays warm, water droplets continue to form around particles, growing larger and larger. These water particles are returned to earth, called precipitation, as rain, sleet, hail, or snow (sublimation). On land, the water molecules may be heated and evaporate; it may seep in the soil and become ground water; it may run across the surface as runoff, and empty into bodies of water (where it may become heated and evaporate). The water that seeps into the ground (called percolation) may be taken in by the roots of plants (xylem) with is used by the plants, along with carbon, in photosynthesis where it breaks it down into new combinations that creates sugar and oxygen. Animals that breathe the oxygen and eat the sugar recombine those materials to make water as one of the products of respirations. Animals release the water back into the environment. Water also returns to the atmosphere by plants in a process called transpiration when plants undergo cellular respiration which involves the breakdown of food molecules for energy into CO2 and water.Water that percolates into the ground may seep far enough until it reaches a layer or impermeable rock. Caught between the impermeable rock and saturated soil above it, it may move inside the ground through underground "rivers". The top level of the ground water is called the water table. Depressions in the Earth that reveals the water table are called either lakes or rivers.

What is the role of hte immunie system.

Immune System- this system's role is to defend the body from disease-causing agents, such as bacteria. Major organs include: White Blood Cells- cells that are produced in the bone marrow and defends the body against infectious and foreign bodies. White blood cells are classified into agranuolytes or granuollytes. Agranuolycytes arelymphocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes are B cells or anitbody or T cells the killer T cells. Monocytes eat bacterial , fungi and virus. Granuolyte cells are neutrophils, eosinophils, or basophils. Lymph Nodes- contain colorless fluid (lymph) that circulates through the vessels of the lymphatic system. The lympth syste works with immunie systme to remove unwated waste, fat particles, and bacteria, virus and fungi. The immunie system has this white blood cells produces in bone marro ato defent the body agains foreight bodies.

An organ are made up of at least what ? An organ system consist of what ? what are the 10 major organ system and what is their function ? What is an organism ?

Level 3- OrgansOrgans are made up of at least two tissues that work together to perform a specific activity. For example, heart, brain, skin, liver, kidney Level 4- Organ Systemhttp://peer.tamu.edu/curriculum_modules/OrganSystems/index.htmAn organ system consists of two or more organs working together to perform a specific function for the organism. There are 10 major organ systems in the body. skeletal system- provides support for the body, protects internal organs, and provides attachment sites for organs muscular system- provides movement circulatory- transports nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste neurons- relays electrical signal through the body. Working with the endocrine system, they control physiological processes such as digestion, circulation, etc. Respiratory- provides gas exchange between blood and the environment. Digestive- breaks down and absorbs nutrients Excretory system- filers out cellular waste, toxins, and excess water or nutrients from the circulatory system. Endocrine- relays chemical messages through the body and helps control physiological process such as nutrient absorption and growth. Reproductive system- manufactures cells that allows reproduction 10. Lymphatic/Immune system- destroys and removes invading microbes and viruses from the body. Also removes fat and excess fluids from the blood. Level 5 : Organism .Carry outall basic life proces. takes in materials, releae energy from food, release waste, response to environmetn, and reproduce. usually made ofa n organism system amd may be made up of only one cell like bacterial or protist.

What are limiting factores ? what is carrying capaicyt? how can natural disastors affect popuatiion? intraspecific competitiona vs interspecific competitaion?

Limiting Factors- limiting factors are things in the environment, biotic or abiotic, that prevents a population from growing any larger. For example, a habitat may have enough space and water to house 20 capybaras, however, if there is only enough food for 10 capybaras, then the population will not grow any larger. Food, in this example, is the limiting factor. Carrying Capacity- this is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can support over a long period of time. Natural disasters- affects population. For example on the Galapagos Island, drought may reduce the quantity of seeds on which finches eat, driving down the population. Intraspecific competition- competition between members of the same species. Competition among members of one species for a finite resource (food, for ex) can cause a sharp drop in population. Interspecific competition- all the ecological requirements of a species constitutes its ecological niche. The dominant requirement is food, but can also be nesting sites or a place to sun (plants). When two species share overlapping ecological niches, they may be forced into competition for the resources of that niche. Overtime, interspecific competition can result in evolutionary changes that reduce the intensity of competition (characteristic displacement).

Why do organisms need nitrogen? How do orgniams take in nitrogen? which ones can take in nitrogen directly? Bacteria convert nitrogen to ____. ____ convert ammonito into ___ and ____ during _____.Now produces can take these subtances in and uste them to make ______. How do consumers get nitrogen ? What happens to nitogen when organism die? how does nitrogen go from the soil to nitrogen gas in the atmosphere ?

Nitrogen Cycle- Organisms need nitrogen in order to make amino acids, which is in turn used to build protein. Except for bacteria, organisms cannot use nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. The bacteria, which lives on the roots of legumes, bind the nitrogen atoms to hydrogen atoms to form ammonia, NH3, in a process known as nitrogen fixation. Other bacteria in the soil converts ammonia into nitrates and nitrites during nitrification. Producers can take these substances in and use them to make proteins. Consumers consume the producers who in turn use these proteins to make new proteins. When organisms die, decomposers return the nitrogen back into the soil as ammonia. Bacteria may again change the ammonia into nitrates or nitrites or into nitrogen gas (denitrification, which is internal respiration by bacteria).

which later of hte usn radiate xrays, which layer of sun radiates UV radiation? In what layer do we have the sunspots?

Online : The solar system formed from a cloud of gas, called the solar nebula, that collapsed under its own gravity. The solar nebular is thought to have begun as a large and roughly spherical cloud of cold gas. The collapse of the nebular is thought to perhaps start due to a nearby event such as shock waves from a nearby star exploding. The nebular began to collapse and gravity began to pull in all direction, which explains why the sun and planets are spherical. As the nebula shrank, the temperatures began to rise (energy conservation). The sun formed in the center of this nebula where temperature and density was the greatest. As the solar nebula shrank, it began to rotate faster and faster (conservation of angular momentum). The rapid rotation helped to ensure that not all of the materials collapsed into the center of the solar nebula. As the particles collided in the spinning cloud, the nebula began to flatten into a disk. The spinning disk helps to explain why the planets all orbit the sun in the same plane and direction.Other features:1) Large bodies in the solar system have orderly motions- all planets have nearly circular obits moving in the same direction (the same direction as the sun's rotation).2) Planets fall into 2 major categories: small, rocky terrestrial planets and large, hydrogen rich jovian planets3) asteroids/comets: vast number or rocky asteroids and icy comets are found throughout the soar system, but are concentrated in three regions (asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and Oort cloud.4) Exception: some planets have unusual axis tilt, unusually large moons, or moons with unusual orbit, or unusual rotation (such as Venus).5) Because we live in our Milky Way galaxy, it is hard to know exactly how it looks and its structure. We do know that our galaxy holds 100 billion stars. It is a spiral galaxy. From the side, it is flat with a bulge in the center. The entire galaxy is about 100,000 light years in diameter. Our solar system is located in the disk about 28,000 light years from the milky way center.Astronomical Unit: the average distance of the Earth from the sun, which is about 150 million Km. Cosmic Address: a way to think of Earth's place in the universe. Earth > Solar System > Milky Way Galaxy > Local Group > Local Supercluster > Universe Online : Stars- Stars are born when gravity is able to contract the cloud of cold interstellar gas to the point where it becomes so hot that nuclear fusion begins in its core. The colder this cloud, the easier it is for gravity to contract the gas as lowering the temperature of this cloud reduces its gas pressure. Cold, dense clouds that form stars are known as molecular clouds (called so because they allow hydrogen atoms to combine to form hydrogen molecules). The molecular clouds also tend to be massive and generally can give birth to many stars at a time (stars are generally born in clusters).Chemical composition of a star's mass at birth is about ¾ hydrogen and about ¼ is helium. Stars generates heat and light through nuclear fusion in its core. Even though stars are not living organism, they go through life cycles. Stars are born when gravity compresses the material in a cloud to the point where the center becomes hot and dense enough for nuclear fusion to take place. Blue stars are hotter and red stars are cooler (but bright). Spectral sequence stars that fuse into helium in their cores all fall on the main sequence category. Stars that do not fuse hydrogen into helium are off of this sequence. The corona is the outermost layer of the star's atmosphere and has an astonishingly high temperature, around 1 million K. This high temperature explains why this region emits most of the Sun's x-rays. This layers density is so low, however, that if you were to fly your spaceship through this layer, it would feel relatively little heat. The chromosphere is the middle layer of the solar atmosphere that radiates most of the Sun's UV radiation. This layers temperature is around 10,000 K.The photosphere is the lowest layer of the Sun's atmosphere and is the visible surface of the Sun. Sunspots are found on this layer.Convection zone is the central region of the Sun where energy is transported outward by convection. Radiation zone Energy energy moves outward as photons of light. THe temperatre rises to around 10 million K. Core is where nuclear fusion is taking place, transforming hydrogen into heliu. The temperutre is around 15 million K and ists density is more than 100 times that of water. The pressure is 200 billion times that on the Earth's surface. It will take a few hundred thousand years for the energy that is produced in the core to reach its surface. Quick Quiz!1) If a star 300 light years away were to explode (supernovae) today, we would:a) be able to observe it with our eyes that nightb) affect our satellite and electronic equipments and would only be able to observe it through strong telescopesc) would not be able to observe it for another 300 years until the light from this event reaches Earthd) would only be able to observe it using x-ray telescopesCorrect Answer: C If a star that was 300 light years away were to explode (supernovae), it would take 300 years for that star's light to reach Earth.2) Stars are born in ______ clouds.a) dark matterb) cumulusc) interstellard) superclustersCorrect Answer: C Stars are born in cold, dense clouds of gas whose pressure cannot resist gravitational contraction. When gravity causes a cloud of interstellar gas to contract and it becomes hot enough, then nuclear fusion will begin to take place in its core. In option A, dark matter is matter that we infer to exist from its gravitational effects, but haven't been able to detect any light. In option C, cumulus is a type of cloud found in Earth's atmosphere. In option D, superclusters consists of many clusters or groups of galaxies. They are the largest known structures in the universe.Planet- planets are moderately large objects that orbits around a star. Planets are large enough to have gravity to make it round. Planets orbit within the same plane and in the same direction. In addition, to be a planet, the orbit cannot cross any other planets path. When our solar system was "born", gravity in the center drew in material that formed the sun. The gaseous material was too spread out and began to clump together until it reached a certain size, where gravity could then start pulling these clumps together to form a planet. As temperature began to drop, gaseous rock and metal materials could condense into a solid. Hydrogen compounds could condense into ice beyond the frost line (between Mars and Jupiter). Within the frost line, only terrestrial planets could form (only rock and metal rock could condense into solid "seeds". Beyond the frost line, hydrogen compounds condensed into ice which allowed ice along with metal and rock to build upon.In 2006, the IAU (International Astronomical Union) decided that in order for a celestial body to be considered a planet, it must meet three requirements:1. It orbits around the Sun2. It has enough mass to generate a gravity strong enough to make it round (hydrostatic equilibrium)3. Must clear its neighborhood as it orbits the sunAs a result of these rules, because Pluto only met two of these requirements, number 1 and 2, it was reclassified as a dwarf-planet.Additional information about the Earth: If you were to place Earth on an imaginary plane, you would see that it is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees. The axis is currently pointing towards the star, Polaris (aka, the North Star). As the Earth revolves around the sun, there is a slight wobbling action that takes place. Think of one of those top toys that you spin. As it rotates, its tip swings from one region to the other side. The Earth goes through this as well, but at a much slower rate. This is known as precsesion and is the result of the gravitational tugs from the sun and the moon. Each cycle of Earth's precession takes about 26,000 years and slowly changes where the axis points in space. TEACHER PREP: · Structure of the solar system and its place in the galaxy o Our galaxy § Our solar system is located in the milky way galaxy on the inner rim of Orions Arm § Scientist hae observed biulion of galaxies withing our universide § Our galaxy has between 200 and 400 billion stars. Our sun is only one of them. § Thw two planets thae two types of movement · Rotate on axis, one rotation is one day · Revolve around sun , one revolution equals one year (carefule terms rotate vs revolve ) § Thee planets revolve around the sun in an elliptical patter due to gravity ( sun massive , planets caught in gravity). Inertia wants you in straight line, gravity pull you in, so balane of inerti of planet and gravity sun balances out , planets orbi around sun) § Order from sun outward · Mercury, venus, earth, mars, Jupiter, saturn Uranus, and Neptune ( my very educated mother just served us noddles ) § There is asteroid belt between mars and Jupiter § Satellites are any moons that revole around planets § Notes : 4 smaller planets are closer. Further away made of gas , the extrem heat made gas planets to expand and go away, so as as further out, cooler , can hold together as gas planets. 4 smaller palnets made rock. Asteroid not big enough to be planets. Understand basic of our solar system.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of the effects of natural hazards (e.g., earthquakes, landslides, floods) on natural and human-made habitats. f.

Online : Earthquakes: Earthquakes, themselves, rarely kill humans or animals. What makes them so destructive is when the movement causes buildings to collapse, gas lines to break, water pipes to break, etc. If you shake soil, it appears to liquefy. This is because the water moves up and mixes with the soil, making it like liquid, or quicksand. Human response to earthquakes has been to construct buildings to withstand earthquakes, inform people what to do in an earthquake, and improve the ability to detect earthquakes.Volcanic Eruptions: Despite popular belief, it is not the lava itself that poses a huge threat, but the lahars. During an eruption, the heat that is generated causes the snow to melt. This melted snow mixes with the volcanic ash and rocks to form this mudflow. Lahars pose a threat because they travel at very high speeds. The lahar that formed when Mt. St. Helens erupted traveled at its highest speed of 90 mph.Lava flows that are low in silica content tends to flow out and can spread out and cover large areas. They could spread out to as much as several miles. Lava flows can destroy many homes, bridges, highways, roads, etc.Pyroclastic flows (hot gas and rock) also poses a threat as it races down the mountain. Volcanic ash can also be extremely destructive, such as blocking the sun's rays, damaging your lungs, or damaging airplanes.A volcanic explosive eruption may expel molten and solid rock fragments called tephra. The gas released by the volcano can be also very deadly. Volcanic gas may consist of carbon dioxide, which is heavier than air and may be trapped in low regions. The amount trapped may become dangerous to animals and humans.Last, volcanic eruptions can result in a landslide, also called debris avalanche. The landslide may consist of rock, snow, and/or ice. The landslide may be triggered by an eruption, earthquake, or even a heavy rainfall. The largest debris avalanche recorded took place when Mt. St. Helens erupted. Human response to volcanic eruptions involves identifying the signs for a next eruption and trying to predict the next eruption the best that they can.Landslides: Landslides can be pretty destructive. Landslides may occur if there is too much rainfall and soil isn't able to hold up (especially if there are hardly any vegetation, if any, to hold on to the soil), earthquakes, or volcanic eruptions. Landslides may result in the destruction of homes, highways, bridges, roads, pipelines, pumps, power lines, etc. Floods: Flooding is the temporary act of a region of land being covered by water. Floods can be extremely destructive in that it can destroy homes, buildings, and kill humans and animals. Human response to prevent floods includes planting more vegetation, levees and dikes, dams, and digging channels. Teacher prep: · Effects of natural hazards and human response o Natural hazards are naturally occurring events that can have a negative impoart on humans, animals or their environment. o These hazards can be minor to catastrophic and are often interrelated. For example an earthquake can lead to a volcavnic eruption or tsunami o Humans often try to protect themselft from these disasters.creative artchitecture and design have been one response § Examples raised houses to keep flood water out and earthquake resist building o Natural hazards can also affect habitats and ecosystem ( floods, kills vegetaion,animal die, effet food chain) Other : Natural Disasters - Floods: most easily predicted natural disaster if speed of water and flow is understood - Best/ most practical way to avoid damage from natural disaster: study hazard maps to determine where the worst and best locations for buildings are - Lahars = volcanic mudflow in which ash and rock mix with melted snow and ice - Pyroclastic flow = exceedingly hot gas and rock race down the volcano and destroy everything in their path - Signs of eruption : increased earthquake activity, gas emissions, ground deformation, higher heat flow - Flood control: 1) Levees= embankments 2) Dams = collect river water in reservoirs

How does the phopsphorus move in the phosphorus cycle, discuss using the followingterm, rocks,weather, erosiaion,water, sediemnts, fertilizer, ? can you diagram this ?

Phosphorus Cycle- phosphorus enters the environment from rocks or deposits laid down many years ago. Weathering and erosion releases phosphorus as phosphate ions which are soluble in water. Phosphorus is incorporated into many molecules essential to life. When plant materials and waste products decay through bacterial action, phosphate is released and returned into the environment for reuse. Much phosphate is washed into the water due to erosion and leaching where water plants and algae utilize the phosphate as a nutrient. Plants turn inorganic phsphate and turn it into organic phosphorus!!! A large percentage of the phosphate in water is precipitated from the water as ion phosphate which is insoluble. If it's in shallow sediments, it may be readily recycled back into the water for further reuse. In deeper sediments in water, it's available for use as part of a general uplifted of rock formations for the cycle to repeat itself. Human influences of the cycle comes from synthetic fertilizers. Unused phosphate not used by plants is washed away and eventually ends up in bodies of water where it may be redissolved and recycled as a problem nutrient.

pulmonary circulation vs coronary ciruclation? can you diagram pulmonary circulation?

Pulmonary Circulation- this is the movement of blood from the heart into the lungs, and lungs into the heart. When the veins enter the right atrium and bring in wast-rich, oxygen depleted blood in the lungs, the right atrium fills with waste-rich blood. It contracts and pushes the blood through a one way valve into the right ventricle. The right ventricle then contracts and pushes the blood into the pulmonary artery which leads into the lungs. In the lung capillaries oxygen replaces carbon dioxide. The fresh blood moves into the pulmonary veins and returns to the heart by entering through the left atrium. It passes through a one way valve into the left ventricle and exit the heart through the aorta where it will continue through the arteries.Coronary Circulation- The heart itself is an organ that requires fresh oxygen and nutrients in order to work. Coronary circulation refers to the movement of blood through the tissues of the heart.

a) Solve problems from representations of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses. what is a punnet square ? what is a monohybrid cross? What is a test cross? Practice question: : red flower are dominat over white flower. Draw the cross of a heterozygous red flower and a white flower.What kind of cross is this ?

Punnett swuare can be used for prediction the allele combination of offspring based on parents of knowgenotypes. a monohybrid cross examines the mating of diffrent alleles at one locus of ineterst. on teyp of monohybrid cross si a stet cross. a test cross iis the breeding of a homozygous recessive individual with a unknow genenotye. the resulting ration willl indicate the unknown indivudat genotye Notes : Test cross , so genotype is the alleles that it has the actual coding. So if we breed a test unknown individual with a test individual thatis homozygous recessive individual we will predict that the uknown induvual genotype is . The ratio of the results can tells us or predict the genotypes . in this example, he breed smooth peas and wrinkly peas. When he breed , he got smooth peas. SS smooth and ss for wrinkly recessive trait. So we have Ss, Ss, Ss, and Ss. So all of the offspring turned out to be smooth. Next , he breed Ss with Ss. In new square, he breed Ss with Ss. So get SS, Ss,Ss,ss. So in this case, ¼ demonstrate wrinkly state afer he breed the second generation. So that is why by doing a test cross, we are able to figure out what the genotype is of the other one. This is how we can figure out genotype by using test cross , in this case monohybrid. Practice Question: red flower are dominat over white flower. Draw the cross of a heterozygous red flower and a white flower. This is a monohybrid cross. Half white, half red flower assuming complete dominance.

a) Demonstrate knowledge of the relationship between genes and their interaction with the environment in terms of organisms' development and functions. What is range of reaction ? What is genetic environmetnal correlation? What is epigentics ? What does the range of reaction perspective state about genes ? What does the genetic environmetnal correction perspective state? Epigentics attempts ot determine what ? Explain what is Epigenome? Explain how external experience, gene regulatrion proteins, includence brain cells,what is epigentic modification ? What do epigentic markes control?

Range of Reaction One way to describe the interaction between genes and an environment is called the range of reaction. Range of reaction proposes that our genes set the boundaries on our potential, while our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range of limits we will fall. For example, let's presume that genes are responsible for some portion of person's innate intelligence. People who are born with genes that predispose them to a high level of intelligence will more likely reach their potential if they are placed in an environment that is rich and stimulating. Genetic Environmental Correlation Genetic environmental correlation is another way that our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences our genes. As a symbiotic relationship, it explains how two factors influence one another. For example, one may expect the child of two famously talented tennis players to produce a child that was good at tennis as well. We might expect that a child whose parents are also good at tennis would expose their child to playing tennis at an early age. Conversely, such environmental exposures might help a child realize their full genetic or hereditary potential. So as you can see, both genes and the environment work in conjunction with one another in this perspective. Epigenetics The field of epigenetics looks at how a similar genotypes, or genetic makeups, between two people, namely identical twins, can lead to different phenotypes or outward expressions of traits. As we mentioned earlier, an environment often influences gene expressions in subtle ways. Yes, two identical twins may physically look alike, but even with identical genes, there remains an incredible amount of variability in how gene expression can unfold over the course of a twin's life. For instance, one twin may develop a disease whereas the other twin may not. Epigenetics differs from the range of reaction perspective because it assumes that it's possible for two people to have the same genes but have different limits of potential set for each person. Lesson Summary In this lesson, we discussed the gene-environment interaction, or how a person's genes interact with his or her environment to influence outward expressions of behavior and traits. The range of reaction perspective states that peoples' genes set the limits for potential, while the environment places them somewhere within that range. The genetic environmental correlation perspective, on the other hand, sees both genes and environment acting as an influence on each other. By comparison, the study of epigenetics attempts to determine how similar genetic makeups can lead to different expressions of traits. Experiences leave a chemical "signature" on genes that determines whether and how the genes are expressed. Collectively, those signatures are called the epigenome. The brain is particularly responsive to experiences and environments during early development. External experiences spark signals between neurons, which respond by producing proteins. These gene regulatory proteins head to the nucleus of the neural cell, where they either attract or repel enzymes that can attach them to the genes. Positive experiences, such as exposure to rich learning opportunities, and negative influences, such as malnutrition or environmental toxins, can change the chemistry that encodes genes in brain cells — a change that can be temporary or permanent. This process is called epigenetic modification. Adverse Early Experiences Can Have Lifelong Consequences Epigenetic "markers" control where and how much protein is made by a gene, effectively turning the gene "on" or "off." Such epigenetic modification typically occurs in cells that comprise organ systems, thereby influencing how these structures develop and function. Therefore, experiences that change the epigenome early in life, when the specialized cells of organs such as the brain, heart, or kidneys are first developing, can have a powerful impact on physical and mental health for a lifetime. The fact that genes are vulnerable to modification in response to toxic stress, nutritional problems, and other negative influences underscores the importance of providing supportive and nurturing experiences for young children in the earliest years, when brain development is most rapid. From a policy perspective, it is in society's interest to strengthen the foundations of healthy brain architecture in all young children to maximize the return on future investments in education, health, and workforce development.

what are some factors what affect population densitu? environemtn change that effect populaio nsize? what aer human actions that affect population size? cimate conditins that affect population size ?

Some of the factor's that may affect population's density: birth rate death rate immigration of new members of the species emigration of existing members Environmental changes that affect population size: availability of food and water availability of specific nutrients space balance of predator/prey diseases such as West Nile Virus parasites Human actions that affect population size: habitat loss/protecting pesticide herbicide poisoning hunting erosion introduction of invading species Climate conditions that affect population size: global warming sunlight temperature humidity natural disaster (tsunamis, volcanoes, hurricanes, tornadoes, avalanches)

Step 1: ___________- This is an extremely difficult task to do- at least one of the strands must be broken in order to relieve the thermodynamic strain and allow the two halves to be pulled apart. Special unwinding _______ attach to the DNA. The hydrogen bonds are weakened until the base pairs break between the two anti-parallel strands. The region where the unwinding of the two strands begins is called the _________. The splitting happens in places of the chain that are rich in ____ bases because there are only _____ bonds between them. There are 3 bonds between the C-G (Cytosine-Guanine) bases. _______ is the enzyme that splits the two strands apart. The _______ where the splitting starts is called the "______". The structure creates a "Y" shape and is known as "r________". ______________________________ prevent the two strands from annealing. Step 2: ____________. Each DNA strand now has exposed bases that are unpaired. The ___________ begins binding at the initiation points of the '-' parent chain. RNA primase can attract _________ which binds to the DNA nucleotides of the 3'-5' strand due to the hydrogen bonds between the bases. RNA nucleotides are the ______ for the biding of DNA nucleotides. Step 3: The_______s. The elongation process is different for the 5'-3' and 3'-5'.The 3'-5' proceeding daughter strand, that uses a 5'-3' template, is called the _______ strand because DNA polymerase can read the template and adds nucleotides (complimentary to the nucleotides of the template, for ex. Adenine opposite to thymine).'-' .......Template cannot be read by DNA polymerase. The replication of this template is complicated and the new strand is called _____strand. In the lagging strand, the _____adds more _____-. ________ reads the template and lengthens the burst. The gap between the two NRA priers is called the "_________". The RNA primers are necessary for NDA polymerase to bind nucleotides to the 3' end of them. The daughter strand is elongated with the binding of more DNA nucleotides. Step 4: In the lagging strand, the __________________, exonuclease, reads the fragments and removes the RNA primers. The gaps are closed with the action of the DNA polymerase (adds complimentary nucleotides to the gaps) and _________ (adds phosphates in the remaining gaps of the phosphate-sugar backbone). Each new double helix is consisted of one old and one new chain, called semi-conservative replication. Step 5: Last step is called __________. This process happens when the DNA polymerase reaches to the end of the strands. Since the RNA primer is removed, it is not possible for the DNA polymerase to seal the gap. So, the end of the parental strand where the last primer isn't replicated. These ends of the linear DNA consists of non-coding DNA that contains repeat sequences and are called________. As a result, a part of the telomere is removed in every cycle of the DNA replication. Step 6: Fixing up to do. The DNA is not completed before a mechanisms of repair fixes possible errors caused during the replication. Enzymes like ________ remove the wrong nucleotides and the ________ fills the gaps.What is the function of the RNA? a) to code for carbohydrates b) to code for proteins**** c) to code for minerals d) to code for proteins

Step 1: Unwinding- This is an extremely difficult task to do- at least one of the strands must be broken in order to relieve the thermodynamic strain and allow the two halves to be pulled apart. Special unwinding proteins attach to the DNA. The hydrogen bonds are weakened until the base pairs break between the two anti-parallel strands. The region where the unwinding of the two strands begins is called the starting point. The splitting happens in places of the chain that are rich in A-T (Adenine-Thymine) bases because there are only two bonds between them. There are 3 bonds between the C-G (Cytosine-Guanine) bases. Helicase is the enzyme that splits the two strands apart. The initiation point where the splitting starts is called the "origin of replication". The structure creates a "Y" shape and is known as "replication fork". Single stranded DNA binding proteins prevent the two strands from annealing. Step 2: Binding of the RNA primase. Each DNA strand now has exposed bases that are unpaired. The RNA primase begins binding at the initiation points of the 3'-5' parent chain. RNA primase can attract RNA nucleotides which binds to the DNA nucleotides of the 3'-5' strand due to the hydrogen bonds between the bases. RNA nucleotides are the primers for the biding of DNA nucleotides. Step 3: The elongation process. The elongation process is different for the 5'-3' and 3'-5'.The 3'-5' proceeding daughter strand, that uses a 5'-3' template, is called leading strand because DNA polymerase can read the template and adds nucleotides (complimentary to the nucleotides of the template, for ex. Adenine opposite to thymine).5'-3' Template cannot be read by DNA polymerase. The replication of this template is complicated and the new strand is called lagging strand. In the lagging strand, the RNA primase adds more RNA primers. DNA polymerase reads the template and lengthens the burst. The gap between the two NRA priers is called the "Ozaki Fragments". The RNA primers are necessary for NDA polymerase to bind nucleotides to the 3' end of them. The daughter strand is elongated with the binding of more DNA nucleotides. Step 4: In the lagging strand, the DNA polymerase 1, exonuclease, reads the fragments and removes the RNA primers. The gaps are closed with the action of the DNA polymerase (adds complimentary nucleotides to the gaps) and DNA ligase (adds phosphates in the remaining gaps of the phosphate-sugar backbone). Each new double helix is consisted of one old and one new chain, called semi-conservative replication. Step 5: Last step is called Termination. This process happens when the DNA polymerase reaches to the end of the strands. Since the RNA primer is removed, it is not possible for the DNA polymerase to seal the gap. So, the end of the parental strand where the last primer isn't replicated. These ends of the linear DNA consists of non-coding DNA that contains repeat sequences and are called telomeres. As a result, a part of the telomere is removed in every cycle of the DNA replication. Step 6: Fixing up to do. The DNA is not completed before a mechanisms of repair fixes possible errors caused during the replication. Enzymes like nuclease remove the wrong nucleotides and the DNA polymerase fills the gaps.What is the function of the RNA?a) to code for carbohydratesb) to code for proteinsc) to code for mineralsd) to code for proteins

a. Relate the abundance of liquid water on Earth's surface and water's physical and chemical properties to the dynamic processes shaping the planet's materials and surface.

The Blue Planet Earth is known as the 'blue planet' because it is covered with water and from space it is seen as bright blue. Water occurs in many forms on Earth, and it is naturally present in all three phases of matter: liquid water (oceans, lakes and streams), solid (ice caps and glaciers) and gas (water vapor in the atmosphere). Water on Earth is very important because it is what allows life to exist. Without water, Earth would be dry and desolate, and you wouldn't be here! How water moves through the water cycle, which is the natural cycling of water through places and phases on Earth, affects weather, land features, global temperatures and drinking water supplies. Water is an important resource to us because we use it for a variety of everyday things - drinking water, cooking food, washing clothes and power production, just to name a few. However, the amount of water available for our use is surprisingly small compared with all the water that is present on Earth. How Water Is Distributed When you look at an image of Earth, it's easy to understand that 70% of its surface is covered with water. This is because all that blue you see is water in the oceans - about 97% of all the water on Earth! Ocean water is very salty, much too salty for us to drink, so in the oceans it stays. That leaves only about 3% for all other water on Earth, which is all freshwater. But even most of that is not available to us! Of that 3%, 2/3 of it (so about 68% of all the freshwater, which is about 2% of all the total water on Earth) is frozen in ice caps and glaciers. While this may sound like an untapped resource, it's actually beneficial to us that this water is frozen where it is because it helps regulate sea levels and global temperatures on Earth. So we still have 1% of all the water on Earth left to distribute. About 30% of Earth's freshwater (approximately 0.6% of all water on Earth) is found as groundwater. This is one resource we do take advantage of - it's where we get much of our water for drinking and irrigating agricultural crops. Surface water, which is all the lakes, rivers and streams on Earth, makes up about 0.3% of all the freshwater (about 0.009% of all water on Earth). Think about all the large rivers we have on our planet, like the Nile, the Amazon, the Colorado and the Mississippi. All of these rivers and all of their streams don't even add up to 1% of Earth's total water! And what's even more amazing is that of all the surface water, rivers make up a measly 2%. Most surface water is found in lakes, which constitute more than 85% of all surface water. There is even more water to be accounted for, such as soil moisture, which is water that is in the ground but above groundwater, and water vapor in the atmosphere. All of this other water, including all those big clouds you see in the sky, makes up less than 1% of all the freshwater on Earth. Lesson Summary Earth is covered with water, and we should be very glad that it is! By moving through the water cycle, which is the natural cycle of water changing phase and location, the water on Earth makes the temperature and climate hospitable for us and provides us with water for drinking and doing daily activities. What's surprising is how little of the water on Earth we can actually use because 97% of all the water on the planet is salty and in the oceans. Only 3% of Earth's water is freshwater, and most of that is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps - about 68% of all freshwater, or 2% of all water on Earth. The remaining 1% of Earth's freshwater is found underground (0.6% of all water, 30% of all freshwater), on the surface (0.009% of all water, 0.3% of the freshwater) and in other forms, like soil moisture and water vapor in the atmosphere. Surprisingly, of Earth's surface water, most of it (about 85%) is found in lakes. All those giant rivers like the Nile, the Amazon and the Mississippi only make up about 2% of Earth's surface water. It's important to remember that even though less than 1% of all Earth's water is available to us as liquid freshwater, the total amount of water on Earth is more than 320 million trillion gallons. So while 1% doesn't sound like a lot, 1% of such a large number is still a pretty large number! Learning Outcomes After this lesson, you should be able to: Explain why Earth is called the Blue Planet Discuss the water cycle and the distribution of water on Earth Define surface water and soil moisture this lesson, you will learn how groundwater and surface water form features on Earth and cause changes in landscapes. You will also learn about the different types of features formed by each type of water. Ground and Surface Water Our Earth is mostly water - about 70%, in fact. Water is important on Earth not only because it supports life in a variety of ways, but it is also responsible for forming and changing much of Earth's surface. Both groundwater and surface water shape the landscape and create landforms, but they do so in different ways. In order to understand how Earth is shaped by water, we need to understand what these two types of water are. Groundwater is water below Earth's surface, in what is called the saturated zone. The saturated zone is the region underground where water completely fills any open spaces. Water below Earth's surface also exists as soil moisture, which is found in the unsaturated zone. The unsaturated zone is located just above the saturated zone. This area is not completely saturated with water, and there's still a significant amount of air in the soil. Surface water is what most people see as streams and rivers. Rivers are really just larger, faster-moving streams, so for simplicity, we're going to call all surface water 'streams.' Streams are dynamic systems that transport water and provide energy and nutrients through this movement. Effects of Groundwater - Human-Influenced Even though groundwater is moving slowly underground, it can still cause some pretty drastic changes in landscape. Some of these changes are caused by humans, but most of the time, the changes are caused because gravity causes movement of the water. One way that humans can cause landscape changes through groundwater movement is by pumping it from the ground. Many people use wells to get the water they need for drinking, showering, and other household uses. When too much groundwater has been pumped from the ground, the land actually lowers because gravity pulls it down into the space that the groundwater occupied previously. When this happens, the land has subsided. There are some famous examples of land subsidence, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The tower was built on unstable ground, and as the ground compacted from extreme groundwater pumping, the tower began to sink with the land and then tilt. Another example of extreme land subsidence is in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Too much groundwater was pumped for agricultural irrigation and the land surface sank down about 27 feet. Even though the groundwater is now being recharged in this area, the land subsidence is a permanent feature because the land became so compacted as it sank. Effects of Groundwater - Natural Features Natural changes in the landscape from groundwater often come from the interaction of groundwater and limestone. Groundwater comes from rainwater that has soaked into the ground, and the rainwater is naturally acidic because it reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. As it meets with limestone in the ground, it partially dissolves the rock, and as this happens, unique features are formed. Sinkholes are cavities in the ground caused by erosion of limestone. They are usually funnel-shaped and open to the sky. A sinkhole is formed because the groundwater caves in on itself, but they can also be formed from excessive groundwater removal. Caves and caverns are underground holes created by the dissolving of limestone. Rainwater moves through the cracks in the limestone and dissolves the rock as it flows through it. Cracks become larger, and this eventually creates large channels underground. It's in this type of landscape that we find true underground rivers. The holes in the rocks are large enough to allow water to flow much faster than if it had to work its way through the soil. Effects of Surface Water Surface water benefits the land because it provides energy and transports nutrients and other materials. Because of this, it's also quite efficient at modifying landscapes and creating features on Earth. Water erodes sediments and rocks that are upstream and deposits them downstream. This erosion may be caused by dissolved substances in the water that chemically erode rock material. The force of the moving water may also cause erosion of sediment and rock materials. Another type of erosion that occurs is when the moving sediments scrape the sides of the stream channels, called abrasion. These sediments and rocks act like sandpaper, carving out holes in the channel and increasing the rate of erosion. When water moves through stream channels, it can create some beautiful features on Earth. Rapids and waterfalls occur in stream channels that are in high mountain areas. Toward the end of the stream, where the water is moving more slowly, floodplains are created. Floodplains are flat land areas surrounding a stream channel that flood with water and sediments from time to time. When floodplains flood, sediments that were carried with the water are deposited along the stream banks and levees are formed. Finally, at the very end of the stream (where it meets a large body of water like a lake), the water slows so much that any remaining sediments are deposited, and this forms a delta. Deltas are usually fan-shaped and are areas where land is continually being built as the deposited sediments progressively accumulate. Lesson Summary The constant cycling and movement of water on Earth plays a major role in how Earth's surface is shaped. Many of Earth's landforms are created by moving water, both above and below the land's surface. The speed and composition of the water determines which types of landforms will be created, and landforms created by water may occur naturally or may be influenced by human actions.

Demonstrate knowledge of the causes of daily, seasonal, and climatic changes and analyze the uneven heating of Earth by the sun.

As Earth moves around the sun, the light that reaches Earth hits some parts with more intensity than others, with June and December being the most pronounced. Because different regions of earth receives different amount of light energy, there is uneven heating of the earth. This causes air circulation. Air at the equator region receives the most light, thus, heats up more than the air over the poles. Thus, we have convection cells. Heat moves vertically in a convection cell as the warm air rises and cold air sinks. Air rises at low pressure zones and sinks at high pressure zones. More on this topic is discussed in the next section. Teacher prep: · Daily and seasonal changes in the skey o Daily changes § The sun rises in the east and it is at its apex in the sky around noon. It then sets in the west each day. § Notes : it has to due to rotation of earth. Daily changes duw to roation of earth and sun rises in east, and its at apex at noon at straight over head and sets in west. It appears to be moving east to west because earth is rotation toward the east, so the sun and everything else appears to move west. o Seasonal changes § The norther hemisphere of the earth is silted toward the sun from March to September and southern hemisphere September to march which causes season § The tilt also causes the days to have a varying length and varying maximum height that the sun reaches. This varies most at the poles. § Notes : when tilted toward sun, more summer. Tilted more for sun, more days more hours sunlight per day. At the equator change is not affected. At the poles, you have extremen effect with this. For example in Alaska, you can have sunlight 24 hous, and in winter nightime almot 24 hours adya, again due to eath tilte. It also effect where the sun path appears to move in the sky. So if its winter time and you are in the norther hemisphere and your pointin away from sun, then you see sun further south in the ski, but I you pointing more towards it, then you gona see sun appear more further north. So that is due to earth tilt. Other study guide Heating of the Earth by the Sun - Air rises at low pressure center and sinks at high pressure center - The amount of incoming solar energy is nearly equal to the amount of energy that is radiated back into space - Uneven heating of the earth causes atmospheric circulation Changes in the Sky - Earth's axial tilt = difference between its axis of rotation and a line perpendicular to its orbit. - Summer solstice in Northern Hemisphere = north pole receives the most solar radiation of any day of the year - Summer solstice: Northern hemisphere is tilted the most toward the Sun - The 23.5 degree angle tilt in the planet's axis of rotation causes the seasons (Northern and Southern Hemisphere receive very different amounts of solar radiation during the two halves of the year) Why is the Earth Heated Unevenly? Think about where you live. What is the climate like? If you live near the equator most likely it's warm and wet. But, if you live farther north the temperature and precipitation depends on the season. It can be hot and humid, or freezing cold! Other areas of the globe reliably get very little rain, creating vast expanses of desert. Why don't tropical areas get cold? Why do deserts get so little rain? The answer is due to uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun. The Earth is a sphere, and so is the Sun. When the Earth orbits the Sun, the center of the Earth gets more direct sunlight than the poles. This is exacerbated by the Earth's tilt. Since the center of the Earth gets more sunlight, it is consistently hotter than other parts of the Earth. Sunlight hits the equator with a more direct angle leading to increased temperatures When air is hot, it rises. It creates low-pressure areas that draw air from other areas in, creating wind. This heating and cooling of the air on Earth causes all the climate and weather patterns we know. Today, we're going to look at how this uneven heating causes different climate zones on Earth. Tropics Picture the Amazon rainforest. Trees fight for access to light in the canopy, while millions of species of insects, reptiles, and mammals scurry through the forest. With over 70 inches of rain each year, this warm, wet biome earns its name. The Amazon rainforest is part of the tropics, the area between 23.5 degrees north and 23.5 degrees south in latitude. The tropics are warm and wet due to differential heating of the globe. With direct sunlight, the area is extremely warm. Hot temperatures cause increased evaporation of the vast expanses of ocean at the tropics. As the water evaporates, it rises with warm air into the atmosphere. As it rises, the air cools, and the water vapor condenses into clouds and eventually precipitation. Many areas in the tropics consequently receive large amounts of rainfall. Most rainforests, including the Amazon, are found in the tropics due to this heating pattern. Temperate Extending north and south from the tropics are temperate regions, about 30 degrees latitude north and south from the equator. If you look at a map, you'll notice a band of deserts in this region wrapping around the globe. This is no coincidence that the world's greatest deserts exist around 30 degrees north or south latitude. It has to do with the differential heating and air patterns extending out from the tropics. Major deserts exist at 30 degrees latitude because of uneven surface heating Once air in the tropics begins to cool, water vapor condenses and is released as precipitation. The cool, dry air now spreads out from the equator towards the temperate regions. As the air descends, it increases in temperature once again due to heating from the land. Most deserts are covered in rock and sand. These materials have a very low specific heat value, meaning they increase temperature quickly when exposed to heat. The tropics, however, are covered in water and plants, which tend to change temperature much more slowly. This is why air in the desert is much hotter than air in the tropics, even though deserts get less direct sunlight. The increased temperature of rock and sand heats the surrounding air, leading to extremely hot, dry conditions. Not all of the temperate zone is desert, however. Extend further north and south from 30 degrees latitude, and you will find a more moderate climate. Most of America lies in the temperate zone. As air warms in the desert, it once again rises and spreads out picking up more moisture as it leaves the desert. Polar Polar regions extend north of the Arctic circle and south from the Antarctic circle, about 66.5 degrees latitude north or south. These are the coldest regions on the planet. They have the least direct path of sunlight and thus receive the least amount of heat compared to other parts of the globe. The extremely cold air cannot hold water vapor, and thus there is little precipitation in these regions. Few plants and animals survive here. However, the Arctic regions in the north tend to be more hospitable than Antarctica. The Arctic is made of floating chunks of packed ice, with water to all sides. Water has a high specific heat, meaning that it changes temperature very slowly and is a good heat sink. The heat held in the water tends to buffer the extreme cold due to the lack of sunlight and temperatures are more moderate here. Antarctica however, is completely isolated from the oceans once you traverse inland. This means there is no water to act as a heat source and consequently, temperatures get extremely cold. Wind Patterns Although so far we've talked about air spreading out from the warm tropics, in reality, air doesn't just spread north to south. The Earth is rotating, and that rotation also causes rotation of the winds on the surface, called the Coriolis effect. The Earth's rotation causes the deflection of both wind and water currents. In the Northern Hemisphere wind is directed to the right and in the Southern Hemisphere wind is deflected towards the left. On a large scale, the Coriolis effect can be seen with storms swirling in different directions in each hemisphere. Lesson Summary Differential heating of areas is due to the curvature of the Earth's surface. Sunlight has the most direct path to the tropics, around the equator. As moist air rises, it creates clouds and precipitation. The now cool dry air moves north and south to the temperate zones. At 30 degrees latitude air is extremely dry and produces deserts as it is heated by land. The warm air rises, cools again, and spreads north to south. The polar regions are on the ends of the globe and experience extremely cold temperatures and very little rainfall. The Coriolis effect causes wind patterns to circulate to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Save Print Lesson

6d Analyze displacement, motion, and forces using models (e.g., vector, graphic representation, equations

Example: object starts at 90 cm , goes to 20 cm, and moves back to 70 cm. what is distance ? 120cm is distance.what is displacement ? difren start and finish point, so 20 cm. so draw vector arrow poiting left ( negative ) . so -20 cm or displacement. Or 20 with arrow going left. You never have negative distance. Distance always positive. Displacement can be positive or negative so understand that. seed, velocity, acceleration and time · Spped is measure of distane over time · Velocity is displacement over time ( direction does matter) · Speed is scaler, velocity is vector. Vector has direction and distance · Ex 1: takes 2 hours drive 10 mile cirle. What is average speed? Average velocity ? if drive circyle speeds cancel out. This speed cancels out this one as we go around so velocity is 0. Spped is 5 miles / hour. For veloicyt, distance is 0/ 2 hours. So 0. So our veloicyt is 0 mph. · Example 2: at t=0, and object at 90 cm mark. At t=3 it moves to 20 cm mark. At t=5 second at 70. What is average velocity? What is average speed ? lets draw this out. In terms of displacement , its only from origin point to finish point 90 to 70,that is 20 cm. so 20 cm/total time 5 s= 4 cm/s is veloicy. Vector ot the left. o Spped is total distance, 120 cm / 5 seconds= 24 cm/s that is our average speed. This looks at distance traveled as opposed to displacement for velocity. · Acceleration vs. time o Acceleration is vector the change in velocity over itme § Ex 9.81 m/s^2 § Time is one dimensional § Velocity by time graphe , the slope of the line is qual to acceleariton § Displacement (m), velocity ( change in displacement m/s), acceleration is chane in velocity ( m/s^2) § Velocity slows from t1-t2, deccelearation, negatie acceleration, accelerating in oppostive direction. It is positive acceleration for a1, a2 is constant velocity no acceleration, a3 decceleration negatve acceleration. that is what is shown. Understand interplay of that. · Calculating liner and circular o Linear motion in a straight line and can have instantanouye ( possible constat) velocity o If velocity changes, acceleration has occurred ( either positive or negarive) o a cceleartion=force/mass newtons Is Force = mass x accelerationthis works with linear acceleration, for circular motion you calculate differently o ciruclualr motion is result of centipetal force . equation is Acentripetal= v^2/r o accenleration centripetal= velocity squared /radius. In this case, ball attached to rope. Ball goes around pole. Whitel line is rope, so that rope creates centripe force. the velociy wants to go staight, but because of centripetal force the velociy is change,d ball accelerates because its chaging direction. So it slows down in this direction but speeds up in a diffren direction. In the second drawing, if you cut rope the ball goes in straight line. So evrything wants to move in straight line by newtons first law unless there is another force like centripetal force here acting. o Lets look example on calculating this on test, you have ball , and ball is attached to string. The radius is .5 meters. And they say ,ball moving 4 m/s. a centripetal=v^2/r. (4m/s)^2/.5 meter. Ac=32 m/s^2 · Vector and graphical representation of motion and forces o Arrow points toward driection, magnitute is by lenghtFnet=F1+f2 o Lets say we have boat, then current moving along. Boat going 4m/s. current going 3 m/s. what is the net velociyt of boat? Velociy is speed and direction.perpendicular to eachother. Line represnet how boat travels. Hypothnuse is 5 net veloicy is 5 m/s. o Graphical representation § On graph with postion and time, the slip is veloicy ( speed with direction) . § On grapht with velociy and time, the slope will indicate acceleartion. Here we have velociy and time. I shoes accelearate in one. Then in II car is slowing down. In III Is the car backing up. On the X its at rest, under it backs up. Then it starts to go in another direction forward in quadrant IV , on the x asis it's at rest. § Here we have position and time . slope = rise/run. Here, change in position/change in time. The part flat, indicated no change in position. When slopes up, change in position, veliciy is chagein in position. Then flattens up again, so no displacement, no change in positon so veloicy is back to 0. Position is displacement/ time .veloicy is displacement / time. § No change graph to veloicy and time. Change in velociy/change in ime. Change in veloicy si acceleartion ,so when you speed up or down that is acceleartion. When flat, here with veloicy going 30 mph , its flat but no change its constant 30 mph, but acceleartion is 0. Then as slows down, the object is negative accelration , slowing down, decreasing veloicy. Now flat line, its still moving slower veloicy, no longer decceleration, just slower constnat velociy so accelariton is 0 . when line touches x xis velociy si 0. o § Here , acceleariton and time . area under curve = Accelarion x time. (m/s^2)(s). so if multiple area, you get veloicy. Area under curve represent velocity., § Another example veloicy and time. Line. And they give us an area under curve. T=1s to t=3 seconds. Again , multiple (m/s)(s), get meters. That shows displacement how much displaced from where it was originally. Lets say, they give you veloicy is 1. (1 m/s)(2 seconds) so the displacement is 2 meters. Object displaced by 2 meters. · For example, they give you a graph position on y-asix, time on x-axis. .graph position and time. The other graph , shows velocity and time. How to darw it . on the left, position is not changing, then position changes, we are experience veloicy, this constant rate of change in \positoi in straight line, so constat rate of chainge in position, so constant veloicy. So initall not moving, then moving , then stops again and remains in exitin position. So , on the right, the first part, means no veloicy, then moves, so it moves on the second quadrant and remains there , then goes back to no moving at all, so at rest and remains at rest. So we shade in the first quadrant and last because ther is no veloicy. o . Online website : Circular motion- circular motion is the movement of an object in a circle at a constant speed. As the object moving around the circle is undergoing velocity changes (as its direction is changing), the object is in constant acceleration.Angular velocity- this is the measure of the angle moved through per second. It is measured in radians per second.Displacement is the change of position in a particular direction.Time- the time it takes for an object to make one revolution. The units are measured in seconds.The speed of an object moving in a circle is:velocity= 2piR/T.The acceleration is:a= 2piv/TIn the simplest cases, the speed, mass and radius is constant.Linear motion- movement in a straight line. Position and Displacement - displacement is independent of the path taken Graphing Motion - velocity-time graph: slope gives acceleration, area underneath gives the displacement -position/time graph: slope gives the velocity -calculating acceleration from a velocity/time graph - displacement is the area under an area a velocity/time graph - in a position vs. time graph: if an object is accelerating it will produce line with an ever-increasing slope: Force - a force is something that can change an objects speed or direction - each force acting on a body can produce acceleration independently and the resulting acceleration of the body is the vector sum of each independent acceleration - unbalanced forces cause changes in velocity - units of force: Newtons = kg x m x s-2 Newton's Second Law F=ma - component of weight normal to plane = Wcos0 =mgcos0 - component of weight along plane = Wsin0 = mgsin0 -weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity (same units as force) Vector diagrams are simply diagrams that contain vectors. That's probably pretty obvious. But a more interesting question is to ask how they're used. A vector is an arrow that represents a quantity with both magnitude and direction. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude (or size) of the quantity, and the direction of the arrow represents the direction. How do we use them? Well, you might have a vector diagram that shows the magnetic field created by a bar magnet, which looks like this: Bar magnet Or you might have a vector diagram that shows the velocity of a projectile in the x and y direction during its flight, which looks like this: Projectile But we can also use vector diagrams when we need to add or subtract vector quantities. And we're going to talk about that in more detail in this lesson. Adding Vectors When adding two vector quantities, you draw a vector arrow for each quantity, then you move one of them so that they're connected tip to tail. This means that the tip of one arrow is connected to the tail of the other arrow. Then draw a final arrow from the very start of the chain of vectors to the very end. This is your final result from adding the two vectors, which is why it's often known as a resultant. So, this diagram shows vector A, added to vector B, to give a total, a resultant, represented by vector C: C is the resultant. If you were given a scale for the diagram, such as two centimeters equals three newtons of force, for example, you could then measure your result and find the number of newtons that this result represents. For example, you might need to do this for a question where you're finding the net force. Subtracting Vectors Subtracting vectors is very similar. To subtract vectors, you take your two vectors, and then reverse the one you're subtracting. If this represents vector A, then negative vector A (or minus vector A) looks like this: Negative vector A Then, once you've reversed the vector you're subtracting, put them tip to tail in the same way you did when adding vectors. Draw a final arrow from the very start of the chain of vectors to the very end. This is your result from subtracting the two vectors. So, this diagram shows vector A, subtracted from vector B, to give a final result, represented by vector C: Final result of subtraction Example Let's say you have these two vectors: vector A and vector B. Vectors for example And you're asked to find A plus B and also asked to find A minus B. To find A plus B, you just put them tip to tail, like this: Step in vector addition Then draw an arrow from the start to the end. And that is your final result. To find A minus B, we have to reverse the direction of B, like this: Step in vector subtraction Then put them tip to tail again. Finally, draw an arrow from the start to the end. Final result of subtraction And that is your final result. Lesson Summary Vector diagrams are simply diagrams that contain vectors. A vector is an arrow that represents a quantity with both magnitude and direction. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude (or size) of the quantity, and the direction of the arrow represents the direction. We use vector diagrams in many ways. You might have a vector diagram that shows the magnetic field created by a bar magnet, which looks like the one in the section above. Or you might have a vector diagram that shows the velocity of a projectile in the x and y direction during its flight, which looks like the one above. But we can also use vector diagrams when we need to add and subtract vector quantities. When adding two vector quantities, you draw a vector arrow for each quantity, then move one of them so that they're connected tip to tail. This means that the tip of one arrow is connected to the tail of the other arrow. Then draw a final arrow from the very start of the chain of vectors to the very end. This is your result of adding the two vectors, which is why it's often known as a resultant. You could then measure your resulting vector and use a scale to figure out what the result represents. You could even measure the angle to describe the direction it's pointing. Subtracting vectors is similar. To subtract vectors, you take your two vectors and then reverse the one you're subtracting. Then, once you've reversed the vector you're subtracting, put them tip to tail in the same way you did when adding vectors. Draw a final arrow from the very start of the chain of vectors to the very end. And this is your result from subtracting the two vectors. In this lesson, you'll learn how to add two displacement vectors. A displacement vector tells you how the position of an object has changed. This displacement vector includes not only how far you have traveled but also in which direction you have traveled. For example, say you start off at home and make your way to school. Your displacement vector starts at home and ends at your school. It's one straight line. It doesn't follow the path you took. On other hand, if you start at home and take a walk around the block with your dog, your end point is still at home, so therefore your displacement vector will be 0 since your beginning and end point position is the same. Displacement-wise, you didn't go anywhere. This displacement vector can be drawn on the coordinate plane. The displacement vector then is given by the coordinate of the end point like this: So, when you went from home to school, your displacement vector as shown on the graph is (3, 4). Yes, you can write your displacement vector as a point on the coordinate plane as long as it begins at the origin. If these points are in miles, then this means that your school is located 3 miles to the east and 4 miles to the north. That is how much your position has changed. Now, say you go from your school to the local ice creamery for a snack with your friends. You'll now have another displacement vector. This second displacement vector is (-1, 2). Remember, your displacement vectors always have a beginning at the origin. To add these two displacement vectors, follow these steps: Step 1: Find the coordinates of your two displacement vectors If you are given a graph with no coordinates, then you'll first need to find the coordinate points of the ends of both displacement vectors when each displacement vector begins at the origin. For your two displacements from home to school and from school to the ice creamery, you have already figured out the coordinate points of the displacement vectors. From home to school, it is (3, 4). From school to the ice creamery, it is (-1, 2). Step 2: Move the second displacement vector so it starts where the first displacement vector ended Next, you'll want to move your displacement vectors so they connect with each other. Where one ends, the other begins. For your two displacement vectors (going from home to school and then from school to the ice creamery), you'll connect the displacement vector that begins at the school and ends at the ice creamery to the first displacement vector that begins at home and ends at the school. Step 3: Draw a new vector that is the addition of the two displacement vectors This new vector will have the same beginning as your first displacement vector and end where your second displacement vector ends. For your trip to school and then to the ice creamery, your new displacement vector will look like this: Your new displacement vector is the green vector. See how it begins where the first displacement vector begins, and it ends where the second displacement vector ends. Step 4: Find the coordinates of the new displacement vector You can find the coordinates by looking at your coordinate graph to see where the second displacement vector ends. Looking at your graph, it looks like it ends at (2, 6). You can also algebraically calculate it by adding the coordinate points together. If your first displacement vector is (x1, y1) and your second displacement vector is (x2, y2), then your new displacement vector is given by this formula: (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) For your two displacement vectors (3, 4), and (-1, 2), you'll use the formula we just covered and simply add your vectors together like this: (3 + -1, 4 + 2) = (2, 6) Your solution then is (2, 6). Your new displacement vector begins at the origin and ends at the point (2, 6). This new displacement vector is also called the resultant vector. Alternate Method If the problem gives you the coordinates instead of a graph, then you can go straight to step 4 to find your resultant vector. Find the resultant vector of the vector A (5, -4) and vector B (-3, -2). Since you are given the coordinates directly, you can go ahead and add the points together following the formula: (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) (5 + -3, -4 + -2) = (2, -6) If you graphed the vectors out and followed steps 1, 2, and 3, your new vector should also point to (2, -6). Looking at the graph, you see that it does. Lesson Summary Let's review what we've learned... In this lesson, we looked at how we find the displacement vector, which tells us how the position of an object has changed, usually in graph form. In graph form, the displacement vector is represented by a straight line, not literally following the path the object might have taken. It's really just point A to point B. It's also important to note that if you begin and end at the same point, your displacement vector will always be 0. Graph It Instead Motion can be quite variable. Think about the last trip you took in your car. I'm sure you got in the car while it was stopped, it changed position as you drove down the street, stopped again at a red light, and continued changing position when the light turned green. If we wanted to study the change in position using kinematics and algebra, you would need to make a long list of all the changes in position and how long it took you to make those changes. What you would end up with is a long list of numbers. Let me suggest a more streamlined approach. Let's just make it a graph. Position Versus Time Graph I'm sure you know that driving in your car encompasses all the basic components of kinematics: position, displacement, velocity, time, and acceleration. To get more comfortable working with kinematics graphically, let's focus only on position and time for now. We are also going to assume that the object is moving in a straight line and can only go forwards and backwards. The best way to start is to set up our graph. Start with a basic grid, and draw in the x and y axes. Time, on the horizontal axis, only needs positive values. Our graph of the motion starts when we get in the car. This is when we start our timer, and since we can't go backwards in time, we don't need negative seconds. Position, on the vertical axis, does need negative values, which we'll get to in a minute. Always fill in the numbers on the axes and add the arrows on the ends. Hopefully your graph looks like this: Position vs time Now, I'm going to plot some points that represent a car in motion, and we'll see if we can figure out what exactly that car did. The first point we see below is at 0 meters and 0 seconds. This is the time and position where the car started. If you follow the line, the car moved 15 meters in 2 seconds. Between 2 and 6 seconds, the line is flat, meaning the car must be stopped. Time is still increasing but the car is stuck at the 15 meter mark, possibly stopped at a red light. From 6 seconds to 9 seconds, the car moves again, this time traveling 10 meters. Graph for example Okay, so that means in the first 9 seconds, the car has moved 25 meters in the same direction. At the 9 second mark, the line turns and begins moving down. This represents a change in direction. The car has now turned around and is heading back where it came from. During the 4 seconds between 9 and 13 seconds on the graph, the car travels 25 meters back to where it started. Between 13 and 14 seconds, the car is motionless again. Finally, the car drives 10 meters beyond the start point (0 seconds, 0 meters) in 2 seconds. You can see how the graph is able to relay all of this information in one compact figure. There is no need to do math, adding and subtracting meters and seconds to determine how far the object traveled and how fast it got there. This simple graph told you everything you needed to know about the motion of the object. Example Problem You'll no doubt see problems that involve this type of graph. Here is just one example of questions you could see. By understanding how to read the graph, you should be able to easily answer anything thrown at you. Look at the graph below of position vs. time. Describe what is happening at the 7 seconds point? Graphe for example problem- The line approaching 7 seconds is moving up. This means the object is moving forward and getting farther from its initial position. At 7 seconds, the line reverses direction and is moving down. This means object has turned around and is moving backwards towards its initial position. At 7 seconds, there is a change in direction of the object. Now, describe what is happening between 9 and 13 seconds. During this time period, the object is not moving. Its position is 10 meters from its initial position throughout the 4 seconds period. It's not moving forwards or backwards. Velocity vs. Time Graph At first glance, a graph of velocity vs. time might look a lot like the graphs of position vs. time we've been working with. In fact, they are set up nearly identically. We use the same x, y coordinate system, the same shape, and the same time variable on the x axis. The only difference is instead of position, with the unit meters, on the y axis, we use velocity with m/s units. That's the basic velocity vs. time graph. Basic velocity time graph- Remember, what we are describing with these graphs is the motion of an object in a straight line. Velocity is a vector quantity, requiring a magnitude and a direction. But, with straight line motion, the only directions we have to worry about are forwards and backwards. When the object is moving forwards, we call it positive. When it's moving backwards, we call it negative and so those values need a negative sign. The Shape of a Velocity vs. Time Graph You will definitely have to make a velocity vs. time graph for one of your exams, and you should expect to answer several basic questions about the shape of the graph. Fortunately, these graphs are very easy to read, once you understand what's going on. Let's take a look at an example graph representing the motion of a car on a straight track. Graph example- As you can see above, we have velocity on the y axis and time on the x axis. As the car starts moving, the velocity changes from 0 m/s to 20 m/s between t = 0 s and t = 2 s. Hopefully, you remember that a change in velocity is called acceleration. So, a rising line on a velocity vs. time graph represents that the object is accelerating. Since the velocity is increasing, the acceleration is positive. Now, look at the graph below between t = 2 s and t = 6 s. What's going on here? The car is driving at a constant velocity of 20 m/s for 4 seconds. So, a flat, horizontal line means that the velocity is constant and the object is not accelerating. graphe 2-6 seconds. At the t = 6 s mark, the graph turns and starts moving downward. The velocity values are decreasing from 20 m/s at 6 seconds to 10 m/s at 8 seconds as the car applies its brakes. At t = 10 seconds, the car stops when the velocity hits 0 m/s. A line moving down towards the x axis represents that the object is slowing down. We call this type of motion negative acceleration. Graph at 10 seconds At the t = 10 second mark, the line moves below the x axis to the point y = -10 m/s. During straight line motion, a negative velocity means the object is moving backwards. So, what happened here is that the car is now driving backwards on the track. On a velocity vs. time graph, any time the line crosses the x axis, the object is changing direction. Graph showing change in direction To recap, the car was not moving, then accelerated to 20 m/s before maintaining this speed for 4 seconds. At this point, the car applied its brakes for 4 seconds, negatively accelerating until it stopped. Once stopped, the car reversed direction and accelerated to 10 m/s in the opposite direction. You could easily describe all that in words but I think it's much easier to simply draw a graph. Lesson Summary Let's briefly review velocity vs. time graphs. You can determine a lot of information about the straight-line motion of an object by looking at the shape of the line on a velocity vs. time graph. A rising line represents an increase in velocity called acceleration. If the line is flat and horizontal, the object is traveling at a constant speed. A line that is falling towards the x axis represents an object that is negatively accelerating, or slowing down. When the line hits the x axis, the object has stopped moving. If the graph continues below the x axis, the object has changed direction and is moving backwards at increasing velocity. If I show you two different Position vs. Time graphs and ask you to tell me which one represents an object traveling at a constant velocity, you should have no problem figuring it out. After all, this graph shows the position and the time both changing at a constant rate. The second graph shows an object that is not moving. If you had to, you could calculate the slopes of the graphs and give me the velocity. But, what if I take away all the numbers? Can you still pick out the graph of constant velocity? Of course you can. The graph still shows the position and time changing at a consistent rate even though I've taken away the actual values. What you've just done is make a qualitative assessment of the graph and used it to describe the motion of the object. With qualitative graphing you are describing the motion of an object by recognizing the basic shapes on its graph, not through exact calculations. The best way to proceed is to look at the seven basic shapes of Velocity vs. Time and Position vs. Time graphs. By the end, you should be able to quickly recognize what's going on in each graph, what a specific type of motion looks like on both types of graphs, and how to sketch one type of graph if given the other type. Let's dive right in. Basic Graph Shapes Here's #1. 1: The object is not moving. As you can see, the position is not changing on the first graph, and the velocity is 0 m/s on the second. Here, you are simply standing still. 2: The object is moving at a constant velocity in the positive direction. Here, position and time are changing at a constant rate, upwards. The velocity graph is horizontal, above the time axis. Now, you are walking a steady pace forward. 3: The object is moving at a constant velocity in the negative direction. These graphs are the opposite of #2. Position is constantly changing downward. Velocity is a horizontal line below the time axis. Back at the starting point, you decide to walk backwards at a steady pace. 4: The object is speeding up (or accelerating) in the positive direction. The Position vs. Time graph shows an object that is moving faster as time passes, drawn as a curve. The velocity graph is increasing constantly, in a straight line. A steady speed won't cut it anymore. You start walking slowly but steadily move faster until you're running forward. 5: The object is slowing down in the positive direction. These graphs show the opposite of #4. The change in position decreases as time passes. The velocity steadily decreases. This time, you are already running forward at the start but gradually slow down to a stop. 6: The object is slowing down in the negative direction. This one can be a bit harder to grasp. Position is changing backwards, towards the starting point and the overall speed is getting slower. For me, this is easier to see on the velocity graph. The velocity is decreasing towards 0 m/s. Since the graph is below the time axis, the vector is negative, meaning the object is moving backwards. Starting several meters away from the fixed starting point, you sprint backwards towards it. You can't sprint for long and gradually start to slow down until you stop moving. 7: The object is speeding up in the negative direction. These graphs are the opposite of #6. Position is changing backwards faster as time passes. Again, for me this is easier to see on the velocity graph. The velocity is increasing, but since the line is below the time axis, the velocity is increasing in the negative direction. Again, several meters from the original fixed starting point, you decide to head back. This time you start walking but speed up to a run as you head backwards. Lesson Summary Let's review. Kinematics can be represented visually using graphs. Velocity vs. Time and Position vs. Time graphs are the most common. Once you get familiar with these graphs, you can begin to pick out trends without using numbers or doing any math. Qualitative observations rely on your ability to pick out these basic shapes and use them to describe the motion of the object being graphed. There are seven basic shapes you should become familiar with. I recommend looking at many graphs until you feel comfortable with every possible combination of motion.

what does batteries do with voltage?

- A battery raises the voltage that 'pushes' the electrons through a circuit

Demonstrate knowledge of relative and absolute dating techniques, including how half-lives are used in radiometric dating and of how evidence from rock strata is used to establish the geologic timescale. d. what is relative dating ? What is the law of superstition, who inveted it ? what does the princole of oringal horizontality tell us ? what does the principle of cross tell us, what type of dating is this ? what type of dating is inclusion, what is inclusions ? what do we seei n uncoformities ? when does unconformity occur ? what and hos is absolute daiting ? what is radioactivity ? whatare the3 types of radioactive decay ? what happens with alpha particles ? , what happens to mass and atomic number ? what happens to a beta particle ? what happens to the mass and atomic number ? what happen in an electron capture, what happens to mass , what happnes to atomic number ? what happnes in superposition? what is lateralcontinuity of rocks ? what is term for when disruption causes a discontinuity in the rock patter ? what happens in radioactive dating ? what is half life ? Carbon 14 has a half life of how many years ? Carbon 14 with 8 neutrons ha a half life of 5700, C14 is an _____? Lets say they tell you you find a sample that that 13% of caron 14 remaining, so how old is it ? relative dating cocmpares what ? absolute dating is achieved throught ______dating ? what is inclusion ? Gaps in time in geological records due to erosion is know as ________. à example: tilted beds of sandstone underlying horizontal layers of limestone (sandstone layers were tilted by some tectonic processes, erosion occurred, and horizontally layers of limestone were deposited) is an example of )=_________________.? wHEN a radioactive lemetn decays it releales ? THe layers of diffrent rock are called _____? Principle subdivion of geological time is called ________________? what are the 2 eons ? Which eon contiues up to today? eons are madeup of ________________? What are the 3 major eras of the phanerozoic eon? the nextsubdivion of era are know as ________________? the smallese divison ofgeolotical time scale is know as ________________? what is stratigraphic succession ? what is principle of horizontality? Law of superpostioon indicates what ? what does the idea of cross cutting relationships tell us about rocks ? what occurs in inclusions of orcks ? For example, say we have a layer missing from the rock strata. That layer may have eroded away before the next layer was built upon the exposed surface. , this is an example of _______? The Principle of _______ states that all rock layers were originally horizontal. The _______ states that younger strata lie on top of older strata. The _______ states that intrusions and faults that cut across rock are necessarily _______than that rock. Inclusions, or foreign bodies, found inside rock are necessarily _______ than that rock. And, _______ show a discontinuity in the strata, which can only be understood by following the principles of _______. Geologists utilize all of these laws and principles to establish the relative ages of rocks and the relationships between events that occurred throughout geologic time. what are the diffrent types of absolute dating (5)? How does radioacarbon dating owrk ? Potassium argon dating measures what, up to what time period ? What type of dating determines hwne something was last heated? what variables are needed to use thermoluminesce dating ? What is dendrochronology? what does amino acid dating tells us / Radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks and other materials based on the _______________? what are 3 types of radioactive decya ? Radioametric dating is method used to date rocks based on the know decya rate of _______________? Radioactive decya is when unstable nucleus looses energy by releasing _______________.? Elements can exist as isotopies, which are _______________? What happen in alpha decay what is emmitted ? what is an alpha particle , what does it contiane? WHAT HAPPENS IN BETA DECAY ? What happens to the nucleus in beta decya ? what is emitted in gamma decay ? gamma decay, depicted in Fig. 3-6, a nucleus changes from a _________ energy state to a _________energy state through the emission of _________ _________ (_________). The number of protons (and neutrons) in the nucleus does _________ change in this process, so the parent and daughter atoms are the same chemical element. Let's review. Radiometric dating, also known as radioactive dating, is what we use to determine the age of rocks. To be more specific, it is a method used to date rocks based on the known decay rate of radioactive isotopes that are found within the rocks. This decay rate is referring to radioactive decay, which is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by releasing _________ . This release of energy allows the nucleus to become more _________ . We call the unstable nuclide that undergoes radioactive decay the parent nuclide and the nuclide that results from the radioactive decay the _________ nuclide. There are different types of radioactive decay. If a nucleus is unstable because it is too big or has too many protons, then we might see _________ decay, which is a type of radioactive decay where an alpha particle is emitted. An alpha particle is two _________ and two _________ bound together, which is the same as a _________ nucleus. If we have a nucleus where the _________ -to-_________ ratio is too great, we might see beta decay, which is a type of radioactive decay where a _________ particle is emitted. A beta particle is an _________ that is emitted from the nucleus. With beta decay, a neutron essentially loses an electron, turning into a _________ . If the nucleus has too much energy and wants to move to a more stable lower energy state, we might see _________ decay, which is a type of radioactive decay where a gamma ray is emitted. A gamma ray is a high-energy _________ . Unlike alpha and beta decay, this type of decay does not release a _________ . Therefore, the number of protons or neutrons within a nucleus does not change, but energy is released, allowing the nucleus to reorganize itself into a more stable state. what is uranium lead dating ? What is obseved in optassium argon dating ? what about rubidum-strontium dating? In carbon dating, carbon decays to what ?

Relative dating- This is a method of placing events that occurred in a sequence or order without knowing their age in years. This method was done before a reliable method of numerical dating had been established. This method is done by applying the following principals: 1) Law of Superposition- states that layers of sedimentary rock or lava flows are in layers with the oldest on the bottom, youngest on top. Nicolaus Steno (17th century) is credited as being the first to recognize the sequence of historical events in the rock layers. 2) Principle of Original Horizontality- states that layers of sediment are generally deposited in horizontal position. So, the rock layers that we see in the Grand Canyon have not been disturbed as they are still in horizontal layers. However, if we see a folded or inclined layer of rocks, then we can assume that they were moved into that position by crustal disturbances after the sediments were laid. Nicolaus Steno is also credited for recognizing this principle as well. 3) Principal of Cross-Cutting Relationships- If we see a fault line cut through rocks or a magma intrusion or a dike, then we can assume that these two events took place are younger than the rocks affected. 4) Inclusions- these are fragments of one rock unit that has been enclosed within another. The rock mass adjacent to the one containing the inclusions must have been there first in order to provide the rock fragments. Unconformities: When we observe layers of rock that have been deposited that have not undergone any interruptions, we call them conformable. However, throughout Earth's history, layers of sediments have been interrupted. A period during which deposition has ceased, erosion removed previously deposited rocks, and then deposition resumed is called an unconformity. There are three types of unconformities: Angular Unconformity: these consists of a tilted or folded sedimentary layer of rocks that are overlaid by younger, flat-lying rocks. These formations show that there was a period of deformation that occurred. Very easy to recognize. Disconformity: more common, but less conspicuous and most are difficult to identify. This is because the rocks above and below are similar and there is little evidence that erosion took place. The strata above and below the erosion surface are parallel. The sedimentary strata are relatively undisturbed below and above the erosional surface. In the above illustration, we can apply our knowledge of laws and principals to understand the proper sequence of the rocks and the events.1) We can apply the law of superposition. Layers A, B, D were deposited in that order, from oldest to newest.2) Layer C is a sill (an igneous intrusion). We know that this event took place after layers B and D were deposited because there are fragments from layers B and D embedded in the sill. 3) Using our knowledge on the principal of cross-cutting relationships, we know that the intrusion of dike E took place after layers A, B, D and the sill E occurred as it cuts through all of these layers. 4) Next, the rocks were then tilted, event F, and erosion took place. We know that the tilting took place first as there are sections of the beds that have been eroded. The tilting and erosion was followed by more deposition, layer G. These events produced an angular unconformity. Absolute Dating- uses a numerical number to date when the event took place or how old the object is. Absolute dates are found by using radioactivity, called radiometric dating. Radioactivity is the process where nuclei spontaneously break apart (decay). During radioactive decay, the nucleus of the unstable atom loses energy.An unstable isotope is called a parent, and isotopes resulting from the decay of the parents are called daughter products. There are three common types of radioactive decay: 1) alpha particles: composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The emission of an alpha particle means that the mass number of the isotope is reduced by 4 and the atomic number is reduced by 2 2) beta particle: electron that are given off from a nucleus. The mass number stays the same, but the atomic number increases by one -since there are more protons than electrons now 3) electron capture: an electron is captured by a nucleus. The electron combines with the proton and forms a neutron. The mass number remains unchanged, however the nucleus now contains one less proton so the atomic number decreases by 1. The time required for half of the nuclei in a sample to decay is called the half-life of the isotope. When the quantities of parent and daughter are equal (ratio is 1:1) then we know that one half-life has transpired. When the ratio is 1:3, then two half-lives have passed. When the ratio is 1:7, then three half-lives have passed and so on.Quick Quiz!Who made the first clear statement of the law of superposition? When?a) William Smith, 18th centuryb) John Stuart Priestly, 19th centuryc) John Wesley Powell, 19th centuryd) Nicolaus Steno, 17th century Teacher prep: · Relative and absolute dating techniques o Relative techniques § A sequence of events or relative time can be determined by studying exposed rock · Original horizontality -beds of sediment deposited in water from a horizontal layer · Superposition- in a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rock, the layers are older as you move deeper · Lateral continuity- original sedimentary layer extends laterally until it thins at the edges · Cross cutting relationships- disruption causes a discontinuity in the rock pattern. · Notes : to know how old the rocks are, two main ways for dating rock beds one is relative dating to look at what kind of rocks surround it what kind of geolotical activities effect it. absolute dating is radioactive decay. image is example of cross cutting relationship. It shows that there was a event in which sediment layers got disrupted. o Absolute dating § Absolute dating is done using radioactive elements that break down at a predictable rate § Radioactive decay is the process by which an atomic nucleus of a unstable atom loses energy y emitting ionizing particles § An elements half life is the amount of time it takes for half of the sample to change form. The half life periods ( decay rates ) are measured in labs. · Carbon 14 ( carbon isotope with 8 neutrons) has a half life of approximately 5700 years § Notes : different elements have diffren decay rates that is half life. Reason why we call it half life is because if we have an amount of a substance such as for Carbon 14. We use carbon 14 to date things that were alive, they absorb carbon rays and can convert carbon12 to carbon14. As soon as the living thing dies, the carbon 14 is gone. so lets say this is carbon 14, in a certain amount of time half of that isotope will day, so in 657 years half of that will decay. In another 657 years anotherhalf will dacay, and so on. So in this graph we can see that time of decay is slowing as time is going by because there is less quanityt getting decay in each half life cycle.so we look at the amount of carbon 14 in the rings of each tree, and each ring represents years. so scientist have been able to figure out half likfe of all different things so they can date rocks and other things using same techniquie. On test questions understanding half lifke, they might give you some information like the graphe. Such as a carbon 14 isotpe with 8 neutrons, has a half likfe 5700 years. isotpe because extra nutrons. So they give you half life. Lets say they tell you you find a sample that that 13% of caron 14 remaining, so how old is it ? if 13% is left, do you udnertand concept of half life. We start with 100% then half life passes, how much is left, 50%, another is 25% , then another half likfe that is 13% . so it went 3 half lifes, so 3 times 5700 , and get answer. 17100 years have passed . so that is what they might test you on for. Other: Relative and Absolute Dating - Relative age = comparing to ages of surrounding rocks - Absolute dating = radiometric dating - inclusion = pieces of rock that are made part of a newly forming rock (used to date rocks) - uncomformity = gaps in time in geologic record due to erosion à example: tilted beds of sandstone underlying horizontal layers of limestone (sandstone layers were tilted by some tectonic processes, erosion occurred, and horizontally layers of limestone were deposited) - when a radioactive element decays it releases particles and energy The Geologic Time Scale How do we know when the dinosaurs died out? How do we know when birds first appeared on Earth or when humans evolved? What about the beginning of life itself? How was our planet formed and populated by living things over time? To answer these questions, geologists use a special timeline called the Geologic Time Scale. It's a record of the earth's geologic history as scientists have come to understand it by studying the layers in rock. The geologic time scale is broken up into larger and smaller subdivisions, which help us get a better sense of how historical events fit together. So, in this lesson, we're going to learn how the time scale was created and how its major subdivisions fit together to tell the story of Earth's history. Study of Strata People have been studying earth and rock formations for a very long time. In the 19th century, geologists took a closer look at the layers that they saw in sedimentary rocks. They noticed that the rock tended to lie in horizontal sections that had different colors, textures, and fossils inside. The top rock layer might have been limestone containing lots of snail fossils. The next layer may have been chunky conglomerate rock, while the next was a layer of shale and fish fossils. Geologists called these layers of different rock types strata. They studied rock strata all around the world in order to figure out major events in geologic history. Over time, geologists and other scientists put all that information together to make the geologic time scale. Eons and Eras The first principal subdivision is called the eon. An eon, the largest division of the geologic time scale, spans hundreds to thousands of millions of years. Geologists generally agree that there are two major eons: the Precambrian eon and the Phanerozoic eon. The Precambrian goes from the formation of the earth to the time when multicellular organisms first appeared - that's a really long time - from 4,500 million years ago to just about 543 million years ago. Then begins the Phanerozoic eon, which continues up to today. Eons are made up of eras, divisions that span time periods of tens to hundreds of millions of years. The three major eras are the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic. The Cenozoic era is the one we are in today. It began 65 million years ago, right about the time that the dinosaurs went extinct. Keep in mind that these three eras are all grouped within the Phanerozoic eon. Remember that other eon, the Precambrian eon? Well, that one doesn't get to have any eras inside it. We don't have a lot of information about it, so we leave it as one big chunk in geologic history. Periods and Epochs The next subdivision down from the era is the period, a division of geologic history that spans no more than one hundred million years. You're probably most familiar with the periods of the Mesozoic era: the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the Cretaceous periods. These are the periods that included our most favorite dinosaur species, like the Triceratops and Tyrannosaurus Rex. Today, we live in the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era. Finally, we have the smallest division of the geologic time scale, called the epoch. Epochs are the chunks of time that describe the evolutionary ups and downs of mammals and birds. You've probably seen pictures of giant prehistoric creatures, called 'megafauna', like the wooly mammoth, the giant ground sloth, and a Saber-tooth Cat. These all appeared sometime in the Tertiary period, which includes the Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene epochs. The Pleistocene epoch marks the bulk of human evolution, beginning around 1.8 million years ago. Our current epoch is the Holocene epoch; it only started about 12,000 years ago. Lesson Summary So let's recap about the geologic time scale and how its divisions fit together. Epochs are the smallest divisions. Many epochs make up a period, many periods make up an era, and many eras make up an eon. In defining the boundaries between major divisions, we often use markers, like the dinosaur extinction or the appearance of certain organisms. But fossil evidence isn't the only information we rely on. As you'll see in other lessons, the geologic time scale arises from an in-depth study of the trends in rock strata, like how the layers are arranged and how they are composed of certain chemicals. The more information we gather about the rock strata, the more we can tweak the Geologic Time Scale to fit the evidence. But, now that we've mapped out a pretty good timeline, we can use it as a universal tool for talking about our planet and studying its history. After all, the whole point of having the geologic time scale is to give scientists a logical framework on which to reference major events in geologic time. Learning Outcomes This lesson should teach you to: Define strata and the Geologic Time Scale Explain how geologists developed the Geologic Time Scale nconformities can tell us stories about the geologic past. We'll even visit the Grand Canyon to solve the mystery of the Great Unconformity! The Grand Canyon and Relative Dating Imagine that you're a geologist, studying the amazing rock formations of the Grand Canyon. Your goal is to study the smooth, parallel layers of rock to learn how the land built up over geologic time. Now imagine that you come upon a formation like this: Example of a rock layer that is not smooth or parallel What do you think of it? How do you study it? How can you make any conclusions about rock layers that make such a crazy arrangement? Geologists establish the age of rocks in two ways: numerical dating and relative dating. Numerical dating determines the actual ages of rocks through the study of radioactive decay. Relative dating cannot establish absolute age, but it can establish whether one rock is older or younger than another. Relative dating requires an extensive knowledge of stratigraphic succession, a fancy term for the way rock strata are built up and changed by geologic processes. In this lesson, we'll learn a few basic principles of stratigraphic succession and see whether we can find relative dates for those strange strata we found in the Grand Canyon. Original Horizontality In order to establish relative dates, geologists must make an initial assumption about the way rock strata are formed. It's called the Principle of Original Horizontality, and it just means what it sounds like: that all rock layers were originally horizontal. Of course, it only applies to sedimentary rocks. Recall that sedimentary rock is composed of... sediments, which are deposited and compacted in one place over time. As you can imagine, regular sediments, like sand, silt, and clay, tend to accumulate over a wide area with a generally consistent thickness. It sounds like common sense to you and me, but geologists have to define the Principle of Original Horizontality in order to make assumptions about the relative ages of sedimentary rocks. Law of Superposition Once we assume that all rock layers were originally horizontal, we can make another assumption: that the oldest rock layers are furthest toward the bottom, and the youngest rock layers are closest to the top. This rule is called the Law of Superposition. Again, it's pretty obvious if you think about it. Say you have a layer of mud accumulating at the bottom of a lake. Then the lake dries up, and a forest grows in. More sediment accumulates from the leaf litter and waste of the forest, until you have a second layer. The forest layer is younger than the mud layer, right? And, the mud layer is older than the forest layer. When scientists look at sedimentary rock strata, they essentially see a timeline stretching backwards through history. The highest layers tell them what happened more recently, and the lowest layers tell them what happened longer ago. How do we use the Law of Superposition to establish relative dates? Let's look at these rock strata here: Example of rock with five layers We have five layers total. Let's say we find out, through numerical dating, that the rock layer shown above is 70 million years old. We're not so sure about the next layer down, but the one below it is 100 million years old. Can we tell how old this middle layer is? Not exactly, but we do know that it's somewhere between 70 and 100 million years old. Geologists use this type of method all the time to establish relative ages of rocks. Now, what if instead of being horizontal, this rock layer was found in a tilted position? Whatever caused this formation to tilt happened after the strata was formed. What could a geologist say about that section of rock? Following the Principle of Original Horizontality, he could say that whatever forces caused the deformation, like an earthquake, must have occurred after the formation of all the rock strata. Since we assume all the layers were originally horizontal, then anything that made them not horizontal had to have happened after the fact. Cross-Cutting Relationships We follow this same idea, with a few variations, when we talk about cross-cutting relationships in rock. Let's say, in this set of rock strata, that we found a single intrusion of igneous rock punching through the sedimentary layers. Whatever caused this igneous intrusion occurred after the strata formed. We could assume that this igneous intrusion must have happened after the formation of the strata. If it had happened before the layers had formed, then we wouldn't see it punching through all the layers; we would only see it going through the layers that had existed at the time that it happened. The newer layers would have formed a cap overtop. The Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships states that rock formations that cut across other rocks must be younger than the rocks that they cut across. The same idea applies to fault lines that slide rock layers apart from each other; a fault that cuts across a set of strata must have occurred after the formation of that set. Geologists find the cross-cutting principle especially useful for establishing the relative ages of faults and igneous intrusions in sedimentary rocks. Inclusions and Unconformities Sometimes, geologists find strange things inside the strata, like chunks of metamorphic or igneous rock. These items are called inclusions - foreign bodies of rock or mineral enclosed within another rock. Because the sedimentary rock had to have formed around the object for it to be encased within the layers, geologists can establish relative dates between the inclusions and the surrounding rock. Inclusions are always older than the sedimentary rock within which they are found. Other times, geologists discover patterns in rock layers that give them confusing information. There may be a layer missing in the strata, or a set of sedimentary rock on top of metamorphic rock. These interfaces between discontinuous layers of rock are called unconformities. They complicate the task of relative dating, because they don't give an accurate picture of what happened in geologic history. For example, say we have a layer missing from the rock strata. That layer may have eroded away before the next layer was built upon the exposed surface. So, we'll never know what type of rock used to be there or what fossils it may have held. One famous example of an unconformity is the Great Unconformity of the Grand Canyon. It clearly shows the interface between two types of rock: the upper Tepetate sandstones and the Precambrian Wapiti shales underneath. The sandstones lie horizontally, just as they did when they were originally laid down. But, the shales are all deformed and folded up. The tops of their folds are completely gone where the sandstones have replaced them. What can we make of this giant unconformity? Can we establish any relative ages between the rock strata or the cause of their formations? The Great Unconformity of the Grand Canyon Well, following the Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships, we can tell that whatever deformed the shales - probably an earthquake - must have occurred before any of the upper sandstones were deposited. In fact, we can put together a timeline. The shales were deposited first, in a horizontal position, and then there was an earthquake that made them all fold up. Then, the tops were eroded off until the rock was basically flat, and then the sandstones were deposited on top of everything else. That's it! Case closed. With only a few geologic principles, we've established the relative dates of all the phenomena we see in the Great Unconformity. Lesson Summary Geologists establish the relative ages of rocks mostly through their understanding of stratigraphic succession. The Principle of Original Horizontality states that all rock layers were originally horizontal. The Law of Superposition states that younger strata lie on top of older strata. The Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships states that intrusions and faults that cut across rock are necessarily younger than that rock. Inclusions, or foreign bodies, found inside rock are necessarily older than that rock. And, unconformities show a discontinuity in the strata, which can only be understood by following the principles of stratigraphy. Geologists utilize all of these laws and principles to establish the relative ages of rocks and the relationships between events that occurred throughout geologic time. · What is Absolute Age? · The absolute age of an Earth material is a measure of how old it actually is in years. \ · Types of Absolute Age Dating · Since scientists work with many different types of Earth materials (rock, fossils, etc.), there are many types of absolute age dating. Some types are useful in certain situations and for certain materials, while others are perfect for other jobs. For example, while one type of absolute age dating may be perfect to figure out how old a dinosaur bone fossil is, another method of dating might be perfect to figure out the age of a rock sample. Let's look at a few prominent types of absolute age dating. · Radiocarbon dating: Radiocarbon dating (also simply called carbon dating) is one of the most widely used and famous types of absolute age dating. This method of dating is useful for materials that were once living, but has a significant limitation: Carbon dating is only reliable for materials that are up to about 75,000 years old. If scientists encountered anything older than that, they would have to use a different method. · Potassium-argon dating: This type of dating is very similar to radiocarbon dating, in that is uses essentially the same methods. The upside of potassium-argon dating, though, is that much older samples can be tested. With potassium-argon dating, scientists can figure out the age of samples that are billions of years old. · Thermoluminescence: Thermoluminescence is a bit more complex than our first two examples. In this type of absolute age dating, scientists can determine the last time a material was heated. This can be useful in dating certain types of rocks because the last time they were heated is most likely when they were formed. In order to use this type of dating, the material must be heated to 500 degrees Celsius and the resulting light is measured and analyzed. · Dendrochronology: This is just a fancy term for counting tree rings! It is not an old myth that by counting the rings in the cross-section of a tree you can tell how old it is. Scientists can take very accurate readings using this method, often to the exact calendar year. · Amino acid dating: This method is useful when determining the age of a material that was once alive. All living things contain amino acids. By counting the amounts of certain amino acids, scientists can determine how long ago the specimen died. · Lesson Summary · In absolute age dating, scientists determine the age of Earth materials as precisely as possible. Many scientists prefer the term calendar dating, as it implies that ages determined can be plotted on a calendar. There are many different types of absolute age dating methods because many different types of materials exist. Each material and situation has an optimal method that should be used in determining its age. Radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks and other materials based on the rate of radioactive decay. Learn about three common types of radioactive decay: alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay. Radiometric Dating So we have to rely on something called radiometric dating to figure out the age of rock. Radiometric dating is a method used to date rocks based on the known decay rate of radioactive isotopes. This method works because rocks are radioactive. Now, they do not give off enough radiation that you have to be afraid to pick them up, but they do contain naturally occurring radioactive elements like uranium, for example. It was also discovered that these elements decayed into other elements at fixed rates. Because these rates do not change and because the radiation that rocks give off can be measured, it became possible to calculate the time the rock was formed or, in other words, the rock's birth date - give or take a few thousand years or so. Radiometric dating is sometimes referred to as radioactive dating. In fact, you might like this term better, because the dating method relies on the known decay rate of radioactive isotopes. Regardless of which name you prefer, the discovery was a true breakthrough that provided a tool to predict the geological history of the Earth and even the age of the Earth itself. Radioactive decay is the term used for the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by releasing radiation. We know that elements can exist as isotopes, which means that their atomic nuclei contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Radioactive Decay- Isotopes Specially defined isotopes, called nuclides, can be unstable and therefore undergo radioactive decay. When they do, they release energy and get transformed into different nuclides. It's as if the nucleus is feeling too full of energy and it has to get rid of some, much like a hyperactive child who is so full of energy that he cannot stay seated in his chair. We call the unstable nuclide that undergoes radioactive decay the parent nuclide and the nuclide that results from the radioactive decay the daughter nuclide. This is a fairly easy concept to remember because it is as if the original nuclide is giving birth to the new nuclide, much like a human parent and daughter relationship. Alpha Decay This transformation into a different nuclide can be accomplished in different ways. Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay where an alpha particle is emitted. So, to understand this process, we need to know that an alpha particle is two protons and two neutrons bound together, which is the same as a helium nucleus. In other words, an alpha particle is a helium nucleus. When we talk about an alpha particle, we use the first letter of the Greek alphabet, which is here. So let's zoom into a nucleus and take a look at this alpha decay process. Inside this nucleus, we see the protons and neutrons. This parent nucleus is feeling somewhat unstable because it is too big or simply has too many protons, and it wants to get to a more stable state, so it's going to take two protons and two neutrons and kick them out of the nucleus as we see here. SUMMARY : 2 PROTONS, 2 NEUTRONS,EMITTS ALPHA PARTICLE, MASS REUDCE BY 4, ATOMIC NUMBE REDUCED BY 2. Beta Decay If we have a parent nucleus where the neutron-to-proton ratio is too great, then that parent might be feeling unstable about its circumstance and want to move to a more stable state through beta decay. Beta decay is a type of radioactive decay where a beta particle is emitted. A beta particle is shown with the Greek letter beta and is an electron that is emitted from the nucleus. Now, this might sound a bit odd to you, because you do not typically think about electrons being inside of a nucleus. Instead, you recognize them as those little things that look like orbiting planets moving around the outside of a nucleus. But essentially, what is happening with beta decay is that we are taking a neutron, removing a negative charge and turning it into a proton. So let's zoom into this nucleus and take a look at the beta decay process. Inside this nucleus, we see protons and neutrons, but let's say one of these neutrons is feeling as if things would be more stable if it could turn into a proton. So that neutron basically emits an electron (the beta particle) and this essentially turns it into a proton. SUMMARY : ELECTRON IS GIVEN OFF ,BETA PARTICLE EMITTED , MASS IS THE SAME, ATOMIC NUMBER INCREASES BY 1 SINCE THE ELECTRON IS LOST AND THERE IS MORE PROTONS. Gamma Decay There is another type of decay that we want to learn about, but unlike alpha and beta decay, this type of decay does not release a particle. So with this decay, we do not see the number of protons or neutrons within a nucleus changing. However, it does give off a lot of energy. This decay is called gamma decay, and it is denoted by the third letter of the Greek alphabet, gamma, which looks like a lowercase 'y.' We define gamma decay as a type of radioactive decay where a gamma ray is emitted. A gamma ray is a high-energy photon, and you have experienced gamma rays if you ever had an x-ray taken. Gamma rays can travel through your body but not through lead. That is why if you ever had an x-ray of your teeth, your dentist first laid a heavy lead apron over your chest, so the gamma rays only penetrated your cheek and not the rest of your body. When a gamma ray is emitted, the atomic nucleus releases energy, so we will see gamma decay taking place in a nucleus where the energy is too high. The nucleus moves to a lower energy state by giving off this high-energy photon, and this allows the nucleus to reorganize itself into a more stable state. summary :n gamma decay, depicted in Fig. 3-6, a nucleus changes from a higher energy state to a lower energy state through the emission of electromagnetic radiation (photons). The number of protons (and neutrons) in the nucleus does not change in this process, so the parent and daughter atoms are the same chemical element. Gamma Decay Lesson Summary Let's review. Radiometric dating, also known as radioactive dating, is what we use to determine the age of rocks. To be more specific, it is a method used to date rocks based on the known decay rate of radioactive isotopes that are found within the rocks. This decay rate is referring to radioactive decay, which is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by releasing radiation. This release of energy allows the nucleus to become more stable. We call the unstable nuclide that undergoes radioactive decay the parent nuclide and the nuclide that results from the radioactive decay the daughter nuclide. There are different types of radioactive decay. If a nucleus is unstable because it is too big or has too many protons, then we might see alpha decay, which is a type of radioactive decay where an alpha particle is emitted. An alpha particle is two protons and two neutrons bound together, which is the same as a helium nucleus. If we have a nucleus where the neutron-to-proton ratio is too great, we might see beta decay, which is a type of radioactive decay where a beta particle is emitted. A beta particle is an electron that is emitted from the nucleus. With beta decay, a neutron essentially loses an electron, turning into a proton. If the nucleus has too much energy and wants to move to a more stable lower energy state, we might see gamma decay, which is a type of radioactive decay where a gamma ray is emitted. A gamma ray is a high-energy photon. Unlike alpha and beta decay, this type of decay does not release a particle. Therefore, the number of protons or neutrons within a nucleus does not change, but energy is released, allowing the nucleus to reorganize itself into a more stable state. Learning Outcomes After completing this lesson, you should be able to: Define radiometric dating Describe how unstable nuclides undergo decay Identify alpha, beta and gamma decay diometric dating is used to estimate the age of rocks and other objects based on the fixed decay rate of radioactive isotopes. Learn about half-life and how it is used in different dating methods, such as uranium-lead dating and radiocarbon dating, in this video lesson. Radiometric Dating The aging process in human beings is easy to see. As we age, our hair turns gray, our skin wrinkles and our gait slows. However, rocks and other objects in nature do not give off such obvious clues about how long they have been around. So, we rely on radiometric dating to calculate their ages. Radiometric dating, or radioactive dating as it is sometimes called, is a method used to date rocks and other objects based on the known decay rate of radioactive isotopes. Different methods of radiometric dating can be used to estimate the age of a variety of natural and even man-made materials. Radioactive Decay The methods work because radioactive elements are unstable, and they are always trying to move to a more stable state. So, they do this by giving off radiation. This process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by releasing radiation is called radioactive decay. The thing that makes this decay process so valuable for determining the age of an object is that each radioactive isotope decays at its own fixed rate, which is expressed in terms of its half-life. So, if you know the radioactive isotope found in a substance and the isotope's half-life, you can calculate the age of the substance. Half-Life So, what exactly is this thing called a half-life? Well, a simple explanation is that it is the time required for a quantity to fall to half of its starting value. So, you might say that the 'full-life' of a radioactive isotope ends when it has given off all of its radiation and reaches a point of being non-radioactive. When the isotope is halfway to that point, it has reached its half-life. Uranium-Lead Dating There are different methods of radiometric dating that will vary due to the type of material that is being dated. For example, uranium-lead dating can be used to find the age of a uranium-containing mineral. It works because we know the fixed radioactive decay rates of uranium-238, which decays to lead-206, and for uranium-235, which decays to lead-207. So, we start out with two isotopes of uranium that are unstable and radioactive. They release radiation until they eventually become stable isotopes of lead. These two uranium isotopes decay at different rates. In other words, they have different half-lives. The half-life of the uranium-238 to lead-206 is 4.47 billion years. The uranium-235 to lead-207 decay series is marked by a half-life of 704 million years. These differing rates of decay help make uranium-lead dating one of the most reliable methods of radiometric dating because they provide two different decay clocks. This provides a built-in cross-check to more accurately determine the age of the sample. Potassium-Argon and Rubidium-Strontium Dating Uranium is not the only isotope that can be used to date rocks; we do see additional methods of radiometric dating based on the decay of different isotopes. For example, with potassium-argon dating, we can tell the age of materials that contain potassium because we know that potassium-40 decays into argon-40 with a half-life of 1.3 billion years. With rubidium-strontium dating, we see that rubidium-87 decays into strontium-87 with a half-life of 50 billion years. By anyone's standards, 50 billion years is a long time. In fact, this form of dating has been used to date the age of rocks brought back to Earth from the moon. Radiocarbon Dating So, we see there are a number of different methods for dating rocks and other non-living things, but what if our sample is organic in nature? For example, how do we know that the Iceman, whose frozen body was chipped out of glacial ice in 1991, is 5,300 years old? Well, we know this because samples of his bones and hair and even his grass boots and leather belongings were subjected to radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon dating, also known as carbon-14 dating or simply carbon dating, is a method used to determine the age of organic material by measuring the radioactivity of its carbon content. So, radiocarbon dating can be used to find the age of things that were once alive, like the Iceman. And this would also include things like trees and plants, which give us paper and cloth. So, radiocarbon dating is also useful for determining the age of relics, such the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Shroud of Turin. With radiocarbon dating, the amount of the radioactive isotope carbon-14 is measured. Compared to some of the other radioactive isotopes we have discussed, carbon-14's half-life of 5,730 years is considerably shorter, as it decays into nitrogen-14. Carbon-14 is continually being created in the atmosphere due to the action of cosmic rays on nitrogen in the air. Carbon-14 combines with oxygen to create carbon dioxide. Because plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, this isotope ends up inside the plant, and because animals eat plants, they get some as well. When a plant or an animal dies, it stops taking in carbon-14. The existing carbon-14 within the organism starts to decay back into nitrogen, and this starts our clock for radiocarbon dating. A scientist can take a sample of an organic material when it is discovered and evaluate the proportion of carbon-14 left in the relic to determine its age. Lesson Summary Let's review. Radiometric dating is a method used to date rocks and other objects based on the known decay rate of radioactive isotopes. The decay rate is referring to radioactive decay, which is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by releasing radiation. Each radioactive isotope decays at its own fixed rate, which is expressed in terms of its half-life or, in other words, the time required for a quantity to fall to half of its starting value. There are different methods of radiometric dating. Uranium-lead dating can be used to find the age of a uranium-containing mineral. Uranium-238 decays to lead-206, and uranium-235 decays to lead-207. The two uranium isotopes decay at different rates, and this helps make uranium-lead dating one of the most reliable methods because it provides a built-in cross-check. Additional methods of radiometric dating, such as potassium-argon dating and rubidium-strontium dating, exist based on the decay of those isotopes. Radiocarbon dating is a method used to determine the age of organic material by measuring the radioactivity of its carbon content. With radiocarbon dating, we see that carbon-14 decays to nitrogen-14 and has a half-life of 5,730 years.

Demonstrate knowledge of the thermal processes driving plate movement and relate density and buoyancy to plate tectonics.

Researchers generally agree that the convective flow within the mantle is the underlying driving force for plate movement. The warm, buoyant rock rises while the cooler, denser rock sinks down. This slow movement is a result of the uneven heating within the Earth's interior. The driving force being the subduction of cold, more dense oceanic lithosphere within the mantel. This cold lithosphere provides cold material, thus driving the thermal process. However, scientists are still uncertain as to how exactly the mantle convection flows work.One hypotheses is the whole mantle convection model. In this model, cold oceanic lithosphere plate sinks deep within the mantle, while hot, buoyant plumes transport heat towards the surface. Problem with this model is that all chemicals would mix within time, which would eliminate chemically distinct magma. We know that our earth's mantel is a heterogeneous mix, whereas with this model, it would be a homogeneous mix.Another model is the layering at 660 kilometers. In this model there is a thin convective layer in the upper mantel and a thicker layer below. This model affirms the fact that we have different magma compositions (with the mid-ocean ridge basalt coming from the upper convection layer and the hot spot coming from the lower convection region) However, the problem with this model is that studies of earthquakes have fount that the cold oceanic lithosphere are sometimes subducted deep into the mantle. This would mix the upper and lower layers.The third model is the Deep-Layer Model and favors layering deep within the mantle. The lower layer acts like a lava lamp, with a slow swelling and sinking pattern without much mixing with the upper layer. In addition, this model also supports the deep subduction of the cold oceanic lithosphere. Buoyancy is the upward force cause by a fluid and is the result in the differences of densities. The driving force of plate tectonic involves the less buoyant, denser cold oceanic lithosphere to descent beneath the less dense, more buoyant continental plate.Within the mantel the differences in density is the result of the temperature variations. Thus, the warm magma expands becomes less dense and rises. The cool magma contracts, becomes more dense, and sinks. (this process of warm rising and cold sinking is known as convection). However, regardless of which convection model type, more buoyant, hotter rock material slowly rises and less buoyant cooler material slowly sinks.As this movement takes place within the mantel, the lithosphere is being dragged. Eventually, the lithosphere is dragged back underneath the surface. Oceanic plates are subducted back into the mantel and "disappears". Continental plates are too buoyant to be subducted like oceanic plates and instead are eroded down. Eventually, continental plates becomes sea-floor sediments, which will then become subducted back into the mantel. · Teacher prep: Plate tectonics and thermal processes driving plate movement o Plate tectonics § The earths surface is composed of several large plates that change position and size § These plates are parts of the lithosphere and are moving on the asthenosphere § Major geological activities happen at these boundaries. · Ring of fire § Notes : Lithosphere means rock. Below that is the asthenosphere that is not liquid but considered it a viscous solid or semi liquid.so it is moving or flowing very slowly a few cm a year. the lithosphere is rigid it basically gets moved on top of mantle until it cant take the strain and cracks. Major geological activie happen along plain bouderins. the pacific ocean sits ontop of pacific plate. So all around the boundaries we call the rign of fire a lot of volcanic activity, and lots of earthquakes. This maps shows active volcanos, and we can see volcanic activity for the most part aligns with plave boundaries. o Thermal processes § Convection is a circulating patter driven by the rising of material . convection is thought to causes the motion of the plate § Another important thermal process is conduction. Conduction is the transfer of energy between atoms as they hit each other. § Notes : convection drives a lot of process. So a fluid liquid or gas gets heated so for example you have apot and heat is applided at the bottomewhat happens is that heat causes expansion it means that fluid becomes less dense and rises up and the fluid that was above it is more denset so that comes down, that creates cycling action within fluid so that is how heat is districubted s that is convection . same thing in core of earth radioactive deacy pressure from above and heat is applied in bottome of mantle so causes circulation or slow movement of rock in the lithosphere that causes palte movement that drive plate tectonic giving us earthquake. Conduction is handle gets heated, even tough its not touching heat it got hot due to conduction molecuels move quickly and move quickly and bump in with handle and speed up molecuels, and they hit the ones next to them and hit the ones nxet until it gets to handle, moelcues have to be closed to eachother and the more densie pack soluds. So conduction in solids. Convection occurs in fluids liquid and gases. Good to know for test. · Density and buoyance in relation to plate tectonics o Principles of density and buoyancy § Density is a measurement of mass per unit volume § Buoyance is the upward force caused by fluid pressure that works against an objects natural weight § Continental plates are less dense than oceanic plates · Density of oceanic plates > density of continental plates o Notes : buyoncay has to do with relative density. If I take something and put it in water and its les dense than water then pressure is exerted on the space that that thing is taken up by the water and pushing up on the object keeping it afloat and that is what we call buyoncy. An application of this n plate tectonics is oceantic plates. In the case of oceanic plates they are more denset then continental plates. Oceanic plates are also tinner. The continental plate and oceanic plates hit eachother, and the continental plate floats ontop of oceanic plate, both are solid but one is denser then the other, the denser one sinks under and the less dense continental plate floats on top we call this subduction. The oceanic plate is subducted under continental plate o Plate density § The earths lithosphere is less dense than the mantle below. It flocats on top of the semiliquid rock below due to buoyance § The mantle includes that asthenosphere § The lithosphere includes the crust and the uppier most solid mantle. § Notes : lithosphere is upper part of mantle as well as all the crust solid rock. Below the lithosphere is asthenosphere, weak, manuable, plasticity, deforms over time, not rigid, it slowly flowing and deforming. The lithosphere moves until cracks, causing fault lines, earthquakes. The reason that the lithosphere is riding on top is because its less dense then asthenosphere so lithosphere is buyont floating. Underneath crust and mantel have core ofearth, inner and outer core. Inner core is solid, outer core liquid both made metal liquid and iron but outer core is liquid and inner core is solid. Do not be confused and think that the crust is riding on the liquid outer core because outside the outer core we have the whole mantle and its only the that upper part of the mantle that is soild and ride on that more central part of the mantle, asthenosphere that is viscous manualble solid but its not full on liquid like the earths molter outer core. Understand how densities related to on another and how inner process are function, that is how. Definition of Plate Tectonics In the middle of the 20th century, just a few decades ago, a new theory about the earth and how it changed was proposed, and the mystery of drifting continents was solved. Geologists, scientists who study the earth, now had an all-encompassing theory to tie all of its observations and data together. This new theory of large-scale change on the earth is known as plate tectonics. Plate tectonics is the theory that the surface of the earth is broken into larger pieces of crust called plates that ride along on a softer layer of the earth, known as the asthenosphere, which is the upper part of the mantle. A diagram of the plates moving along the surface of the earth Each plate's thickness depends on the type of crust it is made of and the location of the plate. Continental plates can be up to 150 km thick, whereas oceanic plates usually average about 5-10 km thick. Also, plate boundaries are not the same as continental boundaries, as the edges of the plates can be underwater. For example, the North American plate extends from the middle of the Atlantic Ocean to the west coast of North America. Causes of Plate Movement So, the big question that remains is: how do the continents move? The answer is related to the layers of the earth and how they interact with each other. So, first, we need to understand how the properties determine the layers of the earth. Let's use an apple as an example. An apple has 3 main layers to it - the peel, the fruit, and the core. The crust, or lithosphere, is the hard outer layer of the earth and would be the peel of our apple. This is the part where we reside and about which we have the most data. The mantle is the middle layer of the earth, consisting mostly of oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and iron. This would be represented by the fruit of the apple between the peel and the core. The core is the center of the earth that is represented by the core of the apple. The earth's core consists of two parts - a solid center about 1200 km thick, surrounded by a liquid layer consisting of iron and nickel that is about 2300 km thick. The main theory of plate movement states that heat from the core causes convection cells in the mantle that move the plates as they ride on the mantle. The main source of heat that drives this process is thought to be the radioactive decay of uranium and other elements that give up their energy as heat as they break down. All this heat softens the rock enough that it will begin to flow. But how does this happen? When you put a pot of water on the stove to boil, the water nearest the stove heats up faster than the water on the surface of the pot. The hotter water tends to move toward cooler areas and, as it does this, a current of hot water rising and cooler water sinking begins to form. This is known as a convection current. Using this model, the stove is like the core and the water is the mantle that rotates. Geologists think that this same phenomenon is what is happening inside the earth. Rock near the mantle is heated and rises toward the crust. The rock near the surface is cooler and sinks back down toward the core. This forms the same type of convection current which causes the plates to move. Scientists believe that this cycle takes thousands of years to complete. More Causes of Plate Movement At the top of the mantle, the convection currents encounter the thin crust, causing it to move. As this movement occurs, the plates smash into each other, slide past each other, or are pushed under another plate. This may also produce secondary events that cause the plates to move. In ridge push, plates that are higher at the spreading center flow downhill and eventually flatten out to the ocean floor. Gravity causes this flowing down the ridge and may give the plate a slight push along as new crust is forced up at the fault, causing the rest to move out of the way. This is like those coin bulldozers at the fair where one new coin may push forward and knock others out of the way! As the plate is pushed along, it may run into another plate. Oceanic crust is easily forced under another plate and back into the mantle. These converging boundaries can be identified by deep ocean trenches that mark the location where one plate is sliding under another one. As it slides under the other plate and is forced back into the mantle, gravity again works to pull it along, giving the plate another force to keep it moving. Ocean trenches are created when oceanic plates slide under other plates. Lesson Summary Plate tectonics is the theory that unified all the puzzling data from early observations, accounted for the movement of the plates of the earth, and gave a mechanism for how the plates actually moved around. The theory stated that the plates moved around on top of the mantle driven by convection currents caused by heat from the earth's core. This theory has been supported since then by the advance of technologies that allow scientists to actually measure the movement of the plates in centimeters per year. Plate tectonics is the current accepted theory that describes how the face of the earth can change over time.

4f a. Apply knowledge of physical changes of matter and physical properties of matter.

Substance changes phases in temperature and pressure. kinetic Theory- states the behavior of different states of matter in terms of energy (the motion of molecules).Solid- particles are close together because they have the least amount of energy. Intermolecular force is strong, thus it is able to hold and lock molecules in place. All the atoms are bonded together in a structure.as the matter is heated, the atoms move faster, breaking aqya from each othe to created a liquid or a gas. Gas- particles are the furthest apart with the most energy. Overall, gases have a weaker strong attractive force between molecules which allows gas to expand.Substances can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas by changing the energy (temperature). Solids can be changed in a liquid by increaseing the temperature. As temperature increases, the particles energy increases, thus allowing more movement and spreading apart. This process is called melting. Increasing temperature even more causes energy to increase more movement of particles, and further aprt into a gaseous state, called vaporizing. Vice versa, by decreasing temperature, energy drops, movement drops, and condense back into a liquid. Further decreasing temperature, decreases movement, and energy undergoes freeing in a solid. Can have direct change of state from gas to solid called deposition and solid to gas called sublimation.Condensation- when goes from gas to liquid, change that occurred is condensation. Just like clouds make water condensation.Adding or removing energy changes the temeparture of a substance, which can change phase An increase in energy (increases in temp) causes atoms to move faster.Example a few drops of food coloring will spread much faster in hot water than in cold water. If liquid cools to be a solid that is freezing..Liquid define d volume no defined shape.gas has the most energy no shape or volume. Solid has least energy has defined shape and volum. questions: which changes are endotermic absorb energy? Heating up, evaporation, ,melting, sublimation are example of endothermic reaction. Exothermic are condensation, freezing and deposition because they release energy. Energy added to substance increasese the kinetic energy of the particles and increases the temperature. During a phase change, the temperature remains constant. The energy here is being used to break intermolecular forces. If you start with solid, and heats up, it melts, when start meling it no longer increases temperature until its all liquid. Once it start turning into gas, themperature is constant. Once its all gas , the temperature changes . Plasma is a form of gas that is ionically charged. Plasma is a gas that has gotten so hot and has so much energy in it that negatively charged free electrons and positively charged ions exist together in it. These free electrons mean that plasma easily conducts energy. Plasma, like a gas, has neither a definite volume nor shape. Physical properties of matter can be observed and tested, and do not change chemical characteristics.Observable physical properties include: structure,physical state melting point, boiling point, hardness, density, Color, freezing point, thermal/electrical conductivity, solubility, length,volume, and odor.. These properties are extensive if they depend on the amount of the substance being used or intensive if they do not depend on the amount of substance being used. Color- determined by the particular wavelengths a substance absorbs and reflects.Density- the density of an object depends on the mass and volume. Hardness refers to the ability of the substance to be scratched, the resistance to permanent deformation .Conductivity refer to the ability of the substance to allow energy to flow. Conductivity- two types, electrical and thermal,Electrical- this is the ability of a substance to allow for the flow of current,Thermal- this is the ability of a substance to conduct heat; based on the intensive property, which means that it doesn't matter how much substance there is, it will conduce the same amount of heat. Solubility refers to the ability of a substance to dissolve. Boiling point- this refers to the energy that is required to break the bonds between the molecules. Once the bonds are broken, molecules can separate and form vapor. More energy is required to break very strong attractive forces.Melting point- similar to boiling point, the stronger the attractive forces between the molecules, the higher the temperature for melting point.

what happend during precambrian period ? When did the phanerozoic eon start, when did it end ? The phanerozoic eon is broken up into what eras ? what era are we in today ? The next subdivison of eon is era, what is the dubdivision of an era ? what are the periods of the mesozoic ear ? What period do we live in today ? what is the samllest subdivision of geological time ?

The first principal subdivision is called the eon. An eon, the largest division of the geologic time scale, spans hundreds to thousands of millions of years. Geologists generally agree that there are two major eons: the Precambrian eon and the Phanerozoic eon. The Precambrian goes from the formation of the earth to the time when multicellular organisms first appeared - that's a really long time - from 4,500 million years ago to just about 543 million years ago. Then begins the Phanerozoic eon, which continues up to today. Eons are made up of eras, divisions that span time periods of tens to hundreds of millions of years. The three major eras are the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic. The Cenozoic era is the one we are in today. It began 65 million years ago, right about the time that the dinosaurs went extinct. Keep in mind that these three eras are all grouped within the Phanerozoic eon. Remember that other eon, the Precambrian eon? Well, that one doesn't get to have any eras inside it. We don't have a lot of information about it, so we leave it as one big chunk in geologic history. Periods and Epochs The next subdivision down from the era is the period, a division of geologic history that spans no more than one hundred million years. You're probably most familiar with the periods of the Mesozoic era: the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the Cretaceous periods. These are the periods that included our most favorite dinosaur species, like the Triceratops and Tyrannosaurus Rex. Today, we live in the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era. Finally, we have the smallest division of the geologic time scale, called the epoch. Epochs are the chunks of time that describe the evolutionary ups and downs of mammals and birds. You've probably seen pictures of giant prehistoric creatures, called 'megafauna', like the wooly mammoth, the giant ground sloth, and a Saber-tooth Cat. These all appeared sometime in the Tertiary period, which includes the Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene epochs. The Pleistocene epoch marks the bulk of human evolution, beginning around 1.8 million years ago. Our current epoch is the Holocene epoch; it only started about 12,000 years ago. Lesson Summary So let's recap about the geologic time scale and how its divisions fit together. Epochs are the smallest divisions. Many epochs make up a period, many periods make up an era, and many eras make up an eon. In defining the boundaries between major divisions, we often use markers, like the dinosaur extinction or the appearance of certain organisms. But fossil evidence isn't the only information we rely on. As you'll see in other lessons, the geologic time scale arises from an in-depth study of the trends in rock strata, like how the layers are arranged and how they are composed of certain chemicals. The more information we gather about the rock strata, the more we can tweak the Geologic Time Scale to fit the evidence. But, now that we've mapped out a pretty good timeline, we can use it as a universal tool for talking about our planet and studying its history. After all, the whole point of having the geologic time scale is to give scientists a logical framework on which to reference major events in geologic time.

a. . Recognize various forms of evidence (e.g., seismic waves, iron meteorites, magnetic field data) that led to the current model of Earth's structure (i.e., hot but solid inner core, a liquid outer core, a solid mantle and crust).

The vibrations in the Earth that form earthquakes are also waves. While you might think that being closer to an earthquake is the only way to feel the vibrations strongly, due to the reflection of waves, seismographs can detect earthquakes at a great distance. When an earthquake occurs, the vibration moves through the Earth in every direction, creating waves in concentric circles. But the waves also go downwards, heading under the Earth. When those waves hit the Earth's core, they can refract or reflect, and then bounce to other parts of the Earth's surface. In fact, an earthquake can, on occasion, be detected at almost the opposite side of the planet. It is this reflection that first allowed scientists to determine the structure of the Earth, with its crust, mantle, inner core and outer core. Listening to the Radio When we listen to the radio, that signal can be transmitting from a great distance away. So, how does it get to us? Radio signals are also waves, and those kinds of waves can bounce off the ionosphere, or upper atmosphere, of the Earth. If they didn't do this, you would only be able to listen to the radio if you were in direct line of sight with the transmitter. Waves, like light, usually travel in straight lines. Lesson Summary Waves are everywhere in our lives, from light and sound, to radio and infrared. Understanding how waves reflect was vital in developing many of the technologies we use today, and it all comes from the basic law of reflection. The law of reflection says that incident angles and reflected angles will be the same, which is true even on imperfect A refracted wave is a wave (like light) that has changed direction (bent) by moving from one material to another material of different density. If the new material is denser, it will refract towards the normal. If the new material is less dense, it will refract away from the normal. This happens because the speed of light is slower in denser materials, just like the lawnmower edge swinging around. Two examples of refraction are earthquake P-waves bending as they reach the inner core, and ocean waves refracting when the depth of water changes suddenly. Understanding refraction helps us understand all kinds of things we see every day in the world around us. From the spoon optical illusion, to the places around the world where an earthquake can be felt, we are surrounded by waves, and by understanding them we can better shape our world. Light, microwaves, X-rays, and cell phone transmissions are all examples of electromagnetic radiation. Read more about this fascinating, mostly invisible phenomenon that has been harnessed by humans for so many purposes. A quiz is included. Formation of the Planet Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago from the same nebula cloud of gas and dust that formed the Sun and other planets. Earth back then was very different from Earth now, and it would have been impossible for life to exist on it. The Earth is still changing even today. It has a molten layer, which causes volcanoes to occasionally erupt, and the crust of the planet is constantly moving, sliding over, under, and sideways against itself. Let's look at how the Earth may have become like the planet it is now. With erupting volcanoes and a constantly moving crust, the Earth is changing even today. You live here. This is our solar system, in one of the arms of the Milky Way galaxy. When the universe began, around 10 billion years ago, Earth wasn't around. Neither was our solar system. The Milky Way, was formed in a perfectly ordinary place in the universe in the normal way. Solar systems and the planets within them form from the spinning disks of matter. Slowly, the grains of matter come together to form clumps, then boulders, and eventually balls big enough to have their own gravity coalesce. At this point, these clumped matter are called planetesimals, which just means a small, irregular-shaped body formed by colliding matter. Eventually, the planetesimals grew larger by colliding and combining with other bodies of matter. As the planetesimals grew larger, their gravity was greater, and they collected even more matter. Some of the planetesimals began to orbit the main star, our Sun. When they do this, they are considered to be a planet, an astronomical object that orbits a star and does not shine with its own light. Earth formed this way about 4.6 billion years ago and was mostly done in about 10-20 million years, although it still continues to change to this day. Formation of Earth's Layers Earth is the third planet, counting outward from the Sun, and the beginning stages of its life were violent. During the first eons of Earth's life, it was under continuous bombardment by meteorites and comets. These bombardments helped shape the planet and brought water in the form of ice. They also enriched the Earth with carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen, and ammonia. At first, the Earth was extremely hot and much larger than it is now. It was made of rock, different compounds, and dense elements, like solid and liquid iron. As Earth cooled and contracted, the heavier material moved to the center of the Earth to form the core. The liquid material settled over the core to form the mantle. As the Earth cooled more, a solid crust formed over the liquid middle, much like the crust forms on a pan of brownies while the middle is still molten. This is how Earth differentiated into three layers. Earth is made up of three layers: a core, a mantle, and a crust. Formation of Water and Atmosphere As the Earth cooled even more over time, it formed a primitive atmosphere. The solid crust was covered with active volcanoes that spewed out gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ammonia that add to the helium and hydrogen from the original solar nebula. Light from the Sun broke down the ammonia, which released nitrogen into the atmosphere. It wasn't until the evolution of bacteria a few billion years later that the atmosphere contained oxygen. The water vapor that was in the atmosphere condensed and formed clouds. As Earth cooled more, the water vapor formed droplets in the clouds, and it started to rain. This water, along with the ice from the comets, formed the oceans and lakes. The water was all fresh at first but eventually became salty as chemicals from the Earth's crust were mixed in. Formation of Land At one point, most of the surface of the Earth was covered in water, but underneath, the crust was broken into pieces. Pressure and heat from the molten interior of the planet pushed solid portions above the water to form land. These pieces, called plates, move around on Earth even today, forming and reforming continents, mountain ranges, and valleys. About three million years ago, the Earth cooled a lot more. It cooled so much that ice sheets called glaciers covered the planet. Since then, there have been several other periods of cooling and heating in the Earth's history. The glaciers from the various ice ages carved some of the valleys and rivers that we see today. Over time, Earth changed to what we see today, with a life-sustaining, oxygen-containing atmosphere, our abundance of water, and moderate temperatures that are conducive to life. Lesson Summary The solar system formed from a large, rotating cloud of interstellar dust and gas called the solar nebula. Earth and all the planets were formed from this nebula. Over time, the Earth cooled, and heavier elements sank to its core. Molten liquid formed the mantle, while lighter elements formed its crust. The crust broke open in places, letting water vapor and other gases escape to form an early atmosphere. Water vapor condensed and formed the first oceans and lakes. The Earth continues to change today through plate tectonics, greenhouse gas emissions, and other natural and human-made conditions. Learning Outcomes After watching this lesson, you should be able to: Define planet and planetesimal as well as describe how they form Name Earth's three layers and understand how they formed Summarize how water, the atmosphere, and land formed on Earth There are many geologic processes that shape the surface of the Earth. Not only do they build and destroy a variety of landscapes, but they also give us clues to the interior of the Earth and the forces that exist there. The Dynamic Earth If you have ever been to Hawai'i, you may have had the opportunity to snorkel. People are attracted to this activity because it gives you a small glimpse of the interesting features of the Earth that we often miss out on by living above water. Identifying these features both underwater and on land can give us some clues as to how the lithosphere, or the Earth's crust, changes. Hawai'i is a great place to observe these changes because, unlike many places, they all can occur there. Just like snorkeling gives us a glimpse of what happens under the waves, volcanoes and earthquakes can give us glimpses of what is happening under the lithosphere, inside the Earth. Volcanoes and earthquakes are natural disasters that can radically transform the landscape of the Earth in just a few moments. This, along with the ongoing breakdown of the surface of the Earth by weather, produces profound changes over time over the world. When the Earth cracks from stress, energy is released and causes ground shaking. Earthquakes Earthquakes occur when stress builds up in the Earth's crust and causes it to break in a line known as a fault. A fault is a crack in the Earth's crust caused by stress in the surrounding rocks. Stress builds up in the crust for several reasons. Most commonly, pieces of the Earth push and grind past each other, and stress builds up as the pieces get stuck on each other. Rocks store energy when the pressure changes as new sediment is deposited in layers on the Earth's crust. The Earth's surface also may store energy because of contraction and expansion as the crust heats and cools. As the stress builds, eventually the rock reaches its breaking point. When it fractures, energy is released in waves over the crust's surface and down into the Earth. These waves are what cause the shaking of the ground, much like the waves felt on a waterbed. Earth's Inner Layers Earthquakes show us how the surface of the Earth is moving, but did you know that measuring earthquake waves can give us information about the interior of the Earth? Seismologists, scientists who study earthquakes and related phenomenon, have discovered a way to use earthquake waves to deduce the structure of the Earth's interior. Geologists cannot directly study anything more than the outermost 5-8 miles of the crust, leaving a vast majority of the Earth unobserved. Scientists have defined the five layers of the inner Earth by studying earthquake waves. However, they have found that after an earthquake, waves of energy travel not only through the rocks of the Earth's surface but also through the center of the Earth. The waves that pass through the Earth travel at different speeds depending on the rock type, its temperature, and its pressure. Following an earthquake, scientists at stations all around the Earth record the time and intensity of the waves that arrive at their location. Using information about the arrival and behavior of the waves, scientists can deduce a picture of the different layers of the Earth's interior. This is how scientists have developed a 5-layer model of the Earth consisting of a solid inner core, a liquid outer core, a liquid mantle, a taffy-like upper layer, all underneath the outer crust. Tsunamis Tidal waves, or tsunamis (as shown in this animation), are also the result of earthquakes, and they can affect land, including the islands of Hawai'i. Tsunamis can form in a couple of ways. One, an earthquake could trigger a massive landslide near a body of water. This landslide entering the water could trigger a large wave similar to the waves made when someone jumps in the pool. The mass of the material entering the water triggers the wave. Tsunamis are created by earthquakes. Underwater landslides or volcanic eruptions can also cause tsunamis. Tsunamis can also be created by earthquakes that happen underwater. Fault lines exist under the ocean, just like on land. Sometimes, earthquakes cause one of the plates to move violently upward. This also causes all the water above that fault line to push up, triggering the start of a tsunami. You might think that it seems unlikely that this can cause a gigantic wave, but imagine a 100-mile-long piece of crust being suddenly forced up 10 feet. The amount of water displaced by this event is easily enough to begin the wave. Earthquakes that occur underwater can often cause tsunami waves. Out in the open ocean, the tsunami may not look like much, usually having a long, low crest, but these waves can move quite fast, up to 500 miles per hour. As the wave reaches the shoreline, it begins to slow down and pile up on itself. Initially, the shoreline water of the ocean may recede from the shore as it gets pulled into the wave itself. Tsunamis also may occur in several waves, increasing the danger of the event. Tsunamis have so much energy that they push up on land like a bulldozer, causing massive destruction. Volcanoes and Hot Spots Volcanoes are formed one of three ways. First, magma can ooze out of the ground when the lithosphere pulls apart. These are often non-explosive volcanoes that form where two pieces of the Earth are pulling apart. Second, volcanoes can erupt explosively, usually the result of a piece of the Earth's crust being forced back into the mantle. The piece of crust re-melts and moves to the surface to cause the eruption. The third way a volcano can be formed is called a hot spot. Deep inside the Earth, hot magma moves toward the surface of the Earth the way bubbles move in a pot of boiling water. These isolated columns of magma are known as mantle plumes, and when they reach the crust of the Earth, they break through in one spot, forming an area of volcanism. Yellowstone National Park and the Hawai'ian islands are hot spots, examples of volcanic activity caused by these rising mantle plumes. This activity can be seen in Yellowstone's hot springs, geysers, and leftover volcanic deposits. Over long periods of time, the hot spots are relatively stationary, so as the plates move over it, chains of islands can be produced. Hawai'i is a prime example of this. The Hawai'ian islands were created one at a time over long periods. The furthest northwest island is the oldest, and the Big Island of Hawai'i is directly over the hot spot. The Big Island is the site of Kilauea, where most of the volcanic activity is found. Off the Big Island's southeast coast, a new island is forming deep under water, but it will be a long time before the new island of Lo'ihi breaks the surface. Studying the types of lava that come out of volcanoes also gives scientists some clues about the Earth's interior. The islands in Hawaii were formed by a mantle plume depositing volcanic lava. Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through Earth carrying the energy released during an earthquake. A seismograph records the ground movements caused by seismic waves as they move through the Earth. Scientists monitor seismic activity to better understand Earth's interior and to determine earthquake risk. Earth's interior is a hot, but solid, inner core and a liquid outer core surrounded by a solid mantle and crust. Earth's geosphere is composed of layers of rocks which have separated due to density and temperature differences and classified chemically into a crust (which includes continental and oceanic rock), a hot, convecting mantle, and a dense metallic core. Motions of the mantle and its plates occur primarily through thermal convection, which involves the cycling of matter due to the outward flow of energy from Earth's interior and gravitational movement of denser materials toward the interior. (HS.ESS2A.c) Convection is the transfer of heat by movements of a heated fluid. The flow of heat and matter from Earth's core and the mantle causes crustal plates to move. Heat from Earth's mantle and core causes convection currents to form in the athenosphere. Hot, therefore less dense, columns of mantle material rise through the athenosphere. At the top of the athenosphere, the hot material spreads out, and the cooler, therefore ENERGY AND MATTER Energy drives the cycling of matter within and between systems. In many systems there also are cycles of various types. The most readily observable cycling may be of matter. Any such cycle of matter also involves associated energy transfers at each stage. To fully understand the cycling of matter, how matter moves between each part of the system, one must recognize the energy transfer mechanisms that are critical for that motion. 18 Earth Science Science and Engineering Practice Disciplinary Core Idea Crosscutting Concept more dense, material sinks back into the athenosphere. PLATE TECTONICS AND LARGE-SCALE SYSTEM INTERACTIONS The radioactive decay of unstable isotopes continually generates new energy within Earth's crust and mantle, providing the primary source of the heat that drives mantle convection. Plate tectonics can be viewed as the surface expression of mantle convection. (HS.ESS2B.c) The transfer of energy through empty space is called radiation. Energy released by radioactive decay in the Earth's crust provides energy that drives the flow of matter in the mantle. The convection currents in the athenosphere cause the movement of Earth's plates. Earth has radial layers determined by density, together with the cycling of matter by thermal convection, results in plate tectonics. WAVE PROPERTIES Geologists use seismic waves and their reflections at interfaces between layers to probe structures deep in the planet. (HS.PS4A.c) Scientists study how seismic waves travel through Earth to understand how the planet is put together (i.e., Earth is made up of several layers). Seismic data is used to determine the age of Earth's crust. The interpretation of seismic data is used to model the interior of the Earth. Earth's Magnetic Field The existence of Earth's magnetic field itself is evidenEarth's Magnetic Field The existence of Earth's magnetic field itself is evidence that the outer core is liquid. The outer core is believed to contain a system of convection currents that create a dynamo effect, and generates this field. Because the material in the outer core is predominantly iron and nickel, these magnetic elements create an electric current as they flow across an underlying, weak magnetic field. This current creates the more powerful magnetic field that we refer to as Earth's magnetic field. If the outer core weren't liquid, the magnetic elements wouldn't be able to build such a strong electric currentce that the outer core is liquid. The outer core is believed to contain a system of convection currents that create a dynamo effect, and generates this field. Because the material in the outer core is predominantly iron and nickel, these magnetic elements create an electric current as they flow across an underlying, weak magnetic field. This current creates the more powerful magnetic field that we refer to as Earth's magnetic field. If the outer core weren't liquid, the magnetic elements wouldn't be able to build such a strong electric current. Scientists know about the Earths interior from observations of Earths gravity, seismic waves that travel through the Earth, and the Earths magnetic field, as well as from comparison with the chemical composition of meteorites and from experiments that simulate conditions at the center of the Earth. The first estimate of the density of the Earths core was made by Isaac Newton over 300 years ago. Because the strength of a planets gravitational field depends on its density, Newton was able to use his observations of the Earth gravity to calculate that the average density of the Earth was more than twice that of rocks at the surface. Thus, the interior of the Earth must be much denser than the rocks near the surface. More detailed knowledge of the structure of the Earths interior comes from observations of seismic waves. When an earthquake happens, it releases energy that travels through the Earth in all directions as seismic waves. Two kinds of waves created by earthquakes are compressional (P) waves and shear (S) waves. Both of these waves can travel through solids, but S waves cannot travel through liquids. Scientists figured out that the outer core must be liquid because S waves do not pass through it, but P waves do. The behavior of P and S waves also indicates that the inner core is solid. The speed of seismic waves also depends on the density of the material through which they are traveling. Thus by observing many seismic waves from many earthquakes all over the world, scientists have been able to work out the density of different parts of the Earth (i.e. the core, mantle, and crust). So, how do we know what the dense material at the Earths core actually is? Scientists believe that the overall chemical composition of the Earth is very similar to a kind of meteorite called chondrites, which formed at the same time the Earth was formed. We know a lot about the composition of the Earths crust and mantle, because we can observe those rocks that have been brought to the surface by geologic processes. By comparing the composition of rocks from the Earths crust and mantle to the composition of chondrites, we can see what elements are missing, and therefore must be found in the core. Theories about how Earths magnetic field is formed, as well as experiments done at high temperature and pressures give clues as to the actual composition of the Earths core. Based on all these theories and observations, scientists know that the Earths core is mostly iron with some nickel and lighter elements such as oxygen or sulfur.

a. Analyze the effects of air movements on weather and interpret weather maps to predict weather patterns. d.

Weather is the result of the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the sun. As air heats up, it expands, becoming less dense than the cooler air around it. Cool air, which has a greater density, moves towards the surface. As warm air rises, it spreads out, and eventually cools, returning to the surface of the Earth, where it will warm up again, and rise. This cycle of air movement, known as convection, repeats itself and occurs worldwide. The uneven heating of the surface of the Earth by the sun changes air density which results in the horizontal movement of air, known as wind. Wind flows from a region of higher air density to areas of lower density. Most of the weather takes place in the troposphere. Coriolis Effect: is defined as the apparent deflection of objects, such as wind, planes, ocean currents, etc, moving in a straight path relative to the earth's surface. As the earth rotates, an object moving in the sky in a straight line appears to curve off of its course.On average, winds' speed tends to increase as the warm air rises, with maximum speeds near the troposphere (due to less drag taking place as a result of fewer landforms). The Coriolis effect influences wind by affecting its path to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern. This creates westerly winds that move from the subtropical regions to the poles.Jet stream is the concentrated band of wind movement at 50 knots or greater, generally from west to east,with seasonal migrations within the US.During the day, land is warmer than the sea, thus, the cooler air above the sea moves towards the warmer land. This is known as a sea breeze. At night, the air above the sea is warmer than the land, thus, air moves from the land towards the sea. This air moment is referred to as a land breeze.There is also movement of air that takes place among the mountain and valley. As air on the surface of the valley heats up, the warm air expands, and moves up towards the mountain top. A low pressure is created at the top of the mountain. This low pressure attracts the air from the valley, which creates a movement from the floor of the valley up towards the mountain. This air movement is known as a valley breeze. In the evening, air found at the top of the mountain regions cool off much more quickly. This creates a densely packed, high pressure system that causes the air to move downward towards the valley floor. This movement of air is known as a mountain breeze. Pressure SystemsThere is movement of air in clockwise and counterclockwise paths taking place around regions of high and low pressure. High pressure system is indicated with a capital H on a weather map. High pressure areas are a result of air that cools off and becomes denser as it moves towards the ground. Pressure increases as a result since the cool, dense air fills up the space. Most of the atmosphere's water vapor evaporates as it descends. Thus, high pressure is associated with clear skies and nice, calm weather. During the day, with no clouds, there is more heating of the earth's surface so temps are higher. And, with no clouds during the night time, there is more heat loss resulting in cooler, low temps.Low pressure (indicated with an L on a weather map) is an area where the atmosphere pressure is lower than the region surrounding it. Low pressure typically results in high winds and warm air, which produces clouds, rain and bad weather (storms and cyclones). Low pressure weather do not have extreme fluctuation of temps due to clouds being present. During the day, clouds reflects solar radiation back to space and at night they act as a blanket, trapping heat.IsobarsIsobars are lines drawn on a weather map it connect points of equal atmospheric pressure. Isobars help to determine the speed and direction of wind. When isobars form a concentric circle the smallest circle indicates a pressure center. This pressure center can be either a high or low press system. Due to the Coriolis effect, air does not move "down" but around pressure gradients Thus, isobars indicate the wind direction. Clockwise around high-pressure systems and counterclockwise around low. The closer the isobars, the stronger the winds.FrontsThe position of a front on a map indicates where it meets the ground, but they also extend upward, often all the way up to the tropopause (boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere). They form along the edges of air masses, and mark the boundary between the warmer air on one side and the cooler air on the other. Fronts also slope. A warm front slopes at about .5 to 1 degrees and a cold front slopes at about 2 degrees. Cold fronts travel at an average speed of around 22 mph. Cold fronts undercuts warm air, forcing it upwards along the line of the front. As a result, strong convection current develops, which leads to the formation of storm clouds and heavy rain. Cold fronts are often associated with low-pressure systems. Cold fronts are represented by blue lines with triangles on one side. The direction the triangles point indicates the direction in which the cold front is moving. Warm fronts travel at an average speed of around 15 mph. Warm fronts gradually rises over cool air. Moisture condenses in the rising air, forming clouds and precipitation. Warm fronts are represented by red lines with semi-circles on one side. The side the semi-circles are on indicates the direction the warm front is moving. Occluded fronts: Because cold fronts move faster than warm fronts, it eventually overtakes the warm front, lifting it off the ground. this is known as an occluded front. Occluded fronts are represented by purple lines with semi-circles and triangles. Whichever side they are on is the direction the front is moving.Stationary fronts is a non-moving boundary between two different air masses. This region experiences clouds and prolonged rainy periods. Stationary fronts are represented by a line with red semi-circles on one side and blue triangles on the other and do not indicate the direction it is moving since it is stationary. Click here for weather map symbols. Teacher prep: · The effect of air movement on weather o wind § The air in the atmosphere is unevenlty warmed by the sun. § Hot air rises and cooler air moves in to take its place, causing wind. § Some wind patters are very predictable because of Coriolis effect. Due to the rotation of the earth, the wind patters move towards the equator and away from the poles § The boundary of these air masses is called a front § Notes : weather occure because earth heated unevenly some areas hotter then other. All weather due to uneven heat on earth. The weather tries to flow in straight line, but earth rotates underneath it, so it looks like a circle. Due to roation, wind patters move towards euator and away from pole. Fronts are where area of hot area meants area of cold air. o Precipitation § Cold air being replaced by warm air is a warm front. Warm air being replaced by cold air is a cold frong · Cold front cause more severe and violent weather than warm fronts § When a cold front meets a warm front, water condenses and it causes precipitation § Fronts generally move from west to east in the U.S. § Notes : cold front more violent due to as you go toward colder water goes from being a gas to liquid, so now rain, snow or hail, cooled down and condense. Jet stream move from west to east in the US for the most part. · Weather maps and weather patters o Weather patters § A weather patter is same weather condition for a few days in a row § All weather takes place in the troposphere § Notes : most of earth water is water vapor in the troposphere 99% of water vapor in troposphere, so weather we see happens in the troposphere. Above that mesosphere, above thermosphere . so weather patters occur pretty low. o Weather maps show different factors that affect weather as well as different weathe condition § Temperature is how hot or cold a particular area is at that moment § High/low pressure is due to uneven cooling and heating which causes air movement · High pressure brings good weather conditions · Low pressure indicated cyclonic weather · Notes : high pressure means more air coming down to the ground that additiona air creates more pressure, when the air is coming towards ground, it holds vapor down and dos not cary water up. When low pressure it means that air is coming up into sky, taking water vapor up creating clouds, storms, so that is why high pressure stable. Low pressure is storms. Weather maps shows warm and cold fronts. § Weather maps also show cold and warm frong fronts · cold fronts have triangles · warm front look like bmps · radar weather maps can show the amount of precipitation in an area · notes : radar helps show rain . the doppler effect, we send out radiowaves, they bouns off water particiels, if they come same frequency means no movement, if higher means cloud moves quickly. If moves slowly, means the cloud is moving away. So we can tranck movementof strom system. Other study guide : Air movement's effect on Weather -Coriolis = effect of the earth rotating beneath a free-flowing object: although winds appear to move in a curved direction, winds are moving straight and the ground is moving under them - Horse latitudes = 30 degrees N: where high pressure zones cause more evaporation than precipitation and air is warm because much of it comes indirectly from the equator and cause the world's great deserts - Land breezes are more likely to form in the winter because the ocean is warmer than the land, forming a high pressure zone, the air rises and draws air from the land out to sea à land breeze - winds are deflected by the Coriolis effect, caused by the west-to-east rotation of the earth -Global wind belts: -Jet streams = winds that have an enormous influence on weather and climate, found where major global convection cells meet (around 0-30 decrees N and 0-60 degrees south), especially story region -weather is the result of :temp of air, moisture in air, air movements, whether there is a nearby air mass of different temp -Santa Ana winds: occur along So. CA coast: high altitude air in the great basin is drawn toward the coast by low pressure, races downhill, causing evaporation during summerà extremely dry vegetation (prone to fires) -Coastal CA cooler than Central Valley due to: coast range blocks cool coastal air from flowing eastward, sea breezes cool coast, coast range creates a rain shadow over central CA Predicting Weather Patterns - Stationary front =boundary between a warm air mass and a cold air mass when there is no movement à produces long periods of precipitation - when air masses collide, they form a front : cold, warm, stationary, and occluded fronts 1) Cold fronts: form when fast-moving cold air mass overtakes a warm air mass, produce heavy rain or snow 2) Warm front: occurs when a warm air mass overtakes a slower moving cold air mass, moves slowly and is at a low angle with respect to ground, creates cloudy conditions for several days 3) Stationary fronts: cold air masses and warm air masses meet: neither of air masses move, moisture from warm air condenses when it contacts cold air mass and clouds/fog/rain/snow form 4) Occluded front: warm air mass gets caught between two cold air masses à cloudy weather with chance of snow or rain - anticlones= areas of high pressure - Low pressure system indicated that it will be cloudy - A warm front usually brings extended periods of rain limate Introduction Droughts, superstorms, melting glaciers, oh my! We hear about extreme weather events often and are told that they are the result of a changing climate. Global warming is changing our climate by heating the Earth's temperature, but isn't that weather? What is the difference between weather and climate? Just like weather, climate is affected by many factors that do not change rapidly, like ocean currents, gases in the atmosphere and moving continents. In this lesson, we'll explore how these factors can have a big effect on what we see and the kinds of conditions we can expect. Weather and Climate Weather and climate are terms that are related but do not mean the same thing. Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place. For instance, this would be if it currently is sunny today and what the temperature is, or if we are expecting clouds and rain tomorrow. Weather is what is forecasted from day to day. Climate is the long-term average of the weather of an area. This would refer more to the type of weather you could expect at different times of the year. Normally, the northern U.S. can expect snow and below-freezing temperatures in winter and warm summers with some humidity. These expected weather patterns together with other factors make up our climate, which generally remains unchanged over the span of a human lifetime. Atmospheric Effects There are many factors that can influence the climate of a region. One of the main things that determines the climate of an area is the circulation of air in the atmosphere. The atmosphere is the blanket of air that surrounds the Earth. The atmosphere circulates air in patterns or in a band caused by the heating of the Earth by the sun and the Earth's rotation. Air near the tropical regions rises as it gets heated, while cooler air near the poles sinks. Warmer air has more energy and is less dense than cooler air, which causes this rising and sinking action. However, the Earth's rotation also has an effect on this movement of air by breaking the rising and sinking action of air into six distinct sections. These bands alternate the direction of wind flow, much like the bands that are seen on Jupiter. Two different wind patterns, the trade winds and the prevailing westerlies For instance, near the equator, the prevailing winds move from east to west and are known as the trade winds, shown in yellow and brown on the map. Next, the blue arrows show the bands of air that travel west to east - the dominant wind pattern for the United States - and are known as the prevailing westerlies. This difference can be seen any time a hurricane gets close to us and we begin tracking it. As the storm forms in the Atlantic, it moves from east to west, caught up in the trade winds. As it moves north near North America, its direction will begin to shift back to the east as it moves into a band of air moving in the opposite direction. Another effect on climate can come from the composition of the atmosphere itself. The greenhouse effect is when gases naturally trap heat in the atmosphere, moderating the Earth's temperature. These gases include carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor. If the percentage of these gases changes over time due to natural or man-made effects, then the amount of heat held in can change also. This is the concern with global warming - that we are adding too much carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, warming the planet. Heat Distribution Another factor that influences climate is how the Earth distributes heat. Large bodies of water along with ocean currents greatly influence a region's climate by holding and redistributing heat through the water, adding moisture to the air and influencing the strength and direction of the wind. Ocean currents move heat around from areas that are warmer to areas that are cooler, adding energy and moisture to new regions. An example of ocean temperature's effect on our weather and climate is the El Niño effect that occurs in the Pacific. In El Niño, a band of water near the equator becomes warmer than normal and transfers extra heat, disrupting normal weather patterns. In the United States, this can cause warmer, drier winters with less snow in the northern states and more rain and cooler temperatures in the southern states. The movement of air as wind accomplishes this task too because the amount of sunlight that is transformed into heat also plays an important part in our climate. Without the movement of heat through air, the temperature in areas that receive more sunlight would continue to rise, becoming extremely hot, and areas like the poles would be extremely cold, since heat received would be much less than what is lost. Areas would cease to have changes in seasons and a much more difficult time sustaining growing seasons and moderate temperatures. Landforms and Continents The continents and landforms also influence climate. Mountain ranges, for instance, force air masses to change elevation. As air approaches the mountains, it rises and cools, forms clouds and releases much of its moisture as precipitation. This can be seen in clouds that are often surrounding the tops of mountains. Often, the higher the elevation, the more that precipitation occurs. This is known as the orographic effect. The orographic effect states that cooler air will hold less moisture than warmer air. On the opposite side, air can sink again, which allows it to warm and absorb moisture by producing fewer clouds, more sun and less precipitation. This drier side of a mountain range is known as rain shadow, or the dry area on the leeward, or backside, of a mountain. The difference in precipitation can be quite dramatic. The driest desert in the world is the Atacama Desert in Chile and receives less than 0.5 mm of rain each year, while the windward side might receive hundreds of centimeters. Another way that continents can determine climate on a much longer scale is by the movement of the continents themselves. For instance, there is fossil evidence of tropical plants that has been found on Antarctica. It is clear to scientists that Antarctica was at one time much warmer than it is now, and the discovery of mechanisms that cause the plates and continents of the Earth to move a few centimeters each year reinforced that idea. Lesson Summary Climate is determined by the kinds of weather that a location experiences over a long period of time and does not change much over the span of a human's lifetime. The factors that determine climate include global wind patterns in the atmosphere, like the westerlies and the trade winds. Large bodies of water and circulation of air are also important for distributing heat around the globe. Landforms like mountain ranges can also affect climate. They can force air masses up, forming clouds and precipitation on the windward side, which is known as the orographic effect, and they can produce drier, clear air on the back side, known as rain shadow. Finally, continental movement can change the climate of a region over thousands of years as it migrates to a different latitude. Prediction of climate is very difficult and relies on complex computer models. However, scientists are working on accuracy to give us an idea of what our weather patterns will be like in the future. One thing is for certain: Our climate changes over time and will continue to do so in the future. Learning Outcomes After finishing this lesson, you should be ready to: Differentiate between weather and climate Describe how effects of the atmosphere, heat and landforms affect climate Define the greenhouse effect, the orographic effect and rain shadow ave you ever wondered why the Earth has so many different climates? In this lesson, you will learn about the relationships between geography and climate that help provide an explanation about the differences. What Are Climate and Geography? Have you ever wondered why there are no tropical rainforests in Canada? Or have you ever found it odd that a desert can be located right next to a mountain blanketed in snow? If you have ever considered these things, then you are well on your way to beginning to understand the influence geographic variables have on climate conditions. Geography and climate are very closely related sciences. Geography is the study of the physical features of the Earth and the interactions between humans and those physical features. Climate is the long-term trend for weather conditions in a given location. So if you are trying to determine the influence that weather patterns have on a particular geographic location, you are studying the interactions between climate and geographic variables. There are dozens of possible geographic variables that play a role in climate, but we will focus on the most important ones in this lesson. Climate Factor #1 - Latitude One of the easiest to understand geographic influences on climate is latitude. Latitude is how far north or south of the equator a location is, as measured by lines of latitude that run parallel to the equator. Most of Canada, the Scandinavian countries, and much of Russia are located at northerly latitudes. Latitudes far from the equator receive less sunlight and subsequently have colder climates. The Caribbean, Africa, and Central America are all located close to the equator. Locations at latitudes closer to the equator receive more direct sun exposure, and as a result have generally warmer climates year round than locations further from the equator. Locations between the poles and the equator have mixed climates, with alternating cycles of warm and cold weather mixed with moderate temperatures in between. Blizzards and cold weather are far more likely to occur at latitudes far from the equator. Climate Factor #2 - Elevation Have you ever noticed that when you travel up a mountain the air temperature changes? This is because elevation, or how far above sea level you are, plays a role in climate conditions. The further you are from the Earth's surface, the colder the air temperature will be. This is because air temperature decreases with height in the troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere closest to the surface of the Earth. The higher you go in the troposphere, the colder the air temperature will be. This is why it is possible to have snow on the upper peaks of mountains, like California's San Jacinto in the photo, while the land at the base of the mountain could be a hot desert like Palm Springs at the base of San Jacinto in the photo. Differences in elevation can cause mountain peaks to be covered in snow while land at the base of the mountain could be a desert. Climate Factor #3 - Water Water plays an influential role in weather systems, and thus plays a role in climate as well. Many weather systems pick up moisture from another location, such as the Gulf of Mexico, and funnel that moisture up to more northerly latitudes (like the upper Midwest, for example). But an even larger influence on climate is the proximity of a location to a large body of water. Locations downwind of the Great Lakes experience extraordinary amounts of snow each winter due to moisture from the lakes being utilized as part of the lake effect snow process. Lake effect snow is caused by cold, dry air from the north passing across the (slightly) warmer, open waters of the Great Lakes. That wind flow, plus the lake moisture, combine with the very common upward sloping topography south of the lakeshores all combine to form lake effect snow. Lake effect snow is not the only circumstance where topography and water combine to create interesting weather and climate patterns, as it can also be seen along the coastal and adjacent inland areas of the Pacific Northwest. Regions located along the Pacific coast inland to the Cascade mountain range receive high amounts of rainfall. The regions on the opposite side of the Cascades (the inland side) receive little rainfall, and in many cases are deserts. This is because the topography has forced almost all of the incoming moisture from the ocean to drop out of the air column as rain as it rises up in elevation along the side of the Cascades facing the ocean. Proximity to a body of water plays a significant role in the climate conditions for a region. Lesson Summary Geography is the study of the physical features of Earth and the interactions between humans and those physical features. Climate is long-term trends in weather conditions for a given location. In order to properly understand the climate of an area, you have to understand what geography is and what geographic variables influence the climate in that region. The three most important geographic variables that influence climate are latitude, elevation, and proximity to a body o his lesson will explain how the earth's axis and rotation affect seasons. In doing this, it will also highlight the concept of the summer and winter solstices, as well as how seasons vary around the globe. Differences in Seasons Living in the Northeastern US, I love fall. The mountains turn into a rich display of colors and the weather is just perfect for comfy jeans and sweatshirts. However, I am not a fan of our winters. Yes, a white Christmas is wonderful, but after that, I'm not a fan of shoveling driveways and slippery roads. In fact, every year in about February I find myself thinking, 'Why on earth do I live here?' This is only made worse when my brothers, who live in Arizona and Southern Florida, call to tell me they are wearing shorts and having picnics. However, although this usually drives me nuts, today it works out to my advantage as it is an excellent little anecdote for today's lesson on how seasons are affected by our location on the globe. For starters, we Northerners suffer through cold winters due to our location on the earth, while my brothers wear shorts in November due to theirs. Stating it plainly, regions closer to the equator experience relatively warm to hot temperatures throughout the year. However, areas to the south or north of the equator see varying temperatures as the seasons change. Axis & Rotation To explain, seasons exist due to the earth's tilt toward the sun. As many of us learned in our elementary days, the earth rotates around an invisible or imaginary line drawn through the North and South Poles, known as its axis. It's really important to note that this axis is on a tilt; it's not just straight up and down. It's also important to remember that it takes the earth 365 days to make its way all the way around the sun. Due to this tilt, at varying times in a year, the rays of the sun shine on different parts of the world more directly. For instance, when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, the people in the north experience warmer temperatures, or their summer. The opposite is also true: when the Southern Hemispheres is tilted toward the sun, the people of the south experience shorts and T-shirt weather, (except of course for those at the poles, they're always cold!). If it weren't for this axis and rotation, we would be devoid of seasons. Instead, the areas around the equator would be warm as usual, the poles would be cold, while the rest of us would just be stuck in pretty monotonous movement of hot to cold. Solstice With this idea of axis and rotation in mind, there are some geographical terms we should probably nail down. First, there is a solstice, a day in which the earth's axis is either closest or farthest from the sun. With this in mind, the summer solstice is the longest day of the year because the earth's axis is closest to the sun. Conversely, the winter solstice is the shortest day of the year because the earth's axis is farthest from the sun. Now, here is where things might get a bit tricky. Remember that different areas experience seasons differently. For instance, my brothers go biking and have picnics during their winters, while I sit huddled next to a fireplace. This is due to our varying locations on the globe and our location relative to the equator. However, my brothers in Arizona and Florida still reside with me in the Northern Hemisphere, so while I'm tilted away from the sun, so are they. Therefore, we have winter at the same time. Yes, theirs is 60° while mine is 20°, but they're both still called 'winter'. However, if they lived in the Southern Hemisphere, this would not be the case. While I was tilted away from the sun and having winter, they'd be tilted toward the sun and having summer. When speaking of a solstice, the same rules apply. For instance, while the Northern Hemisphere is experiencing their longest day of the year, or the summer solstice (which usually falls between June 20th and 22nd), the Southern Hemisphere is experiencing their winter solstice, or their shortest day of the year. Conversely, the Southern Hemispheres experiences their summer solstice on December 21st, while we Northern Hemisphere-dwellers are experiencing our winter solstice. With all this talk of winter and summer, we should probably give a short nod to fall and spring before we end. Stating it very simply, the earth's hemispheres experience spring and fall when the earth's axis is parallel to the sun. This produces milder temperatures, rather than the heat that comes from being pointed toward the sun or the cold that comes from being tilted away from it. Lesson Summary It takes the earth 365 days to make its way all the way around the sun. It also rotates on its axis, an imaginary line drawn through the North and South Poles. It is this axis and rotation that causes seasons, since at varying times of the year, the rays of the sun shine on different parts of the world more directly. Interestingly, the areas of the globe which lie along or close to the equator experience very little variations in temperatures. However, when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, it experiences its summer. During this same time, the Southern Hemisphere experiences its winter. In the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, spring and fall occur when the earth's axis is parallel to the sun. The term 'solstice' is often used when discussing seasons. The solstice is the day when the earth's axis is either closest or farthest from the sun. The summer solstice is the longest day of the year because the earth's axis is closest to the sun. Conversely, the winter solstice is the shortest day of the year because the earth's axis is farthest from the sun. Interestingly, the Northern Hemisphere experiences its summer while the Southern Hemisphere experiences its winter and vice versa. Learning Outcomes After you have finished this lesson you should be able to: Explain the impact the earth's rotation has on the seasons Describe the importance of the earth's axis Name the solstices Discuss why the Northern and Southern Hemispheres experience opposite seasons eather and how they work together to do so. Factors that Influence Weather Although it may seem like it sometimes, weather forecasters don't just make up their predictions. They use the best available science, as well as three key variables that are critical to understanding weather: air pressure, temperature and air density. These variables are essential because, like a well-organized set of drill sergeants, they control how air behaves, and thus, they control the weather. However, they are not mutually exclusive. Like a set of siblings, each variable is closely related to the others (whether they like it or not!). Pressure, Temperature and Density Let's look at air pressure first. Though you can't see them, air is a cocktail of molecules that fly around and bump into each other. Think of the molecules as billiard balls - as they bump into each other, they push each other around. You aren't going to notice one molecule bumping into another one, but if you add up all these tiny collisions and pushes, you might start to feel it! Those molecules also have weight, and between the weight of the air pushing down and the collisions between molecules, we get air pressure. So, how does air pressure relate to temperature? Well, remember how I said the air molecules are moving around and bumping into each other? If they move faster, they bump into each other harder and more often. This happens when the temperature of air is increased. Warm air molecules have more energy, so they move faster and create more pressure. Likewise, cold air has less energy and therefore exerts less pressure on its surroundings. Density also plays a role. The denser the air is, the more molecules there are in that given space. It's like the difference between having a large party packed into a tiny living room versus having that same large group of people in a big recreation hall. The denser the air, the more collisions there are between molecules because there is less room for them to avoid running into each other, so we get more air pressure. So, you can see that density, temperature and pressure work together to change the conditions of the air. When heat is added, air temperature and pressure both increase. And, when the density of air changes, the pressure (and sometimes the temperature) does as well. Adiabatic Processes Now that you know how the three variables work together, let's take a look at how they affect weather. Adiabatic processes come about when air changes temperature without any gain or loss of heat. Huh? How on Earth does that work? Well, this is where density comes into play. Remember our partygoers from before? If you put them in the tiny living room, they bump into each other more. The molecules in dense air do the same thing, and these collisions give off heat and create pressure. When there is more space to move around in, the molecules run into each other less, which means they give off less heat and pressure. And, because air has weight, it's affected by gravity. So, nearer to the ground, there is more pressure because there's more weight. As you rise in altitude, the weight is less, so there is less pressure and more space for the air to expand. This means fewer collisions, less pressure and less heat. You can see this process along mountainsides. As warm, moist air rises up the side of the mountain - known as the windward side - it expands (because there's less pressure) and it therefore cools. As it blows over the mountain and comes back down on the leeward side, it gets compressed, which makes the molecules bump into each other more, and the air is then warmed by these more frequent collisions. This is why the windward side of a mountain has its name. This is where the wind first encounters the mountain. It's also why the windward side is rainy and the leeward side is dry. Cold air can't hold as much moisture as warm air, so as the warm air rises up the mountain and becomes cooler, the water it holds is squeezed out of the air as rain on the windward side, and dry air continues on to the leeward side. Clouds, Air Masses, Fronts and Storms Do you think that if air rising up a mountain creates rain on that side that it also must create a cloud? If you said yes, you're right! Air pressure, temperature and density all contribute to cloud formation. As warm, moist air rises up into the atmosphere, it cools, which, as you now know, means that it has to let go of the water it brought along with it. The water from the air condenses into tiny droplets, which is what clouds are made of, and the type of cloud that forms depends greatly on the surrounding air - its pressure, temperature and density. Air masses are huge parcels of air that cover large portions of Earth's surface, much larger parcels of air than the ones we've been talking about so far. As we learned in another lesson, each air mass has specific characteristics, and when they meet up, they can produce an interesting variety of weather conditions. Whether large or small, when air parcels meet, we get fronts. The differences in the temperature, pressure, density and moisture content of the air masses makes one front slide over the other one, which can affect weather patterns by creating cloudy skies, thunderstorms and gusty winds. Fronts are like fights between air masses. Since they're so different, it almost feels like they can't decide on the weather, and the storms that follow are their conflicting opinions. Our three variables also influence other weather patterns, such as thunderstorms, tornadoes and hurricanes. Thunderstorms occur when warm, wet air rises quickly. This rising air is called an updraft. The updraft builds a large, vertical cloud. The water inside the cloud falls back toward the ground, and as it does, it tries to convince all of its friends to come along with it. This collection of water droplets builds up until larger water droplets form that are heavy enough to push past the updraft and reach the ground as rain, creating a downdraft, or downward moving air. When the air inside a thunderstorm cloud begins to spin, we get tornadoes over land and hurricanes over water. The combination of low-pressure centers and high-pressure exteriors drives these dangerous storms along until they're stopped by opposing winds or run out of energy. Lesson Summary Like a set of siblings, air pressure, temperature and density are related to one another. Air pressure describes the collision of molecules and weight of air pressing on its surroundings. Temperature refers to how warm or cold air is, and the density of the air is how many molecules are packed into a certain space of air. Air pressure is influenced by temperature because, as the air is warmed, the molecules start moving around more, so they bump into each other more often and create more pressure. But, air pressure also affects temperature - the more those molecules bump into each other, the more heat they generate. So, more collision means warmer air. Density is also important because, like our big party of people, if you pack more molecules into a given space, they're inevitably going to bump into each other more, creating more pressure and therefore more heat as well. This is how we can have air temperature changes without adding or removing heat, known as adiabatic processes. As air rises up the windward side of a mountain, it expands, which means our party-going molecules have a larger space to move around in. There are fewer collisions, so the air cools. But, as air cools, it can't hold as much water, so that water gets pushed out as rain on this side of the mountain. Any air that continues over the mountain to the leeward side gets compressed as it sinks back down to the ground, which means the party gets moved to a smaller room, and we get more collisions and therefore warmer air. However, most of the moisture was left on the windward side as rain, so the leeward side is dry. The family of air variables is also responsible for clouds, air masses, fronts and storms. Fronts are like fights between differing air masses, and their storms are their disagreement. Clouds form when warm, moist air rises (just like over the mountain), which sometimes release their water as rain. If the cloud grows tall enough, we get a thunderstorm cloud, which can lead to tornadoes and hurricanes if the air inside starts to spin. Learning Outcomes Once you've completed this lesson, you'll be able to: Explain the relationships between air pressure, temperature and density and how those relationships affect weather Define adiabatic processes Describe what causes the weather differences in the windward and leewa What Is Weather? Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular moment in time, in terms of temperature, precipitation, and moisture. On science fiction shows, people sometimes have amazing powers to affect the weather. This is impossible in real life. But in real life, there are still things that affect the weather. One thing that affects the weather is the geography of an area. This includes the topography of the land, the latitude, vegetation cover, human impact on the land, and the proximity of bodies of water to an area. How Geography Affects the Weather Geography affects the weather in many ways. Let's go through a few of these in more detail. One thing that can affect weather is the topography of an area. This refers to the arrangement of natural and manmade features of an area. It can include mountains, rivers, or cities. Topographical features like mountains affect the weather mostly in the way that they direct air currents. For example, air is forced to rise over mountains. Moist air will cool as it rises, and then the clouds release the water, causing precipitation like rain or snow. This is why one side of a mountain range - the side nearest the ocean - often gets more rain. An area's latitude on the surface of the Earth (location in terms of north and south) also affects the weather, because it changes the intensity of the sun's light that the area receives. This has a direct effect on the temperature. If you're at the equator, the sun is always high in the sky, and that concentrates the sun's rays, making it hotter. Whereas at the North Pole and South Pole, the sun is always low in the sky, and this causes the sun's rays to be spread out and diluted. The equator also doesn't have seasons that vary the weather because the sun's height in the sky isn't much different during the year: whether the Earth is tilted towards the sun, or away from the sun, the angle of the sun's rays is pretty consistent. Plants, Water, and Weather The vegetation cover is important, too. Vegetation is less reflective than bare land and retains more heat. Whether the air is cold and dry, cold and wet, warm and dry, or warm and wet is determined by the reflectivity of the Earth's surface. More reflective surfaces absorb less of the Sun's heat, causing less moisture to evaporate and causing larger swings in temperature. Think of a jungle, which is usually the same temperature, more or less, as opposed to a desert, which can be very hot during the day and cold at night. It could be argued that this is the driving force behind much of the Earth's weather. The proximity of bodies of water to an area also affects weather. If you've ever been to northern California, you may have noticed that San Francisco can be chilly, while Sacramento is over 100 degrees Fahrenheit. This is all because of the water near to San Francisco. The sea is one of the least reflective surfaces on the Earth, and it also contributes to moist, cool air through evaporation. These factors together mean the coastal areas are generally wet and have milder temperature differences between seasons than inland areas. Nearby water cools the area during the summer and warms the area during the winter. How Humans Affect Weather Humans also affect the weather. First, there is the obvious: humans are responsible for climate change by releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and causing some of the heat from the sun to be trapped inside the atmosphere (like a greenhouse!). And climate is really just weather over a long period of time. But there are more subtle effects that humans have on the weather. For one thing, humans build cities, which changes the reflectivity of the Earth. If you've ever been to New York in the summertime, you may have noticed it can be sweltering! Cities also have less vegetation, reducing the cooling and evaporating effect. But humans also create air pollution, and this changes the reflectivity of the atmosphere, either by allowing the Earth to absorb more heat from the sun or by reflecting more of it away (depending on the chemicals doing the polluting). These effects are more significant than you might think. Lesson Summary Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular moment in time, in terms of temperature, precipitation, and moisture. Weather is affected by many geographical factors, including human land use (such as pollution and the building of cities), proximity of water to an area, vegetation cover, latitude, and topography. These factors impact the Earth's air currents, the Earth's reflectivity, the absorption of the sun's light, and the rate of evaporation. For example, one side of a mountain range typically gets more rain because of rising moist air that falls once it cools. Coastal areas have more moderate temperatures. And in general, the more reflective the land, the more the temperatures vary from night to day and the less evaporation occurs. Save Print Lesson Next Lesson In this video lesson you will learn about how air masses with different characteristics create weather fronts. You will also identify the different types of fronts, as well as what type of weather occurs along them. What Are Weather Fronts? A long time ago, armies didn't have guns, grenades or fighter jets. They fought on the ground, face to face. An army ready to fight would consist of lines of men, each line with a specific job. In general, the front line was a strong line of shielded soldiers forging ahead, protecting those behind it. Weather fronts act just like the front line of an army. Fronts are contact zones between two different air masses, and you can think of the air masses as the advancing armies, just with different pressure, density, temperature and moisture. And just like there's conflict between the battling armies, air masses 'battle' along fronts, creating changes in weather conditions. There are four types of fronts, and the type of front we get depends on which type of air mass, or army, is advancing over the other. A cold front is the contact boundary of an advancing cold air mass over a stationary warm air mass. Conversely, a warm front is the contact boundary of an advancing warm air mass over a stationary cold air mass. This makes sense - the front is described by the type of air mass winning the 'fight.' On a weather map, you'll see these symbols for a cold or warm front. The color helps you identify which type of front is moving in (blue for cold, red for warm), and the arrows tell you which direction the advancing air mass is coming from. Warm and Cold Fronts A stationary front is just what it sounds like: When neither air mass is advancing over the other. They are both stationary, and so is the front - the armies are at a stalemate. Finally, an occluded front is when a cold front overtakes a warm front. This happens because cold fronts move faster than warm fronts, so it's like one army is sneaking up from behind and taking over in a surprise attack. On a weather map, you will see these symbols for a stationary or occluded front. As you can see with the stationary front, neither air mass is advancing. With an occluded front, the cold air mass is advancing over the warm air mass from behind. Stationary and Occluded Weather Fronts How Fronts Affect Weather Just because they didn't have machine guns or grenades doesn't mean that battles weren't bloody. When two opposing armies fight, things can get very violent and dangerous because each side believes very strongly in what they're fighting for. Weather fronts do the same thing - they advance forward, creating weather changes and sometimes even violent storms along the front. This is like the front line of battle on both sides - the initial point of battle contact. Thunderstorms are common along cold fronts. This is because when a cold front occurs from a cold air mass moving into a warm air mass, the warm air is forced upward. When warm air rises, it cools, and since cool air can't hold as much moisture as warm air, the water in the air gets forced out, which is what creates clouds. Since the air is moving straight up, it forms a vertical cloud, which leads to thunderstorms along the front. However, behind the front, the skies are clear and the weather is calm. Along warm fronts, storms are less intense and more drawn out. This is because the warm air moving in over the cold air rises gradually instead of quickly. Along the front, expect overcast skies and drizzle or light rain. Behind the front, the air will be warm and clouds will be pretty scattered. Think about it like this: Thunderstorms generally develop quickly and are very dramatic storms. This comes from the quick, dramatic rise of the warm air when a cold air mass moves in. You know how it feels when you jump into a cold pool? It's a shocking feeling, and you're likely to jump right back out! When you step into a warm hot tub though, it's a little less dramatic, and your body reacts much more gradually. The same thing happens with a warm front, when the warm air slowly moves up over the cold air mass it's taking over. Because stationary fronts are like stalemates, they can last for many days. Both armies are winning (or losing) equally in the battle, and neither is willing to give in. Eventually, the stalemate will end because one side will take over, creating a cold or warm front, or the front will simply dissipate because the two sides just don't feel like fighting any longer. Long days of rain and clouds accompany stationary fronts. Because an occluded front is when a cold front overtakes a warm front, this can lead to some really rainy weather! The cold front comes in from behind and literally wedges itself under the warm front, lifting it up. This means that the zone of contact between the two fronts is up in the air, not on the ground. This also pushes any warm air up that was between the two fronts, which as we now know creates rain and thunderstorms, depending on how quickly that warm air rises. Each front still retains its army though. The weather behind the occluded front is similar to that of a cold front, and the weather ahead of the occluded front is similar to that of a warm front. Lesson Summary Like two armies at battle, air masses also battle with weather. When two air masses meet, we get weather fronts, and the type of front depends on the type of air mass advancing. The differences in the air masses come from differences in air pressure, temperature, moisture and density. A cold front is when a cold air mass moves into the area of a stationary warm air mass. Like jumping into a cold pool, a cold front 'shocks' the warm air upward very quickly. This sharp rising of warm air creates thunderstorms along the front, while behind the front, skies are clear. A warm front is when a warm air mass moves into the area of a stationary cold air mass. You wouldn't dive into a hot tub, would you? You're more likely to slowly step in and let your body adjust. Warm fronts are the same way - the warm air rises slowly and gradually over the cold air mass, creating gray skies and drizzle. A stationary front is a stalemate. This is when neither air mass is advancing over the other, and you can expect rain and clouds to accompany this type of front. Like two armies in battle that are equally winning or losing, these fronts can last for long periods of time. When a cold front overtakes a warm front, we get an occluded front. This is like one army sneaking up and attacking the other army from behind. The fronts do not overlap; the cold front literally pushes the warm front up off the ground. When these two fronts come together, we get a wide area of rainy weather along the front, but weather similar to cold fronts behind and similar to warm fronts ahead. Learning Outcomes As you finish this lesson, you should be able to: Identify the four types of weather fronts ir masses affect weather in a number of different ways. In this lesson, you will learn about the different types of air masses found on Earth and how the movement of air masses creates changes in the weather. Types of Air Masses Weather is controlled by a variety of factors. One of the most important is Earth's air masses. Air masses are huge parcels of air with specific characteristics. What's interesting about the characteristics of an air mass is that, not only do they describe the air mass, but they also tell you where you can find that air mass on Earth. Let's look at the different types of air masses found on Earth to see how this works. Air masses can be divided into two main categories based on whether they are found over land or water. If the air mass is found over land, this is a continental air mass. If the air mass is found over water, this is a maritime air mass. This makes sense: continental air masses occur over the continents, maritime air masses occur over the water, or marine environments. These categories are represented by a lowercase 'c' for continental or 'm' for maritime. The source region of the air mass helps us classify it even further, and for this, we have three categories. Arctic air masses occur over arctic regions, like Greenland and Antarctica. Polar air masses occur a little bit farther from the poles, like in Siberia, Canada and the northern Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Finally, tropical air masses occur in the tropics, so along the equator and over Mexico and the Southwest U.S. Makes sense, right? These categories are represented by the first letter of the source region, but this time we use an uppercase letter. So, 'A' stands for arctic, 'P' for polar and 'T' for tropical. That's pretty easy to remember! Each source region can also be either continental or maritime, and to represent this, we simply combine the category letters. This gives us six total types of air masses on Earth: maritime arctic (mA), maritime polar (mP), maritime tropical (mT); and continental arctic (cA), continental polar (cP) and continental tropical (cT). Air Masses and Weather You can understand a lot about weather from air masses just by looking at the name. Maritime air masses are going to produce moist weather because they occur over oceans, and oceans are filled with water! The air blowing over the ocean regions, either arctic, polar or tropical, picks up that moisture as it travels along. In maritime arctic and polar regions, this moist air is cool (as you probably expected), and the maritime tropical air mass produces the warm, humid conditions you would expect along the tropics, like Florida and the Caribbean. In contrast, continental air masses produce dry weather. This is because the continents just can't compete with the oceans when it comes to moisture! The continental arctic and polar air masses produce dry, cold weather in the winter and pleasant weather conditions in the summer. If you've ever been to the Northeast U.S., you know what this weather is like. If you can make it through the bitter, dry winter, you get heavily rewarded with a wonderfully cool and beautiful summer! Continental tropical air masses produce hot, dry conditions like you see in the Southwest U.S. and Mexico. Just because air masses are found over a region of Earth doesn't mean that they stay put. In fact, they can move both horizontally and vertically! When air masses move, we can have some drastic changes in weather. One way that air can move vertically is through convectional lifting. Convection is the cyclical process of warm air rising and cool air sinking. This happens because, just like your black t-shirt absorbs sunlight better than your white t-shirt, some spots on Earth absorb solar radiation better than others. When air comes in contact with these unusually warm spots, it heats up and rises. As it rises, it expands and cools and then sinks back down to the ground. Thus, we have the convection cycle. If there is moisture in the air, it creates a cumulus cloud when it rises. These are the big, fluffy clouds you can identify different shapes and objects in. As the air sinks, the cloud dissipates, which is what creates all that empty sky between cumulus clouds. Think about it - you usually see a bunch of cumulus clouds in the same area, but not one large, continuous one. The cloud is where the air is rising and releasing moisture. The space in between is where it's sinking back down to the ground. Each cloud is a convection cycle! If a cumulus cloud grows tall enough, it can turn into a thunderstorm cloud. So, you can see that convectional lifting has the power to change the weather - just by air rising or falling in the same place. Another way that air masses affect weather is when the air is lifted up over an obstacle, like a mountain. This type of lifting is called orographic lifting. Orographic lifting is responsible for the different weather conditions you see on opposite sides of a mountain. As the air rises up over the mountain, it cools and expands, and any moisture in the air is pushed out. You now know that this forms a cloud, and if there's enough moisture, the cloud may produce rain. The rain occurs on the windward side of a mountain because this is the side the wind is traveling up. The leeward side of the mountain is the opposite. The air falling back down is dry because it left all its water in the cloud on the other side! Finally, when air masses meet, they create fronts. Fronts are the contact zone between two different air masses. They may differ in pressure, temperature, density and moisture, but usually it's a combination of all these factors. Air masses are like people with differing opinions - one may eventually win over the other, but the disagreement itself creates storms and changes along the zone of contact as the air masses fight it out. Lesson Summary Air masses are large parcels of air with distinct characteristics, and they occur all over Earth. They are classified based on where they're found. Continental air masses are found over land (like the continents), and maritime air masses are found over water (like marine environments). We can also classify air masses based on their source region: arctic, polar or tropical. When these two classifications are put together, we get very specific descriptions of the type of air and weather that are produced. Continental air masses produce dry conditions, while maritime air masses produce wet conditions because they can draw water from the oceans they blow over. Similarly, you would probably expect arctic and polar air masses to be cold and tropical air masses to be hot. Put together, you can have dry, cool air (cA or cP); moist, cool air (mA or mP); dry, warm air (cT); or moist, warm air (mT). Air masses are not stationary, and their movement affects weather. When air masses experience convectional lifting, or the rising of warm air and sinking of cool air, we get cumulus clouds. If they grow large enough, cumulus clouds can turn into thunderstorm clouds and produce some pretty intense storms. Orographic lifting is when an air mass is lifted over an obstacle, usually something like a mountain. The warm air is lifted, and as it rises, it cools and expands. The water in the air creates a cloud and rain over the windward side of the mountain (where the wind initially blows up) and dry conditions on the leeward side. Fronts occur where two different air masses meet. The type of front depends on which air mass is advancing onto the other. Along the zone of contact, we get changes in weather, such as storms, rain and clouds. Fronts are very much like a disagreement between two people with opposing viewpoints. One may eventually win over the other, but the argument itself can create some serious friction between the two! Learning Outcomes Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to: Define air masses and identify their classifications Explain how cumulus clouds are formed and how they can turn into thunderstorm clouds Summarize the effect of orographic lifting Tools for Predicting the Weather We've all been there. You go out on a sunny day, drive somewhere for a few hours, and then when you get back you find yourself caught in the middle of a violent thunderstorm. You don't have a coat or an umbrella and have to run through the pouring rain. Even if you check the weather forecast, it isn't always right. Predicting the weather is really hard. But they still get it right far more often than they get it wrong. How do they do that? What tools and techniques are used to predict the weather? Weather is the atmospheric conditions of a place on earth at a particular time. These conditions can be hot or cold, rainy or dry, windy or calm. Weather is all about collecting data. The atmosphere is chaotic and complex, but by having lots of data about the past we can recognize patterns and use them to predict the future. We collect data using various tools. For example, thermometers indicate the temperature, barometers measure air pressure rain gauges indicate us how much precipitation has fallen wind vanes measure the speed and direction of the wind weather balloons float up into the atmosphere and get an idea of what's going on up there, and weather satellites see what's going on in the atmosphere from above. Altogether this brings a wealth of data, and we have been collecting this data for many years. Weather balloon From the data we can look for patterns. For example, meteorologists (experts in weather) can look at the movement of cold fronts and warm fronts and compare it to what they have seen in the past. When cold air is replacing warm air, it's called a cold front. This causes temperatures to drop, and tends to lead to heavy thunderstorms. When warm air is replacing cold air, it's called a warm front. This causes temperature and humidity to rise. Fog can result, followed by rain as the front passes. The movement of these fronts and other types is related to air pressure, so measurements of air pressure are also useful. When the fronts pass, they tend to leave clear skies behind them. The lay of the land is also important: the presence of mountains, lakes, and seas have a big influence on how air moisture moves. Comparing what is observed to historical averages can give a good idea of what's going to happen. Weather Maps and Symbols Once you come up with your prediction, you have to communicate it to people. Those people could be other meteorologists, or the public through a weather report. We have standard ways of doing that. Showing weather almost always involves a map, with lots of symbols on top of it. Weather Map One kind of symbol you might see is an arrow to show the wind speed and direction. A big, bold arrow can mean faster wind speeds. Another thing you might see are numbers to show the temperature at different locations. And you might also see an L or H to show low pressure and high pressure areas, with solid lines to show areas of constant pressure. But perhaps the most complex kind of symbol on a weather map are those that show hot and cold fronts. A warm front (#1 on the diagram below) is shown with a red line that has red semicircles connected to it. A cold front (#2 on the diagram below) is shown with a blue line that has blue triangles connected to it - it looks a bit like triangle flag bunting you might see on the streets during a festival or at a party. There are also stationary fronts (#3 and #4 on the diagram below) that we haven't talked about, which is the combination of the two, containing read semicircles and blue triangles on opposite sides of the same line. Last of all you can get something called an occluded front, which contains triangles and semicircles on the same side of the line, and is sometimes shown in purple. 1. warm front symbols; 2. cold front symbols; 3 and 4. stationary front symbols. Altogether the symbols provide a detailed picture of the weather in an area. Weather reports on TV are often simplified using little pictures of clouds, the sun to show sunshine, and lightning bolts to show thunderstorms. These are symbols that one can understand. But there's a lot more to weather maps than those basic pictures, and if you understand them, they can tell you more about the weather than most people will ever notice. Example of a more complex weather map Lesson Summary Weather is the atmospheric conditions of a place on earth at a particular time. These conditions can be hot or cold, rainy or dry, windy or calm. To predict the weather we have to collect data using weather tools and instruments and then compare what we see to our historical data to figure out what's likely to happen. Tools meteorologists use include thermometers (temperature), barometers (pressure), rain gauges (rainfall), wind vanes (wind speed), weather balloons, and weather satellites. With these tools we can learn about many things, including cold fronts and warm fronts. A cold front is cold air replacing warm, and a warm front is warm air and replacing cold. We use maps and symbols to communicate what we learn about the weather. Symbols on those maps include numbers to show temperature, arrows of different sizes to show wind speed and direction, H's and L's to show high and low pressure, and lines with triangles and semicircles to represent types of fronts. Save Print Lesson Next Lesson 29 This lesson discusses the processes water takes as it moves around the Earth in the water cycle. You'll get an in-depth look at condensation, precipitation, and evaporation.

Analyze extraction and recycling processes in relation to energy, cost, and demand.

Resources, such as minerals, that are extracted can sometimes require less cost than recycling. Recycling is a complex process that system requires vehicles to transport materials, sorting of the items, and the actual process (crushing glass, baling plastics, etc). However, sometimes the process of recycling is cheaper than the process of extracting resources from earth. Recycling also helps to reduce the emission of greenhouse gas, landfill use, and reduces the extraction of more resources. Teacher prep: · Extracting and recycling o Extraction § Logging -the process used by either a maching or lumberjack to cut down and harvest trees § Well drilling = the process of drilling a hole in the ground to obtain a natural resource such as gas, oil or water § Mining- the process of extracting minerals, metals, and other reousrces from underground deposites or river beds · Strop mining uncovers the resources below § Notes : we can get resources by extracting , from environment , logging,well drilling. Recycling is reusing it log threes and make paper, recycle paper and make more paper. Strip minin is bad for environment blows off tops of hill and mountain to get hat is below, it destroy the entire habitat, changes land form. These example of how we extract. o Extracting effects § Logging and drilling can cause surface water contamination, pollution from broken lines, and sinking of the land. § Mining can cause erosion , the loss of biodiversity, and the development of sink holes § Notes : alternative to estractin is ryclciey o Recycling § Recycling is the process of used or waste material to create potential useful material · Reduces the amont of raw material used, pollution release and and energy stored · Glass, metal, plastics, electronics, textiles are materials recycled § The reuse of biodegradable substances is not considered recycling ( wood ) Other study guides: Recycling - Aluminum cans are the most cost-effective and energy saving to recycle - Paper wears out the more times it is recycles: fibers in appear become shorter each time the paper is turned into pulp - Plastic gives off the most energy when burned (more than paper, yard waste, food waste) Recycling - Terminology o Virgin - original product (not made from recycled material) o Primary - means the same as virgin o Secondary - made/recovered from both new and recycled product o Home scrap (runaround scrap) - scrap material generated by a company and reused/recycled by that company o Prompt industrial scrap - scrap generated by a company that cannot/will not use itàthen sells it to a secondary market o Old scrap - material from discarded consumer products § Includes beverage containers o Smelting - refers to removing oxygen from a metal ore by burning it with carbon based fuel o Cullet - glass that is crushed and ready to be remelted - Aluminum o Not a renewable resource, though it is very abundant § Virgin aluminum comes from bauxite ore, which most is used to make alumina (Bayer refining process) which in turn is smelted to form aluminum o Benefits of Aluminum recycling § Do not have to be sent to landfills § Cans are 100% recyclable into new beverage cans § Lower cost to recycle than to produce virgin metal § More cost effective · Recycling funds a large part of the collection system § Brazil 94.4% bottles produced are recycled - Glass o Glass is made from quartz (silica) sand, soda ash, and limestone § All abundant though not renewable materials · Soda ash reduces the silica melting point · Limestone makes glass more durable § Container glass tends to be reused or recycled much more than glass in other categories (flat glass for windows, fiberglass for windows, domestic or special use glass § Glass can be recycled by · Reuse - glass bottles are sterilized and reused o Challenging because it involves storing difficulties and manufacturing conditions · Recycled - crushing collecting glass bottle to be re-melted o Reduces landfill use, saves energy and reduces emission of greenhouse gases and reduces quarrying; is infinitely recyclable o Uses 40% energy to recycle than to produce virgin material o In California about 79% glass beverage containers are recycled - Paper o Important to recycle, is the number one thing we throw away, but does not recycle as well or as profitably as aluminum or glass § Each time paper is recycled, the length of the fibers that make it up decreases, which reduces the strength of the finished product, paper can only be used five to seven times § Nonetheless, paper is renewable · The trees paper producers are specifically grown for making paper, new trees are planted to replace those that have been harvested o How paper is recycled § Different kinds of paper may be recycled into different kinds of paper products § Process · Shredding and mixing it with wateràfiber pulp · The pulp is hen cleaned and beaten into a slush or stock o Economic and Environmental Aspects of Recycling paper § It takes 40% less energy to make paper from recycled paper § Recycling paper produce more sludge as a waste product and they samay consume more fossil fuels - Plastic o Have their origin in oil and natural gas o All plastics are polymers (long chain molecules) § Polyethylene is the simple plastic polymer o More challenging and expensive to recycle than aluminum or glass § With only about 5% of all plastic produce is recycled § Low price for virgin resin compared to recycled plastic o Two kinds of plastic (when heated) § Thermoplastic - polymers have relatively linear molecular structure, when they are heated above melting point, they soften and flow like liquid § Thermoset - polymers have a structure with links between chains, forming a rigid, three dimensional network; that when heated they chemically decompose and cannot be reformed into different shapes o Recycling Process § Load inspection and contaminant removal § Wash and chop into flakes the plastic § Dried and fed into an Extruder (heats and meltsàforces the molten material through a sieve for further contaminant removal) § The resulting molten plastic is cooled and made into pellets § Manufacturing companies buy the pellets and use them to make products o Incineration of plastics: Waste to energy conversion § The energy in plastics is the same as that in oil or natural gas § The energy saved from incinerating them is not so significant o Biodegradable Plastic § Are those that can be digested by microorganisms in the natural environment ( these degrade faster in specially designed composting units) o Bioplastics § Are polymers that come from vegetable oil, corn starch or other renewable biomass sources instead of crude oil and gas § Pros · Benefits the environment · Relies less on petroleum based products § Cons · Expensive, less durable, and have shorter shelf life than traditional plastics

5. Understand chemical reactions and biochemistry. (SMR 2.2) a. Recognize that chemical reactions can be understood in terms of the collisions between ions, atoms, or molecules and the rearrangement of particles.

For a chemical change to occur, the chemical bonds must be altered. Valence electrons are involved in the formation or breaking of bonds.Collision theory is how scientists make predictions about how fast chemical reactions take place.Chemical reactions occur when particles are oriented correctly and collide with enough energy to break bonds.Reaction rates are how fast chemical reactions occur and are impacted by several factors, including: the number of particles, the temperature, the pressure, the presence of a catalyst, and the size of the particles.Collision theory states that the number of successful or effective collisions is related to the reaction rate. The more successful collisions, the faster the reaction rate. This theory helps scientists determine reaction rates mathematically.formed substances are 'produced' from the reaction, the molecules you get in the end are called products. Products are physically different from the reactants you started with, but they have also undergone permanent chemical changes as well. So if you can't undo the change, you've likely got a chemical reaction on your hands, not just a physical change. Chemical changes in materials: occur when atoms of one or more substance are rearranged to form different substances. Possible evidence includes color changes, gas froms, solid forms(melt), temperature chagen, example combustion exothermic oxidative reaction, fire is an example of that; reactant=starting materisl. When products = ending materials, aqueous dissolved in water, precipitation reactions withing a olition produce a solid product know as precipitate, pieces of soild or forms at the bottm of the container. There is also exlectrolysis is used to separate elements that whould normally not sparate. It can be used with ores as well as to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen, ex anode and catode, anodes attract engatvie charged ions, catodes attrach positive cation. Acid/base and oxidation /reduction reactions · In a acid base reaction, thenegative charged acid and the positive charged base neturalize each other. An acid base indicator and a litmus paper can each be used as a test for pH. Ex: NaCl table salt · An oxidative/reduction reaction is one in which electrons are transferred between molecules or ions. These reactions can be recognized when the charge or oxidation state changes .in a increase of oxidation loss of electrons or increases in oxidation . reduction reaction is gain in electrons or a decrease in oxidation. · Combustion and single/double replacement o in a combustion reaction, a fuel and an oxidant undergo a series of exothermic chemical reactions. Somethine with oxygen is bondes with a fueld source results fire. So gives off heat exothermic. o a single replacement reaction is a type of oxidation reduction reaction in which an element or ion moves out of one compound and into another.example have copper in silver nitrate solution the silver percipitates out . o a double replacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which two reactant ionic compounds exchange ions to form two new product compounds with the same ions . · chemical changes in materials o Synthesis and decomposition reactions § In a synthesis reaction, simple elements or compounds combine to form more complex productsEx: iron and sulfur combine to form iron II sulfide § In a decomposition reaction ,complex melecules break down to form simpler products. Example water breaks down into hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis o Factors that affect treaction rates: chemical system require a minimum activation energy to being a chemical reaction. Factors that increase a chemical reaction indluce : Concentration ( more of the reactants, so higher rate) ,Temperature ( the hotter, the faster they move ),Pressure ( more pressure the closer the molecues are ),Catalyst/enzyme ( catalyst accelerates but is not consumed not a reactant, biological catalyst are called enzymes ) Physical state of the reactions ( if in same physical state they react more easily, like two liquids, two gaes. However if you have one solid salt and dissolving in liquid, then only the portion on the surface can react. So if stir, expose or accelerate the reaction. ) . Chemical bonding , reactivity, and position in periodict table. · Noble gases full outer shell . don't want ot bond. Examples ionic :: AL-F . end up with Al F3 . · Examples of covalent bonds NH3, H2O.

A. Apply knowledge of how Kepler's laws are used to predict the motion of orbiting objects.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) developed a quantitative description of the motions of the planets in the solar system. The description that he produced is expressed in three ``laws''. Kepler's First Law: (law of ellipses) The orbit of a planet about the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. Figure 1 shows a picture of an ellipse. It is constructed by specifying two focus points, F1 and F2, of the ellipse. All points on the ellipse, such as P in Figure 1, have the property that the sum of the distance between P and F1 and the distance between P and F2 is a constant. The dimension of an ellipse is often described by giving its major axis and minor axis. In descriptions of orbits in the solar system, however, it is more common to use the semi-major axis to describe the size of the orbit, and the eccentricity of the ellipse to describe its shape. The eccentricity is given by the ratio of the distance between the two focus points to the length of the major axis of the ellipse. The periapsis, or the shortest distance between the orbiting body and the central mass, is determined by the product of the semi-major axis and the complement of the eccentriciy (1 - e): if the body is orbiting the sun, this is the perihelion, symbolized by q): q = a (1 - e). A circle is a special case of an ellipse, with an eccentricity of 0, or so that q = a.Major=longest diameter minor-shortest diameter ;sun is always at focus; semimajor axis-half of the largest diameter ; semiminor=half of smallest axes Kepler's Second Law:the law of equal areas: A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. Figure 2 illustrates Kepler's Second Law. Consider the line between the Sun and point A on the elliptical orbit. After a certain amount of time, the planet will have moved along the orbit to point B, and the line between the Sun and the planet will have swept over the cross hatched area in the figure. Kepler's Second Law states that for any two positions of the planet along the orbit that are separated by the same amount of time, the area swept out in this manner will be the same. Thus, suppose that it takes the planet the same amount of time to go between positions C and D as it did for the planet to go between positions A and B. Kepler's Second Law then tells us that the second cross hatched area between C, D, and the Sun will be the same as the cross hatched area between A, B, and the Sun.Kepler's Second Law is valuable because it gives a quantitative statement about how fast the object will be moving at any point in its orbit. Note that when the planet is closest to the Sun, at perihelion, Kepler's Second Law says that it will be moving the fastest. When the planet is most distant from the Sun, at aphelion, it will be moving the slowest. Kepler's Third Law: The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The Law of Harmonies) We have defined the semimajor axis of the orbit above, in our discussion of Kepler's First Law. The sidereal period of a planet's orbit is the time that it takes a planet to complete one orbit around the Sun. Kepler discovered a quantitative relationship between these two properties of the orbit. If P is the period of the orbit, measured in years, and a is the semimajor axis of the orbit, measured in Astronomical Units, then P2 = a3 or it's the same as T^2=a^3 TP=time it takes to orbit a=distance of semimajor axis Kepler observed in the law of harmonies that this ratio is the same for every planet in our solar system. Students should understand the value of one astronomical unit (AU) and the distance from the Earth to the sun (149,597,870.700 kilometers) in order to facilitate calculations for astronomical bodies orbiting our sun. Time can be measured in Earth days or Earth years Example : Students must also be able to combine Newton's law of universal gravitation with Kepler's third law to obtain Newton's version of Kepler's third law. This can then be used to describe planetary motion in our solar system with no more than two bodies at a time. Students must be able to predict the motion of human-made satellites Newton's Laws Kepler's Laws are wonderful as a description of the motions of the planets. However, they provide no explanation of why the planets move in this way. Moreover, Kepler's Third Law only works for planets around the Sun and does not apply to the Moon's orbit around the Earth or the moons of Jupiter. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) provided a more general explanation of the motions of the planets through the development of Newton's Laws of Motion and Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation.

5d a. Analyze chemical bonding with respect to an element's position in the periodic table. IONIZATION TRENDSOF PERIODICT TABLE? ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF PERIOD TABLE ? DIAGONAL RELATIONHISP? METALIC? BOILING POINT TREND OF PERIODIC TABLE?

Valence electrons- are found in the outer regions of an atom. They are found in the most distant s and p energy subshell. These electrons are responsible for holding two or more atoms together in a chemical bond.According to the octet rule, atoms tend to bond in such a way that it acquires 8 electrons in its outer shell. This can occur by transfer of electrons from 1 atom to another, by sharing.Ionic bond- occurs when a metal cation is attracted to a nonmetal anion. These are held together by the attraction by opposite charge. Fundamental particles held together by ionic bond is called formula unit.Covalent bond- two non-metals share valence electrons. A fundamental particle held together by covalent bonds is a molecules. When a metal atom loses it valence electrons, it becomes positive charge forming a cation. So, if Na, n group 1 loses an electrons, it because Na_ and only has 10 electrons, the same as Ne (a noble gas). We call this isoelectronic, when main group metals achieve a noble gas electron configuration after losing one ore more electrons.Anions are achieved when a nonmetal gains valence electrons and thus becomes negatively charged. For example, when Cl atom gains one valence electron (group 18), it becomes Cl0 and now has 19 electrons, the same as Ar. Because the cation loses an electrons, its radius becomes smaller because there is not more pull from the nucleus. Anions becomes larger between they gain an electrons because there is now less pull towards the nucleus.Covalent- the electrons from the nonmetals belong to both and are shared to produce an octet to complete its valence shell. Since the valence shell is filled, the bond is stable. For example, in Hcl, the hydrogen atoms shares its one valence electron with the Cl atom. This gives Cl 8 electrons it its outer valance shell, thus making it isoelectronic with Ar and is stable. And Al shares one of its valence electrons with Hydrogen, giving it now 2 electrons in its outer shell. Hydrogen becomes isoelectronic with He. So both elements become stable. The periodic table does so much more than just tell us the atomic number of an atom. In fact, we can use it to help us figure out how different substances will react if given certain circumstances. For example, elements in the same column often bond similarly. We see this most clearly to the far right with the noble gases, which don't bond well with others. However, knowing what electrons are free in a given atom can help us figure out how the rest of the elements will react to one another. An easy way to figure out how elements bond is through electron configuration, a system of stating how many electrons are present in each orbital of an atom. Remember that an orbital is the orbit that electrons can take around the nucleus. In this lesson, we're going to learn how to use electron configuration to describe the first thirty-six atoms on the periodic table so that you'll be comfortable using it later on to describe larger atoms. S Orbital The closest orbitals to the nucleus are the s orbitals. The s orbitals are also the smallest, and can only have two orbiting electrons. Therefore, all the electrons in both hydrogen and helium fit in the first orbital. We write this as 1s^1 for hydrogen, since it is in the first s orbital and has one electron. Meanwhile, we write it as 1s^2 for helium, since there are two electrons there. But there's a catch. The next layer out from the 1s orbital is the 2s orbital. Like all other s orbitals, there is only room for two electrons. So what does that mean for lithium which has three electrons? The first orbital, 1s, is completely full. As such, we write 1s^2. But we're not done yet. We also have another electron, so that means we step up in energy level. Because we're still in the 2s orbital, we write 2s^1, since there is only one electron there. However, we still put the 1s^2 there, so lithium has an electron configuration of 1s^2 2s^1. But wait, what about energy levels? Each coefficient represents a step up in energy level. Think about it like this. Electrons don't have to work so hard to stay close to the nucleus, but they have to move really fast in orbit the farther out they go. As such, electrons increase in energy as they get away from the nucleus. P Orbital You can probably guess by now that beryllium, with four electrons, has an electron configuration of 1s^2 2s^2. But what about boron with five electrons? For that, we use a completely different set of orbitals, the p orbitals. P orbitals are groups of three orbitals, which means that they can have six electrons total. You write them the same as s orbitals, but never with a 1. That's because the energy level for 1 is too low for p orbitals. For example, that would mean that boron would have an electron configuration of 1s^2 2s^2 2p^1. Carbon would be 1s^2 2s^2 2p^2, with an additional electron, and oxygen would be 1s^2 2s^2 2p^4, since it has two more electrons than carbon. The third energy level also has only s and p orbitals, so that means that you've got all the tools you need to go up to argon. On the Table Before I go on, I want you to stop and look at the periodic table. It can really be divided into four general chunks. The first two columns to the left will always have s orbitals as their highest energy level. Meanwhile, the six columns to the right will always have p orbitals as their highest energy level. Notice a trend? The width of each section also describes how many electrons are present in the last orbital, with hydrogen always having one and neon always having all six p spots filled. But what about all those metals in between? They get their own new set of orbitals, the d orbitals, as their outermost orbitals. Also, in case you were wondering, the atoms with numbers 53-71 and 89-103 also get their own set, labeled f, but we'll worry about them later. For now, let's learn about the d orbitals. D Orbital Once you get past number 18 on the periodic table, you run into all those metals in the middle. So how do you use the d orbitals? First, take a guess as to how many electrons can fit in this set of orbitals. If you guessed ten, because the section is ten elements across on the periodic table, you'd be right! With two big exceptions, this section works just the same as the p section. First, it has ten electron slots instead of six. Remember, each s orbital can hold two electrons, each p orbital can hold six electrons, and each d orbital can hold ten electrons. Also remember that any s and p orbitals have to be filled in a given energy level before we move on to the d orbitals. Second, it starts with a lower energy level. That means that for d orbitals to exist, there has to be an s orbital with a higher energy level that has at least one electron in it. If you were to take the electron configuration of calcium, with twenty electrons, you would get 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^2. Remember that whenever you move to a new energy level that the s orbital must always be filled first. However, the second you move to iron, with six more electrons, you need to put those six electrons in the third slot. As a result, the electron configuration of iron is 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^2 3d^6. Lesson Summary In this lesson we learned how to configure electrons of elements with atomic numbers below 36. We started with learning about the s orbitals, which each hold two electrons apiece and are closest to the nucleus. We then moved on to the p and d orbitals. Remember that p orbitals hold six electrons while d orbitals hold ten. We saw how the coefficient of the largest orbital was the energy level, and how each section of the periodic table referenced a particular orbital. Save The periodic table contains a wealth of information. This lesson will explain how to use it to quickly determine the most useful information about the most important electrons. We will be focusing our discussion on valence electrons and energy levels. Valence Electrons and Energy Levels Valence electrons can greatly impact the properties of atoms of the same element The electron is one of the most important factors in determining how an atom will react with another atom or molecule. A single electron can make all the difference in the properties of an atom. For example, sodium has one outer electron, located in that 3s orbital. With that outer electron, sodium is very shiny, silvery and extremely explosive in water. It is so dangerous that you will likely never see it in its elemental, neutral form. And if you do find yourself coming across some sodium, you will probably see it being stored in some kind of oil so that it doesn't react with the moisture in the air. So where have you seen sodium? You may have sprinkled some on your food this afternoon! If you put salt (or sodium chloride) on your food, you would have experienced what sodium is like without that outer 3s electron. Sodium, in its silvery form, easily loses that outer 3s electron, turning it into sodium ion with a positive 1 charge. Sodium with one less electron than proton will have a positive 1 charge because protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged. This sodium ion with only 10 electrons is completely different than neutral sodium metal with all 11 electrons. Sodium ion tastes salty and doesn't react with water at all. You consume it every day, and it's very important that you do, because it plays a major role in your body's nerve functions and fluid balance. Valence Electrons This was just a brief introduction into how the electronic structure will affect the function and reactivity (and even taste) of an atom. As mentioned, the location and quantity of electrons are important factors in determining how an atom will react. However, the most important information about the electrons has to do with the outermost electrons, or the valence electrons. The inner electrons in an atom are usually tightly held by the nucleus, and they aren't usually going to participate in very many reactions. The outer electrons are the key players in all chemical reactions. That little 3s electron in sodium is the most important electron in sodium. It will be the one that is either present (in explosive sodium metal) or absent (in the sodium ion in sodium chloride in your table salt). This lesson is going to focus on the two most important aspects of these valence electrons: the quantity of valence electrons and the energy of the valence electrons. The final part in each electron configuration (3s^1 and 4s^1) refers to the valence electrons Number of Valence Electrons As mentioned, sodium has one valence electron (that 3s electron), which is one reason why it is so reactive and unstable. If sodium has one valence electron, then how many does potassium have? The answer is also one! However, it is a 4s electron. In fact, all the atoms in the first column on the periodic table have one valence electron, and all of the atoms in the first column on the periodic table are extremely reactive and will have a tendency to lose that outer electron and become more stable. Because the number of valence electrons is so important (as opposed to the inner ones), they are sometimes represented in Lewis dot diagrams as shown. Lewis dot diagrams show the symbols of atoms with their valence electrons. Sodium is represented by its symbol Na, and because it has one valence electron, that 3s electron, that electron is represented by a dot next to the symbol. Moving on to the second column, you will notice that magnesium has an electron configuration that ends in 3s2, meaning that there are two valence electrons in magnesium. Again, these two electrons are extremely important, so sometimes magnesium is represented as Mg with two dots around it. Notice how the dots are represented on opposite sides of each other in the symbol. So, all elements in the second column will have two valence electrons. Next, we are going to skip the d-block. The reason we are skipping over it is twofold: first, there is a less predictable pattern in numbers of valence electrons, which is beyond the scope of this lesson; and second (and most important), the d-electrons don't play as big of a part in the reactions as s and p electrons do. Moving to the 13th column, which starts with boron, you will notice that there are three outer electrons: two s electrons and one p electron. All atoms in this family will have three valence electrons. Are you starting to see a pattern forming? The elements in the carbon family all will have four valence electrons, the elements in the nitrogen family will have five, the elements in the oxygen family will have six, the halogens will have seven valence electrons and aside from helium, the elements in the last column - the noble gases - will all have eight valence electrons (two s electrons and six p electrons). The periodic table showing Lewis dot diagrams As you can see, the number of valence electrons an atom has is related to the column it is found in on the periodic table. When an atom has eight valence electrons it is said to have an octet of electrons. Atoms with a complete octet have s and p orbitals that are completely filled with electrons, so they are extremely stable. Notice that the Lewis dot diagrams fill the outer shells by first putting in four electrons alone on either side and then starting to pair them up with the addition of the fifth electron. This representation will help us later on when we discuss chemical bonding. Energy of Valence Electrons Aside from the number of valence electrons an atom has, the energy they have (or the energy level that they are in) is the last bit of information that helps predict how an atom will react. Let's take one look at the first column of elements. They all have one valence electron, but their valence electrons are located farther and farther away from the nucleus as you move down on the periodic table. For example, that one valence electron in lithium is in the 2s orbital. That number 2 is the principal quantum number that represents the size of the orbital. The 2s orbital is going to be a lot smaller than the 4s orbital in potassium that holds its valence electron. What that means is the valence electron in potassium is going to have more energy and be farther away from the nucleus than the valence electron in lithium. What difference does that make? Well, as you may have noticed from the sodium example, those elements in the first column are going to get rid of their outer electrons as quickly as possible. Having that one outer electron flying around alone out there makes that atom very chemically unstable. The ability of it to chemically react is directly dependent upon how easily it can get rid of that outer electron. Potassium is way more likely to get rid of its outer electron than lithium is because its outer electron is in the 4s orbital, which is much farther away from the inner pull of the positively charged nucleus. Lithium will hang on to its 2s electron more tightly than potassium will hang on to its 4s electron because the 2s electron is closer to the inward pull of the positively charged nucleus. This makes potassium much more reactive than lithium. If you put a tiny chunk of lithium in water it may just fizz, but if you put the same amount of potassium in water it will probably pop or explode. The farther away the valence electrons are from the nucleus, the more energy an atom has As you may have noticed, the row an element is in will represent the energy level the valence electrons will have. Elements in the first row (hydrogen and helium) will have outer electrons in the first energy level. Their principal quantum number is 1. Elements in the second row (lithium through neon) will have valence electrons in the second energy level with a principal quantum number of 2. The trend continues all the way down to the seventh row. Remember, those last two rows really belong squeezed into the sixth and seventh rows. Lesson Summary The most important feature of an atom that helps predict its chemical properties is the location and quantity of its electrons - more specifically, its valence electrons or outer electrons. The outer electrons are the ones that participate in the chemical reactions, changing the properties of an atom or molecule. The column an element is in on the periodic table will indicate how many valence electrons it has, and for now, when we count across columns, we will skip over the d-block. The row an element is in will indicate the energy level of the outer electrons. Finally, because valence electrons are so important, they can be represented symbolically in Lewis dot diagrams. The Size of an Atom When you picture an atom, you probably see a bunch of protons and neutrons crammed together in a tiny little nucleus surrounded by a bunch of electrons zipping around the outside of a nucleus. It should make sense that the size of an atom is really dependent on how far away the electrons are - more specifically, how far away the outer electrons, or valence electrons, are. If they are zipping around really close to the nucleus in the first energy level, the atom will likely be very small, and if the valence electrons are flying around way out in the fifth energy level, the atom will be very large. The size of an atom is dependent on how much space the electrons take up. The size of an atom depends on how much space its electrons take up. But if electrons are always moving, and we never really know exactly where an electron is at any given time, how do we measure the size of an atom? You may think of an atom as being a small, hard sphere, when in reality, its outer boundaries are very difficult to define. Measuring an atom's size is like measuring the size of a marshmallow: It depends on how it's measured. Is it apart from the rest, or is it squished into its packaging? When the size of an atom is measured, it's important to specify if it's an isolated atom, or if it's one that is bonded to something else. Typically, the atomic radius is measured as half the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms. This measured radius is often slightly smaller than an atom's actual radius, but because the nucleus of an atom is very well defined and easy to detect, this measurement is the most often used. The rest of this lesson will be focused on the trends that the atoms have in size as you move down a group or across a row on the periodic table. A trend is just a tendency to change in a predictable way. We can use these trends to compare the relative sizes of two different atoms on the table. Group Trends Remember that a group in the periodic table is just a vertical column, so we will only be comparing elements in the same column. As you move down a group, you will notice that the principal quantum number increases by one. This means that electrons are going to be filling energy levels farther and farther away from the nucleus. You can think of energy levels like layers in an atom. As the number of protons in an atom increases, the number of electrons will also increase. These electrons need room to move around, and each energy level can only hold so many electrons. So at the start of each row on the periodic table, a new energy level has to be 'opened' for these new electrons to be added. As you move down a group in the periodic table, the atomic radius increases. For example, if we compare elements in the first column on the periodic table, hydrogen has one electron, and it is located in the first energy level. Lithium has three electrons: two of them filling the first energy level, and one of them (the valence electron) needing to be added to the newly created second energy level. Finally, let's compare this to sodium, with 11 electrons. Two of them will fill the first level, eight will fill the second level, and one (the valence electron) will need to be added to the newly created third level. Because each added level is farther and farther away from the nucleus, the atomic radius increases as you move down a group on the periodic table. Periodic Trends Next, we'll compare atoms across a period. Keep in mind that as you move across a row on the periodic table, electrons in atoms will be added to existing energy levels. It's only when you move down a row that new energy levels, or layers, need to be added. So if electrons are just filling existing energy levels as you move from left to right on the table, are all atoms in a period the same size? They are not, because of one key factor: As you move from left to right on the periodic table, the atomic nucleus gains more and more protons. (Well, it gains more neutrons too, but they won't matter in this situation.) The added protons are important here, because a proton has a positive charge. As this positive charge in the nucleus increases, it will increase the 'pull' of the outer electrons, because electrons have a negative charge. A very positive nucleus is going to pull in outer electrons more than a less positive nucleus. So if atoms have the same number of energy levels, the atom with the more positive nucleus (the one with more protons in it) is going to be smaller than the atom with fewer protons. This means that as you move from left to right across the same period on the periodic table, the atomic radius will decrease due to the increase in the number of protons pulling in those valence electrons located in the same energy level. As you move from left to right across the periodic table, the atomic radius decreases. Ionic Radii Now, what happens when an atom becomes an ion? Atoms become ions by either gaining or losing electrons. We go into more detail on what causes them to gain and lose electrons later, but it is important to know that if an atom gains electrons to form a negative ion, that ion will be larger than its atomic counterpart. For example, fluorine (F) is going to be smaller than fluoride (F-). On the other hand, for atoms that lose electrons to form a positive ion, that ion will be smaller than its atomic counterpart, because it has lost something. So sodium (Na) is going to be larger than sodium ion (Na+). Lesson Summary One really important thing to mention here is that these are just trends. As with many rules in chemistry, there are some exceptions. Don't worry about memorizing the exceptions, but do feel comfortable with explaining what the trend is and why. So to review, as you move from top to bottom in the same group, or column, on the periodic table, the atomic radius will increase, because new energy levels are needed to hold the electrons. These extra 'layers' provide a much larger atom. However, as you move from left to right in the same period, or row, on the periodic table, the atomic radius will generally decrease. Atoms will have the same number of energy levels, but the more positive protons in the nucleus will have a greater pull on the negative electrons, bringing them farther in. Learning Outcomes After watching this lesson, you should be able to: Explain how atomic radius is typically measured Compare atomic radii based on group and periodic trends Do you know someone who has undergone radiation as a form of cancer treatment? Have you ever thought about why X-rays have health risks? Watch the video to find out what these types of radiation are really doing to atoms, define ionization energy and identify ionization trends on the periodic table. Ionizing Energy Electrons move to farther energy levels the more energy an atom absorbs. One day you decided to climb a tree in your backyard. Maybe you were eight years old; maybe it was yesterday. Either way, you overestimated your climbing abilities, and just as you were reaching that top branch, you tumbled to the ground. A few painful hours later, you're in an X-ray room, covered in a lead apron, waiting for your arm to be X-rayed. Why did you have to wear that lead apron? What's all the fuss about X-rays? You couldn't feel them. They didn't hurt when the pictures were being taken. What were they doing to your arm? In this lesson, we're going to cover just what those X-rays were doing to the atoms in your arm and what makes X-rays potentially harmful. We're also going to expand this knowledge to the periodic table so we can use it to make predictions about atoms. The Electromagnetic Spectrum Earlier you learned that when an atom absorbs energy, its electrons move out to outer energy levels. The more energy an atom absorbs, the more energy the electron absorbs and the farther out it will go. I may have left you with an unanswered question, though, because I never did tell you what happens when an atom absorbs too much energy. I'm about to explain that, but first, let's start out by reviewing some of the forms of electromagnetic radiation - this is the source of the energy. Electromagnetic radiation is just a form of energy that travels through space. There are many different kinds that have different amounts of energies. For example, all visible light has a medium amount of energy, red light having the lowest and violet light having the highest. Electromagnetic radiation that has even more energy than violet light is ultraviolet (UV) light. You may know that UV light can be bad for you, but the reason is that it carries very high amounts of energy. Higher than UV is energy from X-rays, and even higher than that is radiation from gamma rays. Ionization The electromagnetic radiation spectrum So, what do all these forms of electromagnetic radiation do to atoms? The forms that have low energies just excite the electrons of atoms, which cause them to move out to higher energy levels, eventually falling back down and releasing energy. However, if too much energy is added to an atom, the electrons won't just go out to a higher energy level, they'll leave the atom altogether! That's it. Gone. So, just how much energy does it take to remove electrons from an atom? Well, that depends on the type of atom. This amount of energy is so important that it has a special name: ionization energy. Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom. The electron that is most likely to leave the atom first is the one that's the farthest out already, so when it becomes ionized, it is losing an outer electron. Because each atom is structured a little bit differently, each atom will have a different ionization energy. You won't need to memorize the specific amounts of energy for each atom, but you should be able to identify and explain ionization energy trends as you move down groups or across periods on the periodic table. Group Trends Remember, a group on the periodic table is just a column. We're first going to compare the ionization energies of atoms in the same column. To do this, I want you to imagine that an atom is a bank filled with security guards in the basement - these are going to be protons in the nucleus. The electrons will be represented as money located on different floors of the bank, which are our energy levels. Robbers are trying to steal this money, which would cause the bank to be ionized. Also, it should make sense that the easier something is, the less energy it takes to do it. So, we are going to determine how easy it will be for the robbers to steal the money from the bank or how easy it is to remove an electron from an atom. As you may know, as we move down a column on the periodic table, the atoms get larger because they have more energy levels (which are the floors of our bank). We also have more security guards (protons), but they're all the way in the basement (the nucleus), and they would really have trouble stopping a robber that landed on the roof and is trying to steal money from the top floor. So, the more floors the bank has, the easier it is for the robbers to steal the money from the top floor, because the security guards don't have as much control over the top floors as they do the ones closest to the basement. In chemistry terms, the bigger an atom is, the lower its ionization energy will be. As we move down a column on the periodic table, the atoms get bigger, so as you move down a group (or column) on the periodic table, the ionization energy decreases. This is because those protons are so far away from the outer electrons that their pull is very weak. Periodic Trends Next, we'll compare atoms across a period. Keep in mind that it is only when you move down a column that new energy levels (or floors) need to be added, so we are going to compare banks with the same number of floors but an increasing number of security guards. Which bank do you think will be most difficult to rob: one with two floors and four security guards or one with two floors and ten security guards? I think it would require much more energy to rob a bank with ten security guards than four. So, given the number of floors (energy levels) remains the same, the bank with the most security guards (protons) would be the most difficult to rob. In chemistry terms, given the same number of energy levels, the more protons an atom has, the higher its ionization energy will be, so as you move across a period on the periodic table, the ionization energy increases. Neon has a higher ionization energy than beryllium: neon has ten security guards in two floors, and beryllium only has four security guards in two floors. Ionization energy decreases when moving down groups; it increases across periods. The Effects of Ionizing Radiation Electromagnetic radiation that has the energy of ultraviolet light or higher (X-rays and gamma rays) is damaging to living tissues because it can cause the atoms to lose their electrons. Later on you'll learn that electrons are pretty much the 'glue' that holds bonds together. If bonds start losing electrons, they start breaking. If you have enough bonds that break, especially in DNA, mutations or even cell death can occur. This is both good and bad. DNA mutations from ionizing radiation can cause cancer. However, ionizing radiation can be used in very specific locations in the treatment of cancer by killing cancer cells. Lesson Summary The trends mentioned in this lesson are very general. There are always going to be exceptions here and there. Don't worry about memorizing the exceptions, but do feel comfortable with explaining what the trend is and why. So, to review: as you move from top to bottom in the same group or column on the periodic table, the ionization energy will decrease, meaning that it will become easier and easier to remove an atom's outer electron. This is because these electrons are being removed from farther and farther away from the nucleus as the atoms increase in size. As you move from left to right in the same period or row on the periodic table, the ionization energy will increase. This is because electrons are all located in the same energy levels, so elements with more protons (those on the right-hand side) will have a greater pull on those outer electrons, making it more difficult to remove them from atoms. Introduction When you hear the word 'bonding,' what comes to mind? Maybe you think of spending time with your family or going to a baseball game with your buddies. Now think back to when you were a kid, and you were bonding with your friends. At this age, you were probably taught to share your toys, and some of you may have been better at sharing than others. Atoms are no different. Electronegativity As you move down a group, the atomic radius increases. When atoms bond with each other to form molecules, they share their electrons. This sharing of electrons is really what creates the bond. Just like children sharing toys unequally, some atoms are going to be better at sharing electrons than others. Some will give up their electrons completely, some will share equally and some will not so much share but instead take other atoms' electrons completely. This unequal sharing of electrons in a bond is due to differences in electronegativity. Electronegativity is the ability an atom has to attract other electrons. Atoms that have high electronegativities will attract more electrons and may even steal from other atoms. Atoms with low electronegativities will share the most, sometimes to the point of losing their own electrons. Try to remember it this way: You maybe didn't want to play with the kid that took your toys because it brought about a negative feeling of losing something you liked. In 'atom speak,' these kids have a very high electronegativity. So, what makes one atom more electronegative than another? The answer lies in its atomic structure (of course), and just like several other properties of elements, the periodic table has distinct trends in electronegativity. Group Trends Just to review, groups on the periodic table are just columns. Let's compare atoms in Group 2: the alkaline earth metals. As you move down from beryllium to radium, what happens to the size of an atom? Well, the atomic radius increases as you move down a group because of the increase in the number and size of the energy levels, so the valence electrons in each atom are getting farther and farther away from the nucleus. The nucleus has quite an effect on pulling those negative electrons in with its positive charge. Electronegativity increases as you go across a period. So, which atoms do you think will more easily pull in electrons? Atoms that are tiny and have valence shells close to the nucleus or atoms that are large and have valence shells a great distance from the nucleus? Well, the closer to the nucleus electrons can get, the more pull that nucleus will have, so the smaller atoms are going to pull in electrons a lot more easily than the larger atoms. If you have ever held two magnets with the north end of one facing the south end of another, you may have felt this pull. The closer the two magnets got, the greater their attraction for each other. You may have had to use some muscles just to keep them apart. However, as you moved them away from each other, you stopped feeling that pull they had on each other. The same goes for protons and electrons. Yes, they are attracted, but the farther and farther away from the nucleus you get, the less that attraction is. So, as you move down a group on the periodic table, the electronegativity decreases, and atoms have a more difficult time attracting electrons. Periodic Trends Next, we're going to compare the electronegativities of elements in the same period. A period is a row on the periodic table. As you move across a row, you will find a similar trend in electronegativities as you did when you went down a column. Smaller atoms are going to have larger electronegativities. Keep in mind as you move across the table, the number of energy levels the electrons are in will stay the same, so the valence electrons will all be in the same energy level. However, the number of protons increases as you move across the table. Not only does this reduce the size of the atom (by pulling in the electrons it does have), but it attracts electrons from atoms bonded to it. Noble gases have the lowest electronegativity. So, as you move across a period on the periodic table, the electronegativity increases, and atoms tend to pull in electrons. There is one major exception, though. Remember the electron configurations of the noble gases on the far right of the table? Their electron configurations are completely full - helium has a full s orbital, neon and argon have full s and p orbitals, and so on. Because these elements have atoms with full electron shells, they do not need, nor do they want, any more electrons. If a noble gas were to get another electron, it would have to open a whole extra energy level just for that one electron, which would make it extremely unstable, and in chemistry, things move from unstable to stable, rarely the opposite. This would make fluorine the most electronegative element on the periodic table. Lesson Summary Remember, periodic trends are just trends. There is some variation here and there, but aside from knowing the noble gases 'break the rules' of electronegativity, don't worry about memorizing the exceptions. Do feel comfortable explaining what the group and periodic trends are and also the reason why the trends exist. So, as you move down a group on the periodic table, the electronegativity of an element decreases because the increased number of energy levels puts the outer electrons very far away from the pull of the nucleus. Electronegativity increases as you move from left to right across a period on the periodic table. This is because, even though there are the same number of energy levels, there are more positive protons in the nucleus, creating a stronger pull on the negative electrons in the outer shell. What may have once seemed like a bunch of random squares with letters in them is now shaping up to be one very organized chemistry reference. In this lesson you will discover three other trends that are found on the periodic table: the diagonal relationship, trends in metallic character, and trends in boiling point. Other Periodic Relationships With 118 different elements, the periodic table can be a bit overwhelming. The key to decoding this potpourri of letters and numbers is understanding how it is organized. Earlier, I deconstructed the periodic table by explaining several of the major relationships and trends among the elements and their positions on the table. This last segment will touch on a few more of these trends: the diagonal relationships and trends in the metallic character and boiling point. The Diagonal Relationship First, we are going to discuss the diagonal relationship. Remember those periodic trends - atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity? Usually, the trend moving down on the periodic table tended to be the exact opposite of the trend moving across. For example, the atomic radius tended to increase as you moved down a group and tended to decrease as you moved across a period. This opposition lends itself to a few diagonal relationships. For example, lithium and magnesium, beryllium and aluminum, and a few others will have similar atomic radii, similar ionization energies, and many other similar physical and chemical properties. Electrons in metals get excited easier, causing the energy to return as visible light or heat. Metallic Character Next we will examine the metallic character of different elements. When you hear the word metal, a few words or images should come to mind: shiny, silvery, good conductor of heat and electricity, and able to bend without cracking. What you may not know about metals is why they have all of these properties. Which subatomic particle do you think is responsible for the characteristics of metals? If you guessed electrons, then you are correct. Electrons can take most of the credit for the action in chemistry. So what about these electrons is causing metals to be so shiny and conductive? The key here is how attached those electrons are to the nucleus. The weaker the attraction, the more delocalized they are, meaning they don't feel a strong attraction to the nucleus and they're free to wander about. So if I have a hunk of copper, those nuclei may have a strong attraction to the inner electrons, but the outer ones - the valence electrons - are loosely held. What this means is they can move about throughout the hunk of copper as much as they please with very little resistance. This ability of electrons to move about is the reason why metals are so conductive of heat and electricity. After all, electricity is pretty much just moving electrons. Why, then, are metals shiny? Remember how light is produced? Energy in, electrons get excited, electrons 'fall' back down, and energy leaves. Well, because metals don't have a very strong 'hold' on their electrons, those electrons can get excited a lot easier. Even if I were to shine a dim light on a piece of aluminum, it has enough energy to excite the loosely bound electrons, and then they return that energy back. (Keep in mind, not all of it's returned in the form of visible light; some of it's converted to heat.) Elements become less metallic as you move to the right on the periodic table. Now that we have an understanding of what metallic character is and why it exists, we can make some sense of the trend in metallic properties of the elements. Elements that have a weaker hold on their electrons are going to have more metallic character. So metallic character decreases from left to right across a period and increases as you move down a group. The elements on the right - the nonmetals - have such a strong attraction to their electrons because of the greater numbers of protons in the nucleus pulling in the electrons that they are very dull and very poor conductors of heat and electricity. This is why they are often used as insulators. Boiling Point Finally, we will compare the boiling points of different elements. This is one of the strangest trends we have encountered. First of all, the boiling point of a substance is the temperature that a substance changes from the liquid phase to the gas phase. On the periodic table there is not as close of a trend for boiling points as there are for the other characteristics, but hopefully you know from your everyday experiences that metals (like iron, copper, and silver) are all solids at room temperature and they're going to have higher boiling points than the nonmetals (oxygen, hydrogen, and helium), which are all gases at room temperature. Generally, though, you will find that the boiling points will tend to increase and then decrease as you move from left to right across a period on the periodic table. The high point happens in the middle of the periodic table (in the tungsten area). Now, the group trends are quite a bit more obscure, with many exceptions, so we won't be covering those. Element boiling point changes on the periodic table Lesson Summary The last few periodic trends and relationships were discussed here. What it 'boils down to' is that elements diagonal (top left to bottom right) of each other are going to have similar features. Also, the metallic character (shininess and conductivity) of elements decreases from left to right across a period and increases from top to bottom down a group, and the boiling point does something strange: it increases and then decreases across the periodic table with very little predictable trend among the groups. One final but important disclaimer about all the periodic trends is that they are just generalizations. There are several exceptions. Hopefully after putting together everything you know about the periodic trends, that table of seemingly random squares should now look a little less intimidating and a little more inviting. Introduction The transition metals are found in groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table. You can thank the main group elements for a lot of things. They are the major elements found in living organisms (that's you). They make up most of the Earth, solar system and even universe! And they play important roles in industry and economics. So what are these elements and what are some of their features? Just like locations on a map, different areas of the periodic table have elements with different traits. In this lesson we are going to compare and contrast two of the largest areas on the periodic table: the main group elements and the transition metals. Both of these large regions have distinct features and qualities, but before we go into their characteristics, let's locate these regions on the table. First off, the main group elements consist of the first two columns (the hydrogen and beryllium columns) and the last six columns (the boron through helium columns). Using correct periodic table terminology, we would say these are elements found in groups 1, 2 and 13 through 18. The transition metals are found in groups 3 through 12. You may notice that we are leaving out that 'island' of elements down below. The top row of that island makes up the lanthanides and the bottom row makes up the actinides. We are leaving these out because they are neither main group elements nor transition metals. Main Group Elements The main group elements are by far the most abundant elements - not only on Earth, but in the entire universe. For this reason, they are sometimes called the 'representative elements.' The main group elements are found in the s- and p-blocks, meaning that their electron configurations are going to end in s or p. Remember the s- and p-blocks are responsible for providing the valence electrons, those super-important electrons that are involved in chemical bonding. Both the electron configurations and the number of valence electrons are very predictable as we move across the main group elements. Group 1 has elements with one valence electron, group 2 has elements with two, group 13 has elements with three valence electrons and so on to group 18, with eight valence electrons. Non-metallic gases, with the exception of the noble gases, tend to gain electrons. Let's use sodium as an example of how the main group elements are chemically predictable. Sodium, which has one valence electron, will almost always exist in one of two forms: its unstable, electrically neutral, metallic form (with the one valence electron), or in its stable, positively charged, ionic form (without that one valence electron). That's it. Just two forms of sodium. This predictability in the number of valence electrons creates predictability in chemical bonding - something you will be very thankful for later on. Who doesn't like a little consistency in chemistry? Aside from the predictability of bonding and their high abundances, these elements couldn't be more different from each other. Because the main group elements consist of both metals and nonmetals, their physical properties are going to be quite different. For example, elements on the left (in groups 1, 2 and 13) are going to be solid, very metallic and tend to lose electrons, whereas many of the elements on the right are non-metallic gases that will tend to gain electrons. Well, the full shells of the noble gases will cause them to not want to gain electrons, but the rest of the non-metals would like to. Transition Metals The transition metals are aptly named: they provide a bridge, or transition, between the main group metals and the nonmetals. They are all metals, and they are found in the d-block, meaning that their electron configurations are going to have unfilled d orbitals. These unfilled d orbitals make the elements much less predictable and consistent, which gives rise to some very interesting properties. Let's take chromium as an example. Chromium can come in many forms depending on what it's bonded with. First, it occurs in its original, neutral, metallic form. Sometimes it will lose one electron; sometimes it will lose two; sometimes three, four, five or even six electrons! And each of these forms is a different color, ranging from dark purple to bright yellow to bright red. The transition metals are by far the most colorful and attractive in their many different forms. Paperclips becoming temporarily magnetic after exposure to a magnet is an example of paramagnetism. Finally, those unfilled d orbitals of the transition metals cause them to have many paramagnetic properties. As you may know from experience, paperclips are not normally magnetic; if you pick up one of them, the rest don't come with (unless, of course, they're linked together). However, if you bring a magnet near a group of paperclips, you may notice that they will temporarily act magnetic. This is an example of paramagnetism, which is when an external magnetic field will induce a magnetic field on a substance. That induced magnetic field is weak and temporary, but it exists. Lesson Summary So is it better to be predictable and consistent or chameleon-like, coming in many forms and colors? You decide! The main group elements have distinct and specific trends in number of valence electrons, which leads to an overall predictability when it comes to chemical bonding (something that will come in handy later on down the road). They will exist as either neutral elements or stable ions, and if they do lose or gain electrons to achieve full outer shells, it will be a gain or loss of the same number of electrons every time (depending on what is needed for full s and p shells). Transition metals, on the other hand, can lose varying numbers of electrons - if they even lose any at all! These elements with partially filled d orbitals can exhibit extremely bright colors (depending on which form they are in), and some can become temporary magnets if they're surrounded by a magnetic field.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of human activities and their impact on global climate change. (

With over seven billion people on Earth, there's simply no way that humans can exist without impacting our surroundings. We have come a long way from our primitive ancestors, and with such evolutionary changes have come new tools and technologies, but also new ways in which we affect the ecosystems of Earth. Everything we do, make, or use comes from nature in one way or another. We cut down trees so we can build houses of wood. We remove water from lakes and aquifers for drinking and cleaning. We extract oil, coal, and natural gas from deep underground to power our cars, cell phones, and computers. And we fulfill our dietary needs with both wild and farmed plants and animals. The use of all these resources is not without consequence. We are very good at utilizing Earth's resources for our own benefit, sometimes too good in fact! Through various means we have altered, destroyed, and even reconstructed ecosystems and habitats all over the globe. And since everything on Earth is connected to everything else, the effects of our actions often go beyond what we initially see. Global Climate Change You have probably heard about climate change because this is a hot topic right now for environmentalists, politicians, business, and even homeowners. There is much scientific evidence showing that Earth's climate is changing at an unprecedented rate. Global temperatures are rising, storms are becoming more frequent and intense, the glaciers and polar ice caps are melting, and species extinction rates are on the rise. While these are all natural processes, much of the change that we are currently observing is due to human activity. For example, emissions from cars, planes, and power plants put large amounts of greenhouse gases into the air. When present in the right amounts, greenhouse gases are beneficial because they trap heat under the atmosphere and keep Earth warm enough to sustain life. However, in the past century, greenhouse gas emissions have risen to extraordinary levels in the atmosphere. The problem with this is that the current concentrations are far too high and are trapping too much heat on Earth. This leads to an overall increase in the temperature of the planet, which affects many other components of our global climate system. This creates issues for Earth's living organisms because each is adapted to a certain range of environmental conditions. Climate change isn't just temperature change - it involves precipitation, drought, atmospheric conditions, and more, and all of these affect the survival of plants and animals on Earth. Habitat Loss The human population continues to grow, but Earth can only hold so many people. There is a finite amount of available natural resources for our use and only so much land we can inhabit. But there are billions of other organisms that we need to share these resources and land with as well. We build new homes, cities, and roads to accommodate the growing number of people living on our planet, all of which require consumption of natural resources. Unfortunately, this human alteration of habitats poses the single greatest threat to biodiversity on Earth. Farming, development, deforestation, mining, and environmental pollutants are extremely destructive to natural habitats. Roads are often built without consideration to wildlife, and they tend to break or fragment larger contiguous habitats into smaller disconnected ones. Aquatic habitats are also at risk. Dams along rivers alter the natural hydrology, which can do great damage to surrounding wetland and other freshwater ecosystems. Marine habitat loss is on the rise due to increasing development along coastal areas, and oil spills and ocean cargo accidents create an enormous amount of dangerous pollution and garbage in our seas. Overharvesting Another issue with our use of natural resources is that we consume much more than we actually need. This is especially true for industrialized nations. This also poses a threat to our natural environment because we harvest organisms and resources faster than their populations can recover, an issue called overharvesting. Many of the world's imperiled animal species are at risk because of overharvesting. Sometimes this activity is legal, while at other times it is from illegal poaching of such animals as elephants, rhinoceroses, and tigers. Fisheries all over the globe are collapsing because of overharvesting, and this affects both ecological biodiversity and human livelihoods. A large portion of the world's population depends on these fisheries for their diets, but we are now having to go farther offshore and search greater depths to collect our bounty. Plant species are also suffering from overharvesting. Forests are being cleared at an alarming rate, often for agricultural or grazing purposes. Some of the trees in these forests are hundreds of years old and will not regenerate even within your lifetime. Forests provide habitat for numerous animals, prevent soil erosion, and take in carbon dioxide, which is one of those potentially harmful greenhouse gases mentioned earlier. As you can see, this type of destruction has many different impacts on the environment, some of which we may not even know yet. Lesson Summary With so many people on the planet, it's impossible for us not to leave our mark on it. Unfortunately, our impact often has harmful consequences to the environment around us. We're using natural resources faster than they can regenerate, which impacts global habitats, plant and animal species, and oceanic and atmospheric conditions. The changes we are instilling on the natural world are occurring at an unprecedented rate, which in turn affects us as well. By over utilizing the resources we need for basic food and shelter requirements, we're putting ourselves in a precarious position. What will the world be like for future generations? And, will there be enough resources available to meet their basic needs?

scientific method

***** read chapter 5 scientific method 1. Understand scientific practices. (SMR 1.1) a. Demonstrate knowledge of how to ask questions that can be addressed by scientific investigation, help further understanding of observed phenomena, and help clarify scientific explanations and relationships. · Science as questions about events, real answers, are testable, and can be show to be false or have a no answer · Asking questions in engineering begin with problem, they want to solve the problem. Thye also want to make things better. · Science questions such as : what bubble is the biggest. Engineer Q: how can I make the the washing machine intake more water b. Apply knowledge of the development of important scientific ideas and models over time and of how history shows that evaluating a model's merits and limitations leads to its improvement. · Models : help develop the questions or generate or analyza date; based on date or evidence collected. Can be used to help communicate, display data, (eg: bar graph, pie, line graphs (track change over time), maps ( represent geographir date); tables ( compare individual values, or require numbers); charts ( represent relationship like food web). o Scientist create models because world is complex, Impossible to isolate one factor. Ex: study how children grow so factor out all factors but nutrition on one study o Model can include diagram o In engineer used tosee how system are working , how improve, test ideas, to come up with solution. To see if it works and how to improve. Another example, when use wind tunner to test aerodynamics of cars, this is for engineer c. Apply knowledge of planning and conducting scientific investigations, including safety considerations and the use of appropriate tools and technology. Teache prpe: · Planning and carrying out investigation o After developing questions, next step is to design the investigation. Think about the following : § What kind of date are you going to collect? What instruments you are going to use?how many trials will you do?what are variables? What are controls? o Vocabulary § Experimental group: group subject group is tested ( ex: test plant height ) § Control group: group gets tested, but don't actually test hypothesis. Placebo § Hypotheseis : educated guess, and if then statement, § Dependent variable: variable that is measured and tested (measure plant height) § Independent variable: controlled or changed in experiment ( testing diffren doses of fertilizer ex) § Repeated traisl : how many times experiment don't § Control : experimental used for comparison only ( plant don't add fertilizer ) § Constant: everything kept the same ( light is kept the same ex) o Investigation generate data and provide answer, should be, answer can be no d. Apply modeling and the mathematical concepts of statistics and probability to the analysis and interpretation of data, including analysis of errors and their origins e. Demonstrate the ability to analyze scientific data and information and draw appropriate and logical conclusions. · Analyzing and interpreting data o Once collect date, you need organize it, organize it ( table , graph ect) o Analysis includes Using mathematics and computation thinking that need to be done on the data § Mathematical computations also include using statistics and probability to determine if you data is signification § Scientist also analyze if any errors were made and if so, determining where the errors might have come from ( outliers can disrupt test,was error made? f. Use mathematics (e.g., dimensional analysis, statistics, proportional thinking) and computational thinking to represent and solve scientific problems and to assess scientific simulations. · Using mathematics and computataion thinking § Qualitative : saw, color , smell * Quantitative : number. You can see prediction. § Large date set analyzed with computer ( computation thinking) § Engineer use math to analyze the date and improve the design , usually use computer § Mean average,standad deviation ( how spread out number are ); mode ( most often);mediam ( mediuam number in numerical order )range is the diffren between g. Demonstrate the ability to construct and analyze scientific explanations · Constructing explanation and designing solutions Final step of experiment. it is to explain data, it should answer questions h. Demonstrate the ability to evaluate scientific arguments in terms of their supporting evidence and reasoning. Engaging in argument from evidence i. Argument used help compare ideas and method j. Important that evidence supports argument. (data support argument ) k. Demonstrate knowledge of the ability to obtain, evaluate, interpret, and communicate scientific information (e.g., determining central ideas, integrating information from multiple sources, evaluating the validity of claims, using multiple formats to communicate scientific results). 2. Communication information a. Must be communicated to advance science so experiment don't get repeated. b. By publish peer review journal, conferences, present at university 3. Understand engineering practices, design, and applications. a. Apply knowledge of engineering practices to define problems, determine specifications of designed systems, and identify constraints. b. Evaluate design solutions in terms of their scientific and engineering constraints and the environmental, social, and cultural impacts of these solutions. · v Design Solutions and the Environmental, Social and Cultural Impacts of Them o Science can be good and bad ( atomic bomb) c. Apply knowledge of the roles of models (e.g., mathematical, physical, computer simulations) in the engineering design process. d. Demonstrate knowledge of the process used to optimize a design solution (e.g., prioritizing criteria, refining a design due to test results). · Optimizing a Design Solution o Engineer must optimize their design and identify what variables are relevant and how they will collect it ; also prioritize it o Ex: engineer must considere wind, water, when buildingbridet. o Range of solutions present themselves. So define problem, develop solution, and optimize the design or optimize solution e. Apply knowledge of the interdependence of science, engineering, and technology (e.g., in agriculture, health care, and communications). · Interdependence of Science, Technology and Engineering o Enginnerin and techonolig advcen led to new scientific discover § Ex: hubble space telescope Ex : Electron microscope to see macromolecules and viruses f. Demonstrate knowledge of the influence of engineering, technology, and science on society and the natural world (e.g., in land use, transportation, and energy production). · Influence of Engineering, Technology & Science on Society and the Natural World o Positive : organ transplate o Genetic engineering allows grow plants resist pest, decreases amount pesticide, o Gas power car (bad gas pollution, leads acid rain, which bad for amphibians o Wind terminds make green energy, but they kill bats and birds. Turbulence create microclimates , changes population of organic. So there are unintended consequences of new technoligy 4. Understand crosscutting concepts among the sciences and engineering. a. Apply knowledge of patterns characteristic of natural phenomena and engineered systems. 5. Patterns a. Patters allow us to ask questions. (ex : leaves from tree fall, so we ask why do they fall? )(engineer why is the water pressure high sometimes , but no all the time, )We Look at pattern to see what is happening b. Placing data ain maps, grapes, ect. Help see possible errores in our experiments c. Ex: know elements periodic table d. Taxonomy order: makes patter of species, genrea,ect. b. Analyze cause-and-effect relationships and their mechanisms in natural phenomena and engineered systems. Teacher prep: · Cause and Effect: Mechanism and Explanation o Helps understand relationships ( ex: shaking hands cause, effect catching diseas) o Applies to structure and function. Understand struction lead to function. (ex: enzyme shaped to fine one substrate or active site ) o Bicylces ( engineering ) o In engineer, understanding what is causing the problem with design can help understand the effect on the problem (cause : light burned up effect: cant see anything ) c. Apply knowledge of the concepts of scale, proportion, and quantity to describe and compare natural and engineered systems. · Scale, Proportion and Quantity o Scale involved time, size, energy, measurement . such as all matter in universe use to be compacted, hard tograpse o Quantity: how much there are. Lets compare things and proportional relationships. Lets us grasp different between numbers. o Understand sense of scale. Example , engineer understand size of bridge, and what size and weight will do the earth. o Ex: more changes if look at last billion years vs last year d. Apply knowledge of how systems are defined and studied and of how system models are used to make predictions. e. Apply knowledge of the flow, cycling, and conservation of energy and matter to analyze natural and engineered systems. f. Analyze the relationship between structure and function in natural and engineered systems. g. Analyze the factors contributing to stability and change in systems (e.g., static and dynamic equilibrium, feedback) and the rates at which systems change. · Stability and Change. Total amount of energy and matter is a closed system conserved, and its cycle through. There are many cycles in the natural world, such as rock cycle. Ect. · System is often unchanging while its being observed, but will change over time. Ex: dead tree, years later, dead tree is turned to sod dust .system change over larger periods of time. · Checks and balanced to keep population the same (fox eat rabbit )( · Dynamic equilibrium : changing yet balanced state, which requires continuous adjustments in order to maintain stability. Translational and rotational velocityes exist but are constant. Net force is still zero. (object not accelerating; car moving 100 m/s, so force is the same zero, object falling ) · Static equilibrium- where demand and supply are the same, where all forces on equal to zero. ( object is stationary, translation and rotation velocity are zero, no net force acting) (example : box placed on table;tight rope ) · Not in equilibrium : net force is not zero. Translational or rotation exist, and velocity is changing not constant . · Feedback loops- output of something is used for input. Example : population growth of society

in a paralle circuit, what hapens to valtage in paralle loops?wha happens to current? in a series circuit, the voltage drop different across each components, current is ....?

- Parallel circuit: voltage the same across parallel loops, current different: total current in the circuit is the sum of the current in each parallel loop, more current flows through the path with the lower resistor Series circuit: voltage drop different across each component, current is the same throughout

4b a. Differentiate between atoms and their isotopes, ions, molecules, elements, and compounds.

Atoms- these are the smallest particle that represents an element. Smallest part of a substance that exists and retains the properties of a substance. classified by their number of protons (atomic number). Two atoms with different number of protons are considered different elements Elements is a substance that cannot be broken down through chemical reactions. There are over 100 known elements. Most are solids or gases at room temperature are pure substances consisting of only one type of atom ex: carbon,hydrogen,ect.Elements are divided into metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. Atoms tend to gain or lose electrons to achieve full valence shell ,and then become ions An ion is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons and therefore has a negative or positive charge. A cation loose electron, positive charge. An anion gains electron,becomes - charged Atoms prefer to have full shell of electrons. atoms bond with other atoms to gain electrons mass Number (A)- this is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Atomic Number (Z)- this is the number of protons, in a nucleus. Atomic Number (N)- Number of neutrons calculated by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number. Atomic Weight- total number of particles in an atom's nucleus. When two or more atoms are held together by a covalent bond, they form a molecule. Molecules- a single particle composed of nonmetal atoms. Held together by covalent bonds and share valence electrons. For examples, water is composed of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. (If a metal is attracted to a nonmetal, they are called Ionics and are held together through ionic bonding. They have strong bonds, and thus have high melting point in order to break the bonds. Able to conduct electricity. A compound is a substance made of two or more elements. two or more elements bonded together. A compound has different physical and chemical property from the element it is made out of. Compounds are difficult to split and can only be taken apart into their elements through chemical reactions or electrolysis. Binary compounds are composed of two elements only. For example, CO (carbon monoxide) is made up of only carbon and oxygen. Ionic bond is opposite: one looses electrons or another donates, so each one has a different charge and the charge holds them together ex: NaCl is not considered a molecule ,it is by ionic bond not covalent bond.so NaCl is a coumpound , but not a molecule!!! Different forms of the same atom exist in nature . The atomic mass found on the periodic table is the average of the mass number of the naturally occurring isotopeterm-97s. Each isotope has a different atomic mass.isotopes have same number of protons, but have extra mass due to additional neutrons so higher mass. Atoms with differing number of neutrons will affect the mass number (protons and neutrons). Thus, different isotopes of a given element will have different mass number. Different isotopes with different number of neutrons have the same chemical properties. To find the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an isotope: First- find the atomic number of the element and mass number (sum of protons and neutrons) of the isotope. The mass number is usually written right after the name of the element. Second- to find the number of protons-- the atomic number is the number of protons in an element. Third- to find the number of electrons-- if the atom has a neutral charge, then you must have an equal number of protons and electrons. If the atom has a negative charge, then you will have more electrons than protons. An atom with a positive charge will have fewer electrons than protons. Protons- total charge=electrons.Fourth- to find the number of neutrons-- take the mass number and subtract the number of protons to find the neutrons. Certain isotopes are radiactive and break down over time. We use radioactive isotopes for radiometric dating. Ex: Half life is the time it takes for the half of the C14 to turn to C12 , compare ratios to ration of C14 ,C12 ect. This can be applied to more things,carbon dating helps with that. Taks C14 50000 years to go back to carbon C12. Other isotpes have longer half lifes, so we can date rocks in sedimatery areas, using radiometric dating. Possible test scenario: They tell you Nitrogen autonomic number 7. How many electrons? How many protons? How many netrons? How many valence electrons? P=7; N=7,total E-7. First shell 2 e, second shell has 5 electros Example : calcium ion atomic number 20. So ....20 protons, 20 neutrons. Electrons ( 2,8,8,2 (gives up)), so has 18 electrons, so would have 8 valence electrons Example test : Carbon 14 atonic number 6. Answer : : we know has different number neutrons we know this because regular carbon is carbon 12. This is isotope. 6 of 14 are protons. So must have 8 neutrons, so 6 electrons ( number of electrons=number protons), how many valence ? 4 are valence electrons. Test oxygen ion 8 atomic number. ? again ion means there is difference in number of electrons and protons. 8 protons, so assume 8 neturons ( not isotope). Valance electrons is 6 , since it's a ion it rather loose of gain electrons, so it gains 2 electrons, so total 8 valance electronsl. Some compounds are molecules , others are not :Examples: water, co2,The isotopes Carbon 12 and Carbon 14 are both isotopes of Carbon (atomic number 6). Carbon 12 Number of protons is its atomic number, so it has 6 protonsNumber of electrons is the same as protons, so it has 6 electronsNumber of neutrons--> mass number - protons=> 12-6=6, 6 neutrons Carbon 14 Number of protons is 6Number of electrons is 6Number of neutrons is 8 (14-6)

a) Demonstrate knowledge of possible solutions for minimizing human impact on ecosystem resources and biodiversity. What is biodiversite? what are the 3 types of biodiversity? what is species diversity? what is genetic diversity/ what is ecological diversity? what is ecosystem stability ?

What Is Biodiversity? Did you know there are more than 10,000 species of birds, 200,000 species of flowering plants and almost one million species of insects in the world? The number of species identified has increased substantially in recent years, and there are over 1.5 million species currently known. Although this number might seem large, it is thought that this number is actually only a fraction of the number of species that exist today. New species are being identified every day, and it is estimated that there are anywhere between three and fifty million different species living on Earth. When discussing the number of species on earth, the term biodiversity is often mentioned. Biodiversity, also known as biological diversity, is the variety of life on Earth across all of the different levels of biological organization. On a smaller scale, biodiversity can be used to describe the variety in the genetic makeup of a species, and on a larger scale, it can be used to describe the variety of ecosystem types. Types of Biodiversity Biodiversity is a very broad term and is often divided into three types. The first type of biodiversity is species diversity, and this is the type of biodiversity most people are familiar with. Species diversity is defined as the number and abundance of different species that occupy a location. To accurately determine species diversity, both the species richness, which is the number of different species, and the relative abundance, which is the number of individuals within each species, must be considered. An example of species diversity would be the number and abundance of different types of mammals in a forest. The second type of biodiversity is genetic diversity. Genetic diversity is the amount of variation in genetic material within a species or within a population. There is a high level of diversity among species, but there is an even higher level of diversity among the genetic material of the individuals of a specific species. An example of genetic diversity is the variation in the genes that encode for hair color in humans. The third type of biodiversity is ecological diversity, and this is the variation in the ecosystems found in a region or the variation in ecosystems over the whole planet. Ecological diversity includes the variation in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Ecological diversity can also take into account the variation in the complexity of a biological community, including the number of different niches, the number of trophic levels and other ecological processes. An example of ecological diversity on a global scale would be the variation in ecosystems, such as deserts, forests, grasslands, wetlands and oceans. Ecological diversity is the largest scale of biodiversity, and within each ecosystem, there is a great deal of both species and genetic diversity. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability Now that you know what biodiversity is, why do you think it might be important? Biodiversity is important not only for the variety of beautiful and interesting species it offers us, but it is also very important (and vital) to the stability of an ecosystem and our entire planet. Ecosystem stability is the ability of an ecosystem to maintain a steady state, even after a stress or disturbance has occurred. In order for an ecosystem to be considered stable, it needs to have mechanisms in place that help it return to its original state after a disturbance occurs. It has been shown that biodiversity of an area has a large impact on the ecosystem stability of that area. Areas with high levels of species and genetic diversity are likely to have a more complex ecosystem, with a variety of food webs and biotic interactions. This increase in complexity makes it more likely that the ecosystem will return to a stable state after a disturbance, because the ecosystem has more ways to respond to a disturbance and fix problems. For example, let's examine how two imaginary ecosystems with variations in biodiversity might respond to the same disturbance. The first ecosystem has only three species of trees, and the second ecosystem has over 30 species of trees. Now imagine both of these ecosystems are in a region that has just experienced a large fire. In the ecosystem with the higher level of species diversity, you would expect that the ecosystem would recover more quickly after the fire. This is because the larger amount of diversity makes it more likely that some of the species are better adapted for fires and can recover more quickly. In the ecosystem with the lower species diversity, you are relying on only three different species to repopulate the area. If any of these species are not adapted to recover from fire, the ecosystem will have a harder time returning to a steady state after the disturbance, due to the lack of diversity. Lesson Summary With over 1.5 million species already identified and potentially millions more awaiting discovery, our planet is a very diverse and mysterious place. Due to the large number of species found on earth, there is a great deal of diversity. Biodiversity is the term used to describe the variety of life on earth across all of the different levels of biological organization. Biodiversity is often divided into three types, including species diversity, genetic diversity and ecological diversity. Species diversity is the number and abundance of species that occupy a location. Genetic diversity is the amount of variation in genetic material within a species or within a population. The third type of biodiversity is ecological diversity, and that is the variation in the ecosystems found in a region or the variation in ecosystems over the whole planet. Overall, biodiversity is very important, because it helps maintain ecosystem stability, which is the ability of an ecosystem to maintain a steady state, even after a stress or disturbance has occurred. With higher levels of biodiversity, ecosystems are more likely to recover after a disturbance, because their increased complexity gives them more opportunities and methods for recovering. Our planet is always changing, and it is important to maintain a high level of biodiversity throughout the whole planet, because it will make it more possible for species and ecosystems to adapt to, and survive, dramatic environmental changes of the future.

7. draw a concave lens vs convex lens? where are lenses found.?

lenses are found in the ye,e microscope, telescome, camera and glasses. lens tarnsits and refract light either convergently or divergently. covex curv outward, concave curves inward.

7f. DIFFUSE VS. specular reflection. how does does our eye work with receiving light ? what are rods vs cones ?how can we see yellow?

- diffuse reflection: light reflects in many directions - specular reflection = light mostly emerges in one direction (ex: mirror) - an object can reflect in both a specular and diffuse way at once - eye is sensitive to range of "400nm (4 x 10-7) to 700 nm - we only see things that send light into our eyes, NOT the light itself - light enters through the cornea à cornea focuses the light and passes it though the pupil à lens re-focuses light that come through the pupil à projects focused image on retina àcells in retina à optic nerve - Rods = most numerous (100 million +), spread out over a larger area of retina, most sensitive to low light levels, black and white vision - Cones = 6-7 million, sensitive to color (red, green, blue), concentrated on macula - How can we see yellow: cell gets input from green and red cones à output signal indicates yellow

crb vs lipids, vs proteins vs nucleic acids, summary

. Macromolecules are polymers which are molecules built by linking together a large number of small, similar chemical subunits. For example, complex carbohydrates are polymers of simple ring-shaped sugars. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleotides. Macromolecules are grouped into four major categories: carbs, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates- made up of one simple subunit called monosaccharide which are then joined together to form disaccharides (sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (cellulose and starch). Carbs are comprised of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with a ration of 1:2:1. Carbohydrates are essential for energy storage and structural support. Lipids- made up of glycerol, fatty acids, phosphate, long carbon chains, etc. This is a group of esters including fats and waxes found in living tissue. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. The most familiar lipids are fats and oils. They have a very high proportion of nonpolar carbon-hydrogen bonds, as a result these long-chain lipids cannot fold up like a protein. When placed in water, many lipid molecules will cluster together and expose the polar groups to the surrounding water while hiding away the nonpolar parts of the molecules together within this cluster. This setup is very important to cells as it underlies the structor of cellular membranes. Lipids are a source of energy, chemical messengers, insulation and crucial elements of membranes. Proteins- subunit are amino acids, joined together in a peptide chain. There are only 20 amino acids, each with a Hydrogen, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group (composed of varying molecules). Provides structure, catalyst in biological systems, provides support, movement, growth, and repair. Nucleic acids- subunits are nucleotides. Two different acids called DNA and RNA that are found in the cells' nuclei (RNA is also found in the cytoplasm). There are five nitrogenous basis: adenine, guanine, uracil (found only in the RNA), thymine (found only in the DNA), and cytosine. There are three components: a five carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous group. The nucleic acid is comprised of chains of 5-carbon sugars that is linked by phosphate bond, which an organic base protruding from each sugar. If the sugar is deoxyribose, then the polymer is a DNA, and if the sugar is a ribose, then the polymer is a RNA. Nucleic acids carry the genetic code in DNA and RNA. Their function is to encode genes and gene expression.

11 . a. Demonstrate knowledge of the importance of mitosis and meiosis as processes of cellular and organismal reproduction. Descbrine or digram process of Interphase, mitosis,cytokeneis, in terms of when does cell division occure? When does the nucleus divide? when do the chromosomse replicate? when the the CELL actual divide?

1. INTERPHASE ( G1, s, G2 ) 2. MItosis 3. Cytokenesis -Cytokinesis occurs during the end of M-phase. Cytokinesis ( not considered part of mitosis ) often begins at the same time.

10 b. Recognize and differentiate the structure and function of molecules in living organisms, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. What are carbohydrates, what are they made of ? what are the three types of carbohydrates? what is a simple sugar, aka, give and example? why are carbs important for celluar respirniation? The carbons in carbohydrates are important why? lactose is a type of ? what are disacchardies, ? how are tehy fromed ? example if disacchardie? what are polysachardies ? what is the function of cellulose and glycogen? what are these substances? why are oligosachardies importnat ? how do carbs relate to DNA AND and rna? how do carbs relate to enzymes ? what are the simple units of carbs? what are example of disacchardies, example of polysacchards? carbs are made of what elements , what is their ration? carbohydrates are essential for ?

2. CARBOHYDRATES § Carbohydrates are sugars. They have the same ring shape as the steroids but they have a hydroxy OH group in the middle § The simples sugar, monosachardies, have multiple of the formula CH2O. · Ex glucose is C6H12O6 § CARBOHYDRATES provide the energy for cellular respiration The carbons in carbohydrates can also be used as raw materials to make amino acids and fatty acids. lactose is milk sugar.things that end in OSEtend ot be sacchardies ,or sugars. Different types of sugars § Disaccharides are two monosaccharides joind together by a covalent bond that formed by a dehydration reacton ( forms water as product) · Ex sucrose ( table sugar) § Polysaccharides are two or more monosaccharides joind together in the same way · Cellulose in plant cell wall and glycoven ( food reservies found in liver ) For example, cellulose is structural sugar in cell walls. There are structureal carbohydrate. cellulose is a polysacchardie Glycogen is food reserved stored in liver, that is also a saccharide. Oligosacharides appear in cell membrances, can be used for cell to cell recognition. So there are lots of carb for different purposes. Sugars in DNA, deoxyribose, Ribos in RNA . coenzymes use carbs Carbohydrates- made up of one simple subunit called monosaccharide which are then joined together to form disaccharides (sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (cellulose and starch). Carbs are comprised of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with a ration of 1:2:1. Carbohydrates are essential for energy storage and structural support.

7h Demonstrate knowledge of how energy and information are transferred by waves without mass transfer, including recognizing technology that employ this phenomenon.

: All waves transport energy without permanently displacing the medium through which they are travel. Instead, waves travel through oscillations or vibrations around fixed locations. For example, a boat resting on a lake or ocean is bobbing up and down as the waves travel, but the boat stays primarily in the same location. This is how the matter itself is. The matter stays primarily in the same location as the particles vibrates or oscillate through the medium.electromagnetic waves, energy is transferred through vibrations of electric and magnetic fields. In sound waves, energy is transferred through vibration of air particles or particles of a solid through which the sound travels. In water waves, energy is transferred through the vibration of the water particles. Microwave heat food. X rays for health.xrays to check craks in structures.

9 E. Interpret simple series and parallel circuits. a simple circuit consist of what three elements?

A simple circuit consists of three elements: a source of electricity (such as a battery), a path or conductor for electricity (electrons) to flow through (such as a wire), and an electrical resistor (such as a light bulb).

4. Understand structure and properties of matter. (SMR 2.1) a. Analyze the basic substructure of an atom (i.e., protons, neutrons, and electrons).

Atom is smallest unit of an element made of there parts. The nucleus is tiny and has very high density. Surrounding the nucleus are the electrons. This electron cloud (an informal term) constitutes most of the volume of the atom. Basic components Proton is positive charge, found in nucleus. ,mass of 1 positive charge, the number of protons identifies the element and equals the number of electrons, so atoms are electrically neutral.. P+, +1 charge. Relative mass : -1. Electron - found moving outside of nucleus not as massive as other,Moves around the nucleus in electron shells. negative charge -1.Relative mass 1/1836. Neutron no charge, in nucleus, mass of 1. Symbol n0. Charge : 0. number of neutrons can vary (isotopes) .Neutral atoms, there are the same number of protons as electron which balanced the electrical charge Electrons organized into shells First shell has 2 electrons Second shell can have up to 8 electrons Third shell can have up to 8 electrons Electron Shells- this is the region of space around the nucleus. The further away the shell is from the nucleus, the higher the energy of its electrons. If the very last shell, called outer shell, is full or has 8 electrons (octet), then the atom is stable.Each shell consists of orbital, or probability clouds. The positions of electrons cannot be exactly determined at any one time. The outer shell is called valence shell. Atoms with full valence shell are highly stable

7d. Apply knowledge of electromagnetic radiation, including analyzing evidence that supports the wave and particle models that explain the properties of electromagnetic radiation

Diffraction occurs when there is bending of plane waves as they pass through slit or a corner. Scientists have known for a long time that light exhibits wavelike behaviors. Many of the things that light does are only explained sufficiently by thinking of light as a wave. Refraction and diffraction are two examples. Light refracts when it travels from one medium to another, because waves travel at different speeds through different media. In a similar way, light diffracts when it travels between or around objects, because obstacles make the light waves bend. So, obviously we're not wrong about light behaving like a wave. We even use the wave diffraction of light by reading interference patterns in X-ray crystallography. If you need more evidence that light acts like a wave, just think about the Doppler effect and how it affects our perception of light. When astronomers observe distant galaxies, they notice a blue shift in the galaxies moving toward us and a red shift in the galaxies moving further away. The apparent change in light frequency is due to the way motion affects the traveling waves. Waves on the front end of a moving object get bunched together. Waves on the tail end of a moving object get spread apart. We already know the Doppler effect occurs in sound, and sound is definitely a wave. So if the Doppler effect occurs in light, then light has to be a wave too, right? Evidence for Light as a Particle Scientists began questioning the wavelike nature of light when they first discovered the photoelectric effect, which describes the way electrons are excited and emitted from matter when they absorb the energy from light. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz observed that a charged object would create a bigger, faster spark if it was treated with ultraviolet light because the light was actually exciting the electrons. Further studies by other scientists showed that electrons really could be knocked out of a metal in response to a beam of light. For a while, scientists thought that the electrons were just absorbing the energy in the light wave and then using that energy to jump out of the metal. The more energy the electrons could absorb, the more energy they could use to jump out. But, it turned out it wasn't that simple. Light excites electrons, which causes them to jump out of a piece of metal Scientists tried increasing the intensity of the lights on the metal. They figured that a greater light intensity would give more energy to the electrons, making them jump from the metal to a higher energy level, but that didn't happen at all! Instead, the electrons were emitted at the same energy level as before; there were just more of them. Scientists realized they were wrong about their theory. If light was really a wave, then the energy of the electrons should have increased, not the number. The electrons were not absorbing energy in a way that matched our wave theory of light. So, if light wasn't really a wave, then what could it be? Albert Einstein thought up a good solution to this problem. In 1905, he suggested that we should sometimes think of light as a particle, instead of a wave. He said that if we imagine light to exist in little packets of energy, then all of our observations make a lot more sense. Think of that beam of light as though it were a stream of tiny energy packets. Each packet has a mass of zero, so it doesn't weigh anything. Each packet contains a certain amount of energy, which it can transfer to the electrons when it strikes the metal. Einstein called these packets light quanta, but now we call them photons. A photon is a nearly massless particle carrying a small amount of energy. We use photons to quantify, or measure the amount of, the energy in light and other electromagnetic waves. Each photon can excite only one electron at a time. When the intensity of light is increased, then the number of photons is increased, so a higher number of electrons are knocked loose from the metal. The energy of the electrons doesn't change because the energy of each photon is still the same. Einstein's revolutionary idea about photons wasn't really confirmed for many more decades. But nowadays, photons are a major component of how we study light and subatomic particles. Einstein suggested that light sometimes acts like a stream of particles or photons Wave-Particle Duality So, photons are fine for describing light when it comes to small-scale behaviors like the photoelectric effect. Maybe light really does exist as a stream of massless particles. But, what about all those wave behaviors we talked about? Refraction, diffraction and the Doppler effect don't make sense if you think of light in terms of photons. They only make sense in terms of waves. What's a scientist to do with all this conflicting evidence? Louis de Broglie came to the rescue in 1924. He theorized that every moving particle exhibits properties of a wave. This was later called the de Broglie hypothesis, but it's generally referred to as the theory of wave-particle duality. Wave-particle duality means that all matter has properties of both particles and waves. So, we can think of light as a wave sometimes and as a stream of particles, or photons, at other times. But, it's not only light that gets the fun of being both a particle and a wave. Duality theory applies to bigger things like electrons, atoms and molecules. It may even apply to objects as large as bacteria! So, by saying that all matter includes both wave and particle properties, de Broglie basically took two competing theories and rolled them into one. Wave-particle duality is still a theory that doesn't quite explain everything in physics. Scientists are still working out the kinks, and it may be that someday we change our minds about the theory. But for now, most scientists agree that de Broglie's hypothesis sufficiently explains the observations we have made about waves, photons and electrons. All matter can be described in terms of particles and in terms of waves. Light behaves most obviously as a wave, but there are some instances where it acts like a stream of particles in the form of photons. Visible light and other types of electromagnetic radiation are usually described as waves. Refraction, diffraction and the Doppler effect are all behaviors of light that can only be explained by wave mechanics.in the doppler effect, the observer who moves toward the oncoming sound wave will perceive a higher frequency of wave . moving a away would be lower frequency. red The wave theory of light was challenged when scientists discovered the photoelectric effect. Light was observed to excite the electrons in metal, so that the number of electrons was proportional to the number of light quanta, or photons. This suggested that light was really a stream of particles, not a wave. Today, scientists embrace the theory of wave-particle duality, which means that all matter has properties of both particles and waves. The theory has been proven for light and subatomic particles, but we're still working out the details when it comes to larger objects. electromagnetic radiation can be drawon to see the oscilating electric field and a perpendicular magnetic field. Y axis is amplittue and x axis I distance. its the same scenario, the wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional , the shorter the waveleghth the hight there frequency. this relationship reflects and important fact, all electromagentic radiation, regardless of wavelength or frequency, travels at the speed of light. .electromagentic radiation can be described by its amplitude () brightness) , waveleghtn, frequency , and period/ LIght is not aonly a wave, but can be also described as particle know as photons, thus wave particle duality. Wave model An important aspect of the nature of light is frequency. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in hertz, the SI unit of frequency, equal to one oscillation per second. Light usually has a spectrum of frequencies which sum together to form the resultant wave. Different frequencies undergo different angles of refraction. A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests is called the wavelength. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size of buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation: v = fλ where v is the speed of the wave (c in a vacuum, or less in other media), f is the frequency and λ is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speed changes but their frequency remains constant. Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called radiant energy. Particle model In the particle model of EM radiation, a wave consists of discrete packets of energy, or quanta, called photons. The frequency of the wave is proportional to the magnitude of the particle's energy. Moreover, because photons are emitted and absorbed by charged particles, they act as transporters of energy. As a photon is absorbed by an atom, it excites an electron, elevating it to a higher energy level. If the energy is great enough, so that the electron jumps to a high enough energy level, it may escape the positive pull of the nucleus and be liberated from the atom in a process called ionization. Conversely, an electron that descends to a lower energy level in an atom emits a photon of light equal to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete, each element emits and absorbs its own characteristic frequencies. Together, these effects explain the absorption spectra of light. The dark bands in the spectrum are due to the atoms in the intervening medium absorbing different frequencies of the light. The composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption spectrum. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant star are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms. A similar phenomenon occurs for emission. As the electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons. This is manifested in the emission spectrum of nebulae. Today, scientists use this phenomenon to observe what elements a certain star is composed of. It is also used in the determination of the distance of a star, using the so-called redshift.so with doppler effect, leghtehin of waveleght i due to motion of body away from observer ( red shift ) . shortening of waveleght of light Is due to motion toward the observer ( blue shift) .

9c a. Relate electric currents to magnetic fields and describe the application of these relationships, such as in electromagnets, electric current generators, motors, and transformers. what is electric current? how does magetnic foce relate to electric current? draw a battery, light bulb , and electriccurrent ? what do electromagnetics do? what do electric current generator do? how and what do electric motors do?draw example what is a transformer, how does it work? draw it ? whatis a step up transformer vs step dow transformer? what is turned ration? what is the relationship between the voltage and number of turns in each coil? equation? example: the primary voltage is 40 volts , the secondary winding has 4000 turns , and the primary winding has 300 turns. calculate the voltage output by the secondary winding of the transformer. ? for teacher prep, how do generators work? exm? how to motor work, in terms of current and agent ? whats an example? for transformer, what does it do? what if left you have primary coil has 5 coilds at voltage of 6, what does the secondary coil have in current if it has 10 coilds? how do electromagnetic work? what is an example? explain right hand rule, and how exaplines earth magnetic field by electric current due to what ? where is the north and south pole in earth? how does it halep earth? electromagnets uses what and create what? electromange can be turned ...? electromagnets consiste of what ? magnetic field strength increases when? electrical transformers change the what? cosnsit of what ? what is equation? electrical motor convert what how ? electrical generator convert what to what kind of energy?

Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge (electrons). In a magnetic force, the force between two moving charges can be electric currents.Electromagnetics have several applications, all of which attract metals when they are switched on. They convert electric energy to mechanical energy.On the other hand, electric current generators produce electric current from mechanical energy.Electric motors uses the Lorentz force (a current-carrying wire that goes through a magnetic field which can produce movement) to transform electrical energy into mechanical energy.A transformer consist of two coils of wire that is wound onto the same core of soft ferromagnet (unable to retain its magnetism) material . A transformer is used to change an alternating electromotive force in one of the coils to a different electromotive force in the other coil. It can change the values of voltage and current without changing the frequency. It consists of a primary and secondary coil. The first coil in a transformer is connected to the AC voltage and is called the primary coil. The second coil is the one in which an AC voltage is induced and is called the secondary coil. Step-up transformer has a secondary coil that is greater, has more turns, than that in the primary coil. Increases voltage.Step-down transformer has a secondary coil that is less, fewer turns, than that in the primary coil. Reduces voltage.Turns ratio is the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary coil to the number of turns in the primary coil. 533 volt Teacher prep: generators produce current, moving a magnetic filec causes electric t move, creating a flow of current, physical movement creates current 9bke making current) motors use a current running through a wire to make magenti move. the moving magent energy can be applied to create other physical movements, current to physical movement. ( motor if fish take pump causes the movement of water ) . a transformer changes the amount of voltage supplied proportionally to the number o coills on ech end, the transformer show increases the voltage due to the higher number of coilds on the right side. Electric current and magetnic fields: motors opposite to generator. So motor, current is passed through magnet, magnet moves, that creates physical movement. Remember right hand rule, thump is flow of ccucrne, finger is direction of magnetic field. Magnetic field causes magnet to rotate, so that make magnet turn physically. If you reverse flow, revers the magnetic field, the motor goes reverse now, so car reverse now. o more coils on the secondary coil. So increase of voltage on the right side, the amount it goes up is proportion to the number of coilds between primarary and secondary coil. Lets say we have first coil, and we have primary coil, and here we have second coil ( 10 spins) . 5 coils in primary coil. If voltage is 6 on the left, then its 12 on the right, since has double of coilds. o Electromagnets: elector magnet work by running an electri current thorught a wire to create a magetnic field, MRI. Only magentic when electriy is passing thorught them. electric current I and moving electric chargers create magnetic fields. magnetif files are sholw as strength and direction ( vector) Direction of magnetic fields : when you have magnetic, you hva eelectring. So test what direction will it flow? So right hand rule use right hand. Thump is flow of current, positive charge, fingers represent field of magnetic field going around, current going up. Magnetic fields is streght and vector, direction component. Earth has magnetic field by electric current in liquid outer core, iron makes magnetic flow around earth. There is a south pole at north pole and north pole at the south poel, poles vary in position form day to day. So on earth, north pole is actually (south end negatie ) . earth cathce partile and comes down at poles , it alwsy protect atmosphere catches cosmic rays , earth magenic field portect earth, . Compass determines direction using earth magnetic field the compoass align itself with eart pole. If a magnetized neede is put in ccork and then placed in dish of water, direction of the earth can be determined. The magnetic need rub theneede in the same direction down a magenet 20 times Othe study guide: - Electromagnets = uses a coiled current- carrying wire to create a magnetic field - Electromagnets can be turned on, off, and reversed - Electromagnets consists of a current carrying wire around a magnetizable core (ie: iron bar), flowing current generates a magnetic field that magnetizes the core - Magnetic field strength increases when: o 1) As more wires are added to an electromagnets (going in same direction as original wires) o 2) Varying the current running though the wire, higher current - Electrical transformers change the voltage between 2 circuits: consists of an iron core in shape of a square donut, the number of windings on each side is used to determine the voltage step o Equation: V2V1=N2N1 (N1 = number of turns of wire on input, 2= output) - Electrical motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy (turning rotor) - electrical generator: mechanical à electrical energy

10 c. Demonstrate knowledge of evidence that living things are made of cells.

First, all living things are made of cells. Some are made of only one cell, while others are made of billions or even trillions. Living things are all created through reproduction, be it sexual or asexual. After this, all living things experience growth and development. They change and grow throughout their lifetimes in many different ways. Living things require energy in order to be able to grow and develop, and this energy may be self-made or it may be acquired by eating organisms. Response to environmental stimuli is another characteristic of all living things. These responses help living things regulate an internal balance called homeostasis. Many of these regulatory actions occur without us even knowing it! And finally, all living things are part of evolutionary adaptations. While individuals themselves don't adapt to their environments, groups of individuals may, over time, change as the environment around them changes. celsl may comefrom preexisting cells, multiple eukraionform prokary eating other prokarite

4h a. Apply knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of water

Hydrogen bonds, as you can see, can explain a lot of the special properties that make water a really important part of life on earth. The ordered, unbroken hydrogen bonds in ice cause water molecules to be farther apart than they would be in the liquid state. This resulting lowered density of ice relative to water explains why it floats. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of substance one degree Celsius. Because it takes extra energy to break hydrogen bonds between water molecules, water has a high specific heat. The polar nature of water molecules causes them to stick together. This is known as cohesion. Similarly, water molecules can also form hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules, and this is known as adhesion. Together, cohesion and adhesion explain capillary action, which is the ability of water to rise against the forces of gravity in a small tube. ometimes, molecules look different on the outside, but only their physical appearance has changed. Other times, through chemical reactions, molecules change both inside and out, meaning both their physical and chemical properties have changed.

9d a. Demonstrate knowledge of how energy is stored and can change in electric and magnetic fields. what are electromagnetic energy, how is it stored ? energy in magetnic field is stored as ____? energy in capacitor is stored in ....? how can a capacitor increases charge and electric field? how is electromagnetic wave created ? what is the speed of an electromagnetic wave? a constant current produces a ...? a changing current produces a ...? an oscillating electric field generates ..? an oscillating magnetic field generator an...? the source that creates oscillating electric and magnetic fields , _____ to each other, travel ___ from the source. The electromagentic wave is a ______ wave. the energy of wave is stored in the ____ and ____ fields. Like light waves, electromagnetic waves , there is no ___ required for the wave to trace through. unlike sound waves, electromagnetic waves can travel through a ...? what kind of pressure do electromagnetic wave exet? the energy carried by electromagnetic wave is proportion to the _____ of the wave . electromagnetic waves that have higher energy on the graph you would see what characteristics? equeation of electromatnic wave for total energy density?

In electrodynamics we take the view that electromagnetic energy is stored in the electric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetic waves can transport this field energy through space. Electromagnetic waves are changing electric and magnetic fields, carrying energy through space.Energy in magnetic field can be stored as an inductor. Energy of a capicator is stored in the electricfield between plates. - On a capacitor, increasing the plate size or decreasing their separation increases the charge and electric field that can be built up Light and other electromagnetic waves Light is not the only example of an electromagnetic wave. Other electromagnetic waves include the microwaves you use to heat up leftovers for dinner, and the radio waves that are broadcast from radio stations. An electromagnetic wave can be created by accelerating charges; moving charges back and forth will produce oscillating electric and magnetic fields, and these travel at the speed of light. It would really be more accurate to call the speed "the speed of an electromagnetic wave", because light is just one example of an electromagnetic wave. speed of light in vacuum: c = 3.00 x 108 m/s As we'll go into later in the course when we get to relativity, c is the ultimate speed limit in the universe. Nothing can travel faster than light in a vacuum. There is a wonderful connection between c, the speed of light in a vacuum, and the constants that appeared in the electricity and magnetism equations, the permittivity of free space and the permeability of free space. James Clerk Maxwell, who showed that all of electricity and magnetism could be boiled down to four basic equations, also worked out that: This clearly shows the link between optics, electricity, and magnetism. Creating an electromagnetic wave We've already learned how moving charges (currents) produce magnetic fields. A constant current produces a constant magnetic field, while a changing current produces a changing field. We can go the other way, and use a magnetic field to produce a current, as long as the magnetic field is changing. This is what induced emf is all about. A steadily-changing magnetic field can induce a constant voltage, while an oscillating magnetic field can induce an oscillating voltage. Focus on these two facts: 1. an oscillating electric field generates an oscillating magnetic field 2. an oscillating magnetic field generates an oscillating electric field Those two points are key to understanding electromagnetic waves. An electromagnetic wave (such as a radio wave) propagates outwards from the source (an antenna, perhaps) at the speed of light. What this means in practice is that the source has created oscillating electric and magnetic fields, perpendicular to each other, that travel away from the source. The E and B fields, along with being perpendicular to each other, are perpendicular to the direction the wave travels, meaning that an electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave. The energy of the wave is stored in the electric and magnetic fields. Properties of electromagnetic waves Something interesting about light, and electromagnetic waves in general, is that no medium is required for the wave to travel through. Other waves, such as sound waves, can not travel through a vacuum. An electromagnetic wave is perfectly happy to do that. An electromagnetic wave, although it carries no mass, does carry energy. It also has momentum, and can exert pressure (known as radiation pressure). The reason tails of comets point away from the Sun is the radiation pressure exerted on the tail by the light (and other forms of radiation) from the Sun. The energy carried by an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the frequency of the wave. The wavelength and frequency of the wave are connected via the speed of light: Electromagnetic waves are split into different categories based on their frequency (or, equivalently, on their wavelength). In other words, we split up the electromagnetic spectrum based on frequency. Visible light, for example, ranges from violet to red. Violet light has a wavelength of 400 nm, and a frequency of 7.5 x 1014 Hz. Red light has a wavelength of 700 nm, and a frequency of 4.3 x 1014 Hz. Any electromagnetic wave with a frequency (or wavelength) between those extremes can be seen by humans. Visible light makes up a very small part of the full electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic waves that are of higher energy than visible light (higher frequency, shorter wavelength) include ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays. Lower energy waves (lower frequency, longer wavelength) include infrared light, microwaves, and radio and television waves. Energy in an electromagnetic wave The energy in an electromagnetic wave is tied up in the electric and magnetic fields. In general, the energy per unit volume in an electric field is given by: In a magnetic field, the energy per unit volume is: An electromagnetic wave has both electric and magnetic fields, so the total energy density associated with an electromagnetic wave is: It turns out that for an electromagnetic wave, the energy associated with the electric field is equal to the energy associated with the magnetic field, so the energy density can be written in terms of just one or the other: This also implies that in an electromagnetic wave, E = cB. A more common way to handle the energy is to look at how much energy is carried by the wave from one place to another. A good measure of this is the intensity of the wave, which is the power that passes perpendicularly through an area divided by the area. The intensity, S, and the energy density are related by a factor of c: Generally, it's most useful to use the average power, or average intensity, of the wave. To find the average values, you have to use some average for the electric field E and the magnetic field B. The root mean square averages are used; the relationship between the peak and rms values is:

what happens before meiosis, how does the cell prep to get there ? what is the result of meiosis I and II? canyoudigram start the finis how you go from paren and maternal chromosome to interphase, mitosis, meiosis,cytokenesi ?

Interphase : diploid cell replicates its DNA. So DNA replication occurs here. MEIOSIS I: Undergoes prophase, metaphase, anaphase, teleophate, CROSSIN OVER OCCURES, we get separate homologs chromosomes meiosis II, dividefuther, PMAT, now we have haploid cells. separateion of sister chromatids in Meiosis II.

7. what are the laws of reflection? what are the laws of refraction ?

Laws of reflection An example of the law of reflection Main article: Specular reflection If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular or regular reflection. The laws of reflection are as follows: The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of the incidence lie in the same plane. The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is equal to the angle which the reflected ray makes to the same normal. The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal. law of refraction Plane of incidence — All rays (incident, reflected, and transmitted) all lie within the same plane called the plane of incidence. Snell's law — n1sinθ1=n2sinθ2n1sin⁡θ1=n2sin⁡θ2. Reflection — The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

7f.a. Demonstrate knowledge of how lenses are used in simple optical systems, including the camera, telescope, microscope, and eye.

Light rays are refracted when it passes through curved surfaces, lens (laws of refraction of light). The bending of the light is a result of light being slowed down as it passes from one medium (air) through another medium (the lens). There are two types of lens: concave and convex. · Camera- the camera uses several kinds of lens, which can be moved to focus on images at different distances, and mirrors to capture an image.Telescope- A refracting telescope lens works to refract (bend) light that enters the eyepiece. Because the bent light moves through the telescope and crosses at a point, the image is upside down (there are lens, however, such as the Barstow lens, that may flip it right side up). In a reflecting telescope, it uses curved mirrors to bounce the light instead of using lenses (this method prevents light from being bent, which causes colors to change and light to be unfocused).Microscope- A simple microscope consists of one lens, while a compound microscope uses more than one lens. As light bounces on a mirror on the bottom of the microscope, the light passes around the object on the microscope slide. The light passes through the microscope tube and passes the the lens, which slows down and bends (refracts).Eye- one of the features of the eye is the cornea, which works just like any other lens. The cornea focuses the light rays and bends (refracts) them onto the lens (biconvex, also known as double convex) so that they come to a point on the retina. The upside-down image is formed on the retina and is corrected by the brain. If an object is near, the lens changes its shape to short and fat, and if an object is far away, the lens becomes flat and thin.

What happens in meiosis, what does it produce what kind of cells? Meiosis is split into what ? Meiosis ensures that each daughter cell has ....? Diagram what happens befor MeiosisI. What happens ineachstep of Meiosis I. Cna you digram this?

Meiosis- this is the process of cell division when it divides to produce sex cells. Meiosis is split into two divisions: the first meiotic division (reduction division) and the second meiotic division. Meiosis eterm-97nsures that each daughter cells have half the number or chromosomes called haploid number. Interphase : Homologs from dad and home, .During S,copies of dad and momchromosome.Sonow you have a homologus pair, each homolog has2 chromatids. So you have a set of homologous chormosomepair, total 4 chromatids. This due to S phase of DNA replication. Then G2. then start meisosi I. Meiosis Part 1:Division of homologous chromosomes. starts with set of homologous chromosomes,4 chromatids. Prophase 1: chromosomes become visible start to condense, the nonsister chromatids then exchange segments (crossover) or recombination,chistma is visible, , nucleus disappears, mitotic spindle forms, and nucleus envelope forms. Metaphase 1: The chromosome pairs line up next to each other along the centre (equator) of the cell. The centrioles are now at opposites poles of the cell with the meiotic spindles extending from them. The meiotic spindle fibres attach to one chromosome of each pair. Anaphase 1: Begins when two chromosomes of each bivalent separate and start moving toward opposite poles of the cell as a result of the action of the spindle. There are 23 divided chromosomes on each side. Telephase 1: homologous chromosome pairs reach the poles of the cell, nuclear envelope forms around them and cytokinesis follows to produce two daughter cells. Meiosis part 1 is completed. now we have two cells, each has a set of chromosomes. Meiosis Part 2: Separation of sister chromatids. Prophase 2: chromosome condenses or become visible, in animal centrioles move to opposite poles and forms spindle appratus. the spindle fiber grows toward the chromosomes. , nuclear membrane breaks down, nucleus disappear, chromosomes become visible, centrioles move to the opposite side in animal cells metaphase ii: the spindle fibers attach to the kinetochores of each chromosome and align the chromosome along the center or equatorial plate. Anaphase 2: the spindle fibers pull on the chromosome from both ends separating the chromatids, unlike anaphase i, these chromatids are genetacly diffrently. daughter chromosomes move toward the opposite poles due to the shortening of microtubules Telephase 2: chromatids arrive at cell poles and nuclear envelop forms and around each set of chrromatids. chromatids decondense. The cells are now completely divided (four daughter cells each with a haploid set of chromosomes.) result of meiosis II is 4 haploid cells, having one set of chromosome each.

How does interphase help for mitosis? what happens in mitosis, and why is it impornat?

Mitosis- This is the process of cell division when a plant or animal cell divides for growth or repair. Mitosis ensures that the two new nuclei (daughter cells) have the same number or chromosomes called diploid number. Mitosis always has four stages and before mitosis begins, there is always an interphase. Interphase- This is an active period between cell division. The cell is preparing materials to produce "copies" of all of it components. Chromatin threads in nucleus duplicates. This is also during the time that the cell is growing and carrying out processes needed for life. Stage 1: Prophase- The nuclear membrane disappear, chromatin thread coils up to form chromosomes. Each chromatin thread is joined by a centromere. The centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell. Stage 2: Metaphase- The centrioles project protein fibers called spindle fibers which join together to form a sphere. Chromosomes move toward the equator and there centromeres becomes attached to spindle fibers. Stage 3: Anaphase- Centromere duplicate and the two daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles of the spindle. Stage 4: Telephase- Spindle fibers and astral rays disappear and nuclear membrane forms around the daughter chromosomes. The centrioles also duplicate. Cytokinesis takes place (this is the division of of the cytoplasm). each new daughter cell now enters interphase

9b Predict charges or poles on the basis of attraction/repulsion observations. so , again, draw a diagram of N and South poles for agent? the geographic north si determined by ...? how is a compass used to explain this ? what is the first law of magnetisim?

Online : Objects that are strongly magnetic are called ferromagnetic. They may either be hard (which doesn't lost its magnetism after being magnetized easily; or soft, which does lost its magnetism after being magnetized). When an object is magnetized, all the dipoles (molecular magnets) become aligned. A magnet's pole is a point in a magnet at which it's magnetic force is concentrated. The two poles, north and south pole, point to it's magnetic pole, south or north magnetic pole. The first law of magnetism states that like poles repel and that unlike poles attract. A compass uses a lightweight magnet and a low friction pivot that allows the magnetic needle to point to the magnetic north (North Pole).Materials:1).Needle2) Bar magnet2) Shallow dish with water3) Floating object such as a cork or bottle cap.4) optional: marker and masking tapeProcess:Stroke the needed 20-30 times with the end of a bar magnet. This process will magnetized the needle, a process called single touch. Place the magnetized needle on top of the floating object and place the items in a shallow dish of water. Slowly, the needle will move so that it aligns with the magnetic north pole. Using the marker and the masking tape, you can now label the dish with north, south, east, and west. Teacher prp: Another example : magnet norh pole and south pole. The north pole of magnetic is positive pole. South is negative pole. So current goes from north to the south. All arrow go towards south pole. That is what happesn with magnetic field. Principle same on earth but we named it wrong. Attraction and repultion : magnetic object what two poles, north and south pole or posirive/negatie charge. Opposites attract and likes repel . when we look at flow of magnetic field, positive repels apposite. Negatve attrach positive. Other notes : Building a Simple Compass - Geographic north is determined by earth's spin axis - Compass: consist of a magnetized needle mounted horizontally, free to move until aligned with Earth's magnetic field - 11 degrees between geographic and magnetic north - Simple compass: magnetized sewing needle on a cork in water A compass may be useless if magnetized rocks are nearby

8Demonstrate knowledge of the energy changes that accompany changes in states of matter physical vs chemical change? evidence of chemical change? explains what happens to atoms in a chemical change ? what happens to matter in a physical change? the following are examples of what ? rust on cars, word burns, baking cake, melting,freezing,condensation, boi water?

Physical Change- in a physician change, the chemical composition of the object does not change. If you melt ice, the physical change has occurred (solid substance into a liquid substance, but its chemical composition is still the same (water), H2O).Chemical Change- in a chemical change, a chemical reaction takes place. The composition of the object changes and we observe a new set of properties; the formation of a new substance. For example, an antacid dropped in a glass of water produces water. A firework displays colorful lights. When a new substance is formed, we usually observe one or more of the following: permanent change in color odor (gas) bubbles (gas released) light (energy released) heat (energy released) formation of solid substance by combining two solutions Classify as chemical or physical. Scroll down to find the answers. 1. Frying an egg2. vaporization of dried ice 3. boiling water 4. burning gasoline 5. baking Cookies 6. souring milk Answer: 1. Frying an egg ==> Chemical Change2. vaporization of dried ice ==> Physical Change3. boiling water ==> Physical Change4. burning gasoline ==> Chemical Change5. baking Cookies ==> Chemical Change 6. souring milk => Chemical Change 6. Chemical Change Teacher prep: physical and chemical changes : chemical changes Experiments that induce a physical change o In a chemical change, atoms are rearranged to form new substances § Example of chemical change : rust on cars (oxidation reduction), two solutions are mixed and a precipitate forms , wood burns ( sugar in wood burns when connected with oxygen, if you take away oxygen no more oxygen to react so it goes out) , baking a cake . so the molecure structure is changed o A physical change in a reaction changes the form of the matter but not its chemical identity § Examples of physical changes : phase changes (melting, freezing, condensation(gas to liquid) ect); dissolving; crushing cosmething into smaller piecies, making a salad § Note: you can boil water , and it evaporates but its still water left behind

7. sound waves, vs light waves, vs seismic waves?

Sound waves- sound waves are longitudinal waves. Sound waves are able to travel through solids, liquids and gases. They are unable to travel though a vacuum space due to the lack of mediums to carry the vibrations. The speed at which sound waves move depends on the medium it is traveling through. Through dry air, sounds travel at around 334 meters per second. Sound has a wide range of frequencies. Human ear can detect sounds between 20 and 20,000 Hertz. Higher or lower frequency cannot be perceived by humans and are referred to as ultrasound and infrasound.Light waves- light waves are electromagnetic type waves, which are transverse waves. Light waves are produced by the sun and by any heated object until it glows (called incandescence). Different wavelengths in the waveband produces different colors. The speed of light is 299, 792, 458 meters per second. Light, which can act as particles or a wave and does not require a medium to travel, thus light can travel through the vacuum of outer space. When a light waves moves through a new medium, its direction in which they are refracted depends on the density of the medium. Seismic waves- seismic waves travel out in all directions from the focus (location of the energy source within the earth). There are three types of seismic waves: Primary (P), secondary (S), and surface waves. P waves are longitudinal waves and can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. S waves are transverse waves travel through solids only. Surface Waves have an up-and-down motion and side-to-side. Surface waves may travel like S waves or they may travel like rolling ocean waves and travel only through the crust. P waves travel the fastest and surface waves travel the slowest. All waves transport energy without permanently displacing the medium through which they are travel. Instead, waves travel through oscillations or vibrations around fixed locations. For example, a boat resting on a lake or ocean is bobbing up and down as the waves travel, but the boat stays primarily in the same location. This is how the matter itself is. The matter stays primarily in the same location as the particles vibrates or oscillate through the medium.

10. Understand the structure and function of cells. (SMR 3.1) a. Demonstrate understanding that a small subset of elements makes up most of the chemical compounds in living organisms by combining in many ways. What elements make up most of chemical compounds in living organism? which are the most common by percentages? Describe why carbon is so importnat ?

Teacher prep:: elements comprising chemical compounds in living organism o Molecular biology and biochemistry § Molecular biology is the study of formation, structure, and function of macromolecules that are essential for life § Biochemistry is the study of chemical substances and processes in living organism. o Essential elements § The elements carbon , hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfure makeup most of the chemical compounds in living organism § Oxygen 65% , carbon 18.5 % hydrogen 9.5%, nitrogen 3.3% , phosphorus .4% and sulfur .3% § There are also trace elements that are required by organism in small quantities · Small amounts of iron are needed by all forms of life · Humans, specifically , need a small amount of iodine daily § Notes : questions test about elements that make up living things, they might say which is a major element, which is not, you want to know this,think of the word SPONCH, evry living thing is made of SPONCH, sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen. There are minor things like calcium, magnesium potassium, other things too but SPONCH is mainly, the othrs are trace elements. For example, iron is need small amount. We humans need iodine, necessary to regulation thyroid function we get by consuming sea food ,kelp, ect. Essential elemetns esseintial for life and we have trace elements. The elements, C (carbon), H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), N (nitrogen), P (Phosphorous), and S (sulfur) are the most common elements found in living organisms. Because carbon contains four valence electrons, it can form four covalent bonds. Molecules containing carbon can form straight chains, branches, or rings. This allows many possibility to generate a range of molecular structures and shapes. Carbon always wants to hold onto four other atoms or groups of molecules. This allows for tremendous diversity and variety of molecules based on the C atom attached to other atoms. Pretty much all living things are built around carbon-based molecules.

7e. Evaluate evidence that indicates that certain wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation may affect living cells.. which types of wave cuase damage?

The electromagnetic waves with the highest energy can penetrate and damage the cells of living things. These include ultraviolet radiation, x-ray radiation, and gamma radiation. Light, including the light produced by the sun, is a form of electromagnetic radiation, which is basically the type of radiation you find in the different kinds of light waves out there. Light waves don't have enough energy to penetrate into your skin, so they don't cause any damage to your cells. However, the sun also produces other forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to human eyes. Ultraviolet light is a form of radiation that has a higher frequency than visible light. This means it also has a little bit more energy than visible light and can, therefore, penetrate into the top layers of your skin, causing damage to your cells and leading to a painful sunburn. When cells are exposed to electromagnetic radiation, these DNA strands can be broken. This can cause lots of problems. If DNA is damaged, it can impair the ability of living cells to function the way they should. Changes in DNA caused by radiation can also be passed on when the cell divides, and these DNA changes can multiply and eventually cause cancer.Although ultraviolet radiation can only penetrate into the top layers of your skin, it can still do a lot of damage. Over time, you can get skin cancer and your skin may develop deep wrinkles, making you look a lot older than you really are. Other types of radiation, like X-rays and gamma rays, can have even more profound effects. Usually, short, limited exposure to X-rays does not cause much cellular damage, but if you are exposed to X-rays for a long period of time, they can cause DNA damage, too. Gamma rays have even more energy than X-rays and are, therefore, even more dangerous. Even short exposures to gamma rays can cause significant cell damage.In some cases, the damage to a cell's DNA from radiation can be so extensive that the cell actually dies. If this happens to a lot of cells in your body at the same time, you can get really sick and sometimes even die. When people are exposed to high levels of radiation, cells that reproduce quickly are usually most affected. This means that after exposure to radiation, you are likely to lose your hair, experience vomiting and diarrhea, and have blood cell deficiencies, which can make you anemic and/or impair your immune system. This cluster of symptoms is collectively known as radiation sickness, and it can happen following exposure to nuclear weapons or after a meltdown of a nuclear power plant.Depending on the dose of radiation, radiation sickness is often fatal. Even if you recover, it's very likely that your cells have sustained some serious DNA damage that may cause you to develop cancer in the future.What happens when electromagnetic radiation damages the DNA of reproductive cells? In that case, not only can the damage affect the person who was exposed, causing cell death or cancer, but even if the cell survives, the damaged DNA can be passed on to any offspring that the affected person might have. This can cause serious birth defects and other genetic problems in children.

10 f. Demonstrate knowledge of the process and significance of protein synthesis. What happens in transcription, where does transcription happen in euk vs prokaryot? What happnes in transcription, where does it initiate? RNA polymerase stops adding nucleotides hwen? If DNA is ATGGAC what is RNA ? Translation is the process of what ? wher does this occure. In translation, how is mRNA read, what is the product, when does it stop making it, descrbib process? What is the first step of transcription, what occures,describe process ? what occures in tarnslation? , where does this occure in the cell? Each set of 3mRNA codon bases pairs with what ?, what does it prduces? tRNA's are added to the sequecne, aminoa acids are linked together how ? what does this form? aftter the process of trasncription and transtion are compelte, what are we left with?

Transcription is the process of making mRNA from information in DNA. DNA is too large to come out of nuclear pores so this process must be done in the nucleus (cytoplasma for prokaryotes). RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA at he promoter and adds nucleotides as it moves down the DNA molecule The RNA polymerase will stop adding nucleotides when it reaches the signal called terminator. Example, DNA is ATGGAC, the matching RNA is UACCUG. Translation is the process of using the information in mRNA to construct a sequence of amino acids. This is done in the ribosome The mRNA is read in groups of three called a coden . these codens each code for an amino acid using this chart Each codon matches to an anticodon on a tRNA . this tRNA also has the corresponding amino acid. As the mRNA moves through the ribosome, a string of amino acids will form until the STOP codon is reached Notes : ribosome binds to mRNA. tRNA matches codon with anticodon. Ribosome links each amino acid to this growing chain until it hits stop codoen. That is how protein is made throught process of translation. Protein synthesis involves DNA and RNA (a type of nucleic acid RNA sugar are ribose as compared to DNA's deoxyribose. Because of the difference, RNA does not bind to the nucleotide base Thymine (T). Instead, RNA contains the nucleotide base Uracil (U) in place of T. Transcription- in the first step of protein syntheses (which takes place in the cell nucleus), the two strands in the a gene that codes for a protein unzip from each other. The mechanism of transcription has parallels in that of DNA replication. Unlike DNA replication, in this process only one strand is transcribed. The strand that contains the gene is called the sense strand. The complimentary strand is called the antisense strand. The mRNA produced in transcription is a copy of the sense strand, but is is the antisense strand that is transcribed. Ribonucleotide triphosphates (NTPs) aligns with the antisense strand. RNA polymerase joins the ribonucleotides together and forms a pre-messenger RNA molecule. This is complementary to a region of the antisense DNA strand. Transcription is complete when the RNA polymerase enzyme reaches the end where it signals it to stop. DNA IS 3 end to 5. Initiation (RNA polymerase), elongationRNA elongated 5 to 3 opposite of dna, termination (RNAtranscript released, polymerase detaches once reaches terminator) Translation- After mRNA is manufactured it leaves the cell nucleus and travels to a cellular organelle called the ribosome. In the ribosome, the mRNA code is translated into a transfer RNA (tRNA) code which, in turn, is transferred into a protein sequence. In this process, each set of 3 mRNA bases (codon) will pair with a complimentary tRNA base triplet (anticodon). Each tRNA is specific to an amino acid, a tRNA's are added to the sequence, amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, eventually forming a protein that is later released by the tRNA using the mRNA strand. After the process of transcription and translation are complete, we are left with a protein that consists of the chain: Apartic Acid-Leucine. Proteins normally consist of hundreds or thousands of amino acids. A gene is a region of DNA whose final product is eiather a polypeptide or an RNA molecule. Agene is transcriped into RNA molecules, including mRNA. RNA processein occures in nucleus. Trnaslation in cytoplama with ribosome nad conjuction with tRNA. A gene is region of DNA whosefinal product is eaither a polypeptide or a RNA molecule.

7g Compare and contrast the transmission, reflection, and absorption of light in matter.

When light rays hits an object, there are several things that may happen to the light. The light may undergo transmission, be reflected, or absorbed.Transmission- light transmission is the percentage of incident light that passes through a matter. If the matter light is passing through is translucent, then the vibrations of the electrons, which vibrate for brief periods of time, are passed on to neighboring atoms through the bulk of the material and remitted on the opposite side of the object.Reflection- if the incident light rays strikes an object and it is opaque, then the electron's vibrations are not passed from one atom to the next through the material. Instead, the electrons on the material surface vibrates for short periods of time and reflects the light rays.Absorption- When incident light rays hits an object, the light rays may become absorbed. The light rays energy is then converted to heat. An object may reflect certain visible light waves and absorb other visible light rays. Teacher prep : Transmission of light and matter o Each color of light has a particular wavelength and frequency. If that frequency is different than the natural frequencies of the atoms in a material, and the material is translucent, then that color of light will be transmitted through the substance. ( note if light passes thorught with a particular wavelength we see that light passes throught , objects or atoms have natural frequencies in which they vivrate and when striked by light it creates heat, energy is absorved. However, if the light is different and strikes but different instead it will cause small amplitude units. For translucent, it passes throught and light goes throught. If not translucent and does not have same frequency to vivrate, the small electrons and dischare ofenergy of light instead of traveling it discharges bck to the direction thus reflecting. Reflection and transmittion are similar process to an object . if reflection occur object is opaque, if not its translucent.) · Absorption or reflection of light in matter o Opaque objects that appear a certain color are absorbing all the other colors and reflecting just that color § Each color has a unique wavelength o Black objets absorb all colors. White objects are reflecting all colors. § Example : wearing a black shirt feels hotter than a white shirt on a summer day Notes : a red flower absorves all colors, exept red , so we see the flower red.there are waveleghts that are long ( red) or short (violet).

7. characteristics of waves, define amplitute, frequency, period, mean position, wavelength, crest,m throught 7. equation for veloicyt of a wave ? equation for period and frequency relationship?

a. Frequency: measurement of how many cycles occur in a period of time, cycles per second. Measurement is in Herz. A. Amplitude: measurement of how big the wave is. Two wavelengths can have the same frequency and wavelength but the amplitudes can be very much different. The amplitude of a wavelength is telling you the energy of the wave. It takes more energy to make big amplitude waves. B. Period: this is the time taken by one oscillationC. Mean Position: this is the position when at restD. Displacement: this is the direction and position from the mean positionE. Wavelength: λ, distance from one particular height on the wave to the next spot of the same height (crests of the waves are pointing up like a mountain and troughs of a waves are any parts that is sloping down like a valley). velocity=frequency x wavelegth frequency=1/T (period) o Relationship Veloicy = wavelength x frequency. V is velocity. Spped of light is constant. Velocity of radios is same as gamma, why because the change of freqnecy makes up for it. As move left, frequency increasing, waveleht decreases, and energy increases. The shorterthe waveleht the more energy. Gamm is shortes on left. Radio bigghes on right.

what is a disadvante of series in circuits, what is an example? disadvante of paralle circuit, what is an example?

disadvantage of series circuits, if one component fails, the rest do no work as componens are added , the resistance is the circuit increases and the current throught the circuit is reduced ( adding a lightbulin series each one will be dimmer) Disadvantage of parallel circuits: more energy is drawn from power supply as components are added, as more current flows wires can melt or catch fire

8. Understand energy. (SMR 2.5) a. a. Demonstrate knowledge of kinetic and potential energy.

o Kinetic energy is energy in motio o Potential energy is stored energy § Another example is a roller coaster § Note : child throwing ball in energy uses kinetic energy in muscle to throw the ball, the ball is pushed up and uses all the kinetic energy and is at its maximum amount of potential energy (gravity) when reaches top sues all kinetic energy and is ats maximum amount of potential energy because of trajectory out of kinetic energy and swited to potential energy of gravity is no kinetic energy of gravity when ball is going back down.another example is roller coaster, kinetc and potneial energy are equal. When traveling to the top of the roller coaster that is potential energy is build up ( as go up agains gravity), as goes up and down kinetic and potential equal out. so have closed system example exchange of potential and kinetic energy. So for exam understand these terms. Kinetic energy can be categorized into different types based on various forms of motion. For example, vibrational kinetic energy is the energy of motion generated by objects that vibrate, such as the strings of a violin. Rotational kinetic energy describes the energy of motion of an object rotating, such as a wheel. Kinetic energy can even be passed from one object to the next, as we've seen with our bowling ball example; this is called translational kinetic energy All energy in the universe falls into two main types: kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Any object in motion has kinetic energy and is using kinetic energy every moment it is moving. Kinetic energy can vary in quantity depending on the mass of an object and how fast it is moving. Therefore mass and speed factor into the kinetic energy of an object. Kinetic energy is categorized into three different types: vibrational, rotational, and translational. The energy is categorized in this way based on the type of motion contained in an object. Potential energy is present when an object's position results in the storage of energy that can be used at some point in the future. Positions that result in potential energy storage include objects located at heights above ground level, stretched positions of elastic objects, and configurations of charged objects that generate an expected response when they interact. These are referred to as gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy, and electrical potential energy. All potential energy is commonly known as 'stored energy,' since it is present but not being used at the moment. Energy: in science, the ability to do work Potential energy: energy in reserve for the future Gravitational potential energy: any elevated object has energy potential due to gravity Elastic potential energy: potential energy stored in an object that is stretched

plant cells vs animal cells,in terms of diffrences of orgnalles ? comparae and contrast

plant cells---- no centrioles, no flagella, cell wallmade of cellulose that givecell shape,supports and protections. chloroplast for photosynthesis central vacuole store water and waste products plasmodesmata are channels between cell walls that connect cytoplasma and assist in communication,microfilaments for cell division square shape PLASTIDS- tiny body inplant cell cytoplasm animal cells - CENTRIOLES to aide in celldivision. small vacuoles, lysosome for digestion round ins in shape SizeA plant cell is typically larger in size. An animal cell is comparatively smaller in size. Shape A plant cell tends to have a regular shape. An animal cell tends to vary greatly in appearance. A plant cell's wall provides structure and rigidity, made out of cellulose which allows high pressure to build inside due to plants need to accept large amount of water due to osmosis. An animal cell has no cell wall. Cell Membrane Plant and animal cells both have a cell membrane. Plant and animal cells both have a cytosol. Eukaryotic Plant cell has a defined nucleus and organelles enclosed within membranes. An animal cell has a defined nucleus and defined organelles enclosed within membranes. Plant cells undergo photosynthesis. Animal cells do not undergo photosynthesis. Lysosomes In plant cells, lysosomes are being debated, many say yes, some say they are rare. Lysosomes are present in animal cells. RibosomesRibosomes are present in both plant and animal cells. ERER is present in both plant and animal cells Golgi ApparatusGogli apparatus is present in both plant and animal cells. Centriole is found only in primitive plants only. Centrioles are found in animal cells. A nucleus is found in the plant cell and lies on one side in the peripheral cytoplasm. A nucleus is found in the animal cell and usually lies in the center. MitochondriaMitochondria is present in both plant and animal cell. CentrosomeCentrosome is found in plant cells. They are simpler. Centrosome is found in animal cells. eroxisomesPeroxisomes are found in plant and animal cells. CytoskeletonCytoskeleton is found in plant and animal cells. PlastidPlastid is present in plant cells- chlorophyll and leucoplasts. Plastid is not present in animal cells. VacuoleVacuole is present in plant cells. Mature plant cell contains one very large vacuole. Plant cells contain many small vacuoles. GlyoxysomesGlyoxysomes may be present in plant cells. Not present in animal cells. Reserve FoodReserve food is generally found in the form of starch in plant cells. Reserve food is generally found in the form of glycogen in animal cells. Amino AcidsPlant cell synthesize all amino aids Animal cells cannot synthesize all amino acids and enzymes

7. Characteristics of light waves, sound waves, seismic waves? longitudinal waves produce a distrubance ... 7.a. what are the two types of waves, compare them both.?

sound waves tranve throught medicum but not a vacuum. light waves can travel throught vacumm, like speed of light, light ttravesl faster than sound waves. seismic waves are broken down into P waves of S waves. P waves are like sound waves, S waves are like light waves. P waves are longitudinal , disturbance oves paralle to the propagaton. S waves are transverese wves, move up and down, the distrubance is up and down and perpendicular to the propagation. Longitudinal waves produce a disturbance in same direction as wave, sound waves are longitudainal waves Mechanical Wave: waves that oscillates and transfers energy through a medium. Transports energy only, there is no material that is transported through mechanical waves. These waves can only be produced in media which possess elasticity and inertia. Electromagnetic waves: Consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Can travel through most media including a vacuum. The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of electromagnetic waves, in order of increasing wavelength/decreasing frequency (will post picture): Gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves. transverse waves (oscillates at right angles to the direction the energy is moving). Carries energy (also known as radiant energy)..

What cells are responsible for the cell to contract ? Circulatory system incudes what heart...veins... Arteries send blood ...veins bring blood... how does the heart carry blood in its chanbers, know how it pumps, including all arteire, veins, and mitrial and triscupid valve?

§ The circulary system includes the heart, veins, arteries, and capillaries. The arteries send blood away from the heart and the veins bring it back to the heart § The circulatory system circulates blood containing oxygen, important nutrients , and compents of the system § All mammaels have 4 chamber. 2 atria and 2 ventricles. The heart muscle pumps automatically from the electrincal signal given by the pacemaker cells For the Heart, oxygenated blood comes in from the lungs to the Left atriam, thenmitral valave into the left ventrical , then Aortic Aorta where send oxygenated blood the the rest of hte body. Then you have deoxygenated blood that comes from the vein superior venva cava, and inferior veca cava into the right atrium, then tricuspid valve, then right ventrical, then throught pulmary artery where it takes deoxygenated blood back to the lungs to get oxygenated. Then we start all over again.

6e- 2. including gravity, nuclear forces, and electromagnetic forces (magnetic and electric), and recognize their roles in nature, such as the role of gravity in maintaining the structure of the universe

· Gravity acts like glue, holding stars, planets, and galaxies together. Gravity causes dispersed materials to coalesce (for example, in the formation of our solar system); it is responsible for keeping planets and comets in orbits around the sun; it is responsible for keeping satellites in orbit; gravity causes tides ; gravity helps control the starts temperature, allowing the star to expand when its core temperature increased, and increases in gravitation if the stars core temperature cools too much; and is a dynamic process that helps shape the Earth through processes such as weathering, erosion, and plate tectonic movement. · Gravitational force is the attractive force between all objects with mass. So even a marble exerts its own gravitational force; however, gravitational force is an extremely feeble force. It is the weakest of the four fundamental forces. So it takes an astronomically huge object for us to start noticing gravity's effects with our bare eyes. The marble's gravitational force is so feeble that you'll never see anything attracted towards it. -

10da. Analyze the similarities and differences among prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and viruses. know prokaryotes include what orgnaims ? dna diffrent in euk vs pro? organlles in pro vvs euk majrodiffrent? what are the organells of prokaryots , what are their function ?

· Structure and fuction of organelles and cells o Prokarytos § Prokaryote are thought to have come first because of their basis nature. They are unicellular and have no membrane bound organelles. § All known prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea. § Notes : in prokaryotes , DNA just floating in the cytoplasm. Euk have membrane bound organless. Common theory is that one pro ate another proka so made eukaryote. o Prokaryotic parts § The pili on the surface of some cells Is used to connect multiple cells together § Ribosoems make proteins § The plastma member encloses the cytoplasm § The cell wall is rigid structure outside the plasma membreane § The capsurel is a jelly like outer coating found on many cells § The flagella is like a tail thatallows for locomotion o RNA in ribosome to make protein. Plasma is selectively permalble to let food and waste throught. Cell wall structure and protein. These cells all by themselves so need more protection rather then multicellular organism. Key parts for prokaryotic cells , be aware.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of the differences between types of plate boundaries, causes of volcanoes, earthquakes, and how Earth's resources relate to tectonic processes.

Online : Tectonic plates move about the Earth, with their boundaries interacting with other plates'. There are three types of boundaries (each plate interacts with another plate using a combination of these types of boundaries):1) Divergent boundaries: Involves two plates (continental or oceanic). These are located along the oceanic ridges. They are considered to be constructive plates margins as this is where new oceanic crust (lithosphere) is formed. These boundaries are also known as spreading centers. The hot magma rises and creates the oceanic crust that is less dense than the surrounding cooler rocks. It takes approximately 80 million years for the rock to finish cooling and contracting. The cooling of the rock results in it strengthening and becoming thicker. Divergent boundaries can also be found on the continent as well and begins with the formation of a continental rift. The East African Rift is an example of a continental rift at its initial stage. 2) Convergent boundaries: One might wonder, if new crust is being formed at the ridges, is our planet growing? It is not. What is happening is that older, denser oceanic lithosphere descends back into the mantle at the convergent boundary. This boundary is also known as destructive plate margins since crust is being destroyed. At these convergent boundaries, you have two plates moving toward each other, with one being forced under the other. Thus, these boundaries are also known as subduction zones. What determines which plate is subducted is its density. The plate that is more dense will be subducted. For example, if an oceanic lithosphere meets up with a continental lithosphere, it is always the oceanic that is subducted because they are much more dense then the continental lithosphere. The angle of descent varies, but is typically at 45 degrees and depends on its density. Warm, young, and buoyant lithosphere will descent at an angle that is small. These regions will experience great Earthquakes. The very old, very dense oceanic lithosphere will descend at an angle approaching 90 degrees. Convergent boundaries can take place between oceanic and continental lithospheres, between two oceanic plates, and between two continental plates- each with different outcomes. Oceanic and Continental Convergence: As mentioned earlier, the more dense oceanic crust will descend beneath the less dense continental crust. As this oceaninc crust descends, it causes the mantle rock to melt. The wet, oceanic rock melts at a substantially lower temperature than dry rock as it moves into this high-pressure environment. As the crust continues to be subducted, its water is "squeezed" out. At great depths, heat, and pressure, the water leads to partial melting. This molten material is less dense so it rises towards the surface. This may give rise to volcanic eruption. In some cases, an oceanic plate also contains continental crust. Oceanic and Oceanic Convergence: Has many features similar to the oceanic-continental plate margins, with one of the main differences being the crust capping the overriding plate. When two oceanic plates converge, one of them descends beneath the other. This action initiates volcanic activity. Just like in oceanic-continental boundaries, the water is "squeezed" out from the plate that is being subducted, which triggers melting. The volcanoes grow from the ocean floor (versus from the continental in a oceanic-continental convergent boundary). If the subjection continues, then a chain of volcanic structures can emerge as islands. As the plate moves, the chain of islands are built up and spaced out about 80 km apart. This formation is known as a volcanic island arc. The Aleurtian islands is an example of an island arc formation. Continental-Continental Convergence: In the Oceanic-Continental Convergent plate margin, as the oceanic plate is subducted beneath the continental plate, the plate is forced further along, the continental crust collides with the continental plate. Since both are similar in density and buoyancy, the result is a formation of mountain range. The Himalayas, Alps, and the Appalachians are just some examples of mountains systems that were formed in a continental collision. However, before this continental collision takes place, between these two continental landmasses, there is an ocean basin.As subduction is taking place, volcanic island arc may form. As the oceanic plate is subducted, and the continental landmasses collide, it the new mountain range will also be composed of the deformed and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks from the volcanic arc. 3) Transform boundaries: This boundary involves two plates moving past each other without the formation or destruction of lithosphere. Most transform boundaries are located within the ocean basins. Some transform faults join two segments of mid-ocean ridge. Transform faults can also be connected to the spreading centers and help transport oceanic crust to the destruction site, at a deep-ocean trench. Or, transform faults can be found to cut through continental crust, such as the San Andreas Fault or the Alpine Fault in New Zealand. Volcanoes-as a slab of oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the continental plate, it causes the mantle rock to melt. The "wet" oceanic rock in a high pressure region has a lower melting point. Partial melting of mantle rock produces basaltic rock material. This type of magma produces less viscous, mafic magma that produces mild eruptions (such as the Hawaiian volcanoes). Most volcanoes are located along the margins of the ocean basins especially in the circum-Pacific belt (aka Ring of Fire). In a continental setting, the basaltic magma melts and assimilates some of the surrounding crustal rocks as it penetrates further down. This produces silica rich magma that is more viscous and contains more gas and water. This produces explosive eruptions. Volcanoes can also form from hot spots. Volcanism occurred as the tectonic plate moves over a hot spot (a region where mantle plume melts in a low-pressure environment. As the plate continues to move over the hot spot, successive volcanoes are built.There are four different types of volcanoes:Composite Cone: Also known as stratovolcano. This type of volcano is composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material. It is very picturesque, but also potentially dangerous. Most of these types of volcanoes are located in a relatively narrow zone that rims the Pacific Ocean (Ring of Fire). The classic composite cone is large and nearly symmetrical. it is felsic, generates thick viscous lava that travels short distances. Has a 5-6% gas content and explosive. Examples include Mt. St. Helen, Mt. Rainier, Mt. Shasta (one of the largest composite cones in the Cascade Range) and Mt. Garibaldi. The growth of a typical composite cone begins with both pyroclastic and lava spewing forth from the central vent. Overtime, the lavas flows from the fissures that develop on the lower flanks of the cone and alternates with the explosive eruptions that ejects pyroclastic material from the summit crater. Sometimes both occur simultaneously. Cinder Cone: Also known as scoria. These are small volcanoes built out of ejected lava fragments that consist mostly of small, pea size lapilli. Cinder cones are the most abundant type of volcano. They are steep and have large, deep craters. Like composite, they also tend to be relatively symmetrical although many cinder cones are elongated and higher on the side that was downwind during an eruption. They are fast forming, with 95% being formed in less than one year. They have a short life span. This is due to the fact that once the eruption event ceases, the magma in the vents begin to solidify. They are viscous, has a 5% gas content, and are explosive. These are found all over the world. Mount Etna, Parícutin are just two examples. Shield Volcano: These types of volcanoes are broad, gently sloping, built from basaltic lavas, non viscous, has a 1-2% gas content, and non-explosive. The shape resembles somewhat of a warrior's shield, hence its name. Most shield volcanoes have grown from deep ocean floor to form islands. Other shield volcanoes form on continents. The lavas are discharged from the summit vents as well as rift zones that develop along the slopes. Examples include Mauna Loa in Hawaii, Skjaldbreiður in Iceland, and Newberry in Oregon.Dome: This type of volcano is felsic, viscous, has a 2-4% gas content. Lava flow is thick and sticky so it tends to pile up around the vent. Mt Lassen is an example. The property of a magma that determines whether or not it has high viscosity is its silica content. High viscosity= high silica content = more explosive the volcano will be when it erupts. Felsic magma has a relatively high silica and low iron and magnesium content. Felsic magma will crystalize to become rhyolite. Intermediate composition magmas will crystallize to produce andesite. On the other hand, low viscosity= low silica content= less explosive. Mafic magmas has a relatively low silica and high iron and magnesium content. Mafic magma will cool and crystallize to produce the volcanic rock called basalt. Mafic rocks tend to be darker in color than felsic because they are enriched in iron and magnesium.Earthquakes- Earthquakes are a result of energy being released within the earth, either from volcanic activity (due to either gases or magma rising up through the volcano) or slippage along a fault, the most common source. Because slabs of Earth's lithosphere are in constant slow motion, plates are in constant interaction with each other. Straining and deformation along fault zones causes continuous earthquakes. For example, in a transform plate boundary, as two plates slide past each other, the rocks are bending and storing elastic energy. Eventually when one weak point slips and releases strain, the deformed rock "snaps", which causes earthquakes.Mineral resources are closely related to the rock cycle. The plate tectonics theory helps us to understand where and how mineral resources are produced. Metals such as gold (Au), Silver(Ag), Copper (Cu), Mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), Platinum (Pt), and Nickel (Ni) were created by igneous processes. Igneous-As magma cools, minerals within this magma body cools and settles. Different minerals settle out and segregate at different temperatures, known as magmatic segregation. Hydrothermal deposits result from hot, metal rich fluids that are remnants of magmatic process. Liquids and metallic ions accumulate near the top of the magma chamber. Au, Ag, and Hg are produced through this process.Metamorphic- Many of earth's resources are also produced by contact metamorphism. Rocks are chemically altered and recrystallized by the heat, pressure, and hydrothermal solutions. Common metallic minerals produced from contact metamorphism are sphalerite, galena, chalcoyprite, magnetite, and bornite. Regional metamorphism, which takes place within convergent plate boundaries, involves materials subjected to be altered by the high temperatures, high pressure environments. Chalk and graphite are produced in this environment. Teacher prep: · Volcanos, earthquakes, and earth resources caused by the tectonic processes o Volcanoes § Tectonics process and shift plates , and result in volcatons § Volcano is a hill or mountain created from lava or rock fragments venting from earths warm core. § Plate movement causes the volcanic eruptions § Notes : the heat from earth core causes the rock withing mantle and crust to heat up and that rock that is closer to earth surface becomes molten and when under surface called magma. Once that magma is molten and heated it becomes less dense becomes buyonac and rises, so if there isa hole or crack it extrusion happes it comes up, not on the surface its called lava. When it comes out we call that volcanic eruption. We think danger is lava is going to burn people and that is risk but there are other things that are more dangerous. So think of that, this picture shows other factors. One of those is that tephra or little tiny pieces of rock get distributed in a variety of ways once is that thye get shot up in the atmosphere and that can get in people lungs for miles around, gases emitted with rain can make acid rain, another thing is lahar flow that is mud and debir sometimes happends due to snow pack gets melted sometimes mixing with debri of moist soil, it created lahar flow and that can barry a whole town. We also get a proclastic flow that tephra and mixed with gases and flows low on ground and comes out side at hundred miles per hour that can be dangerous. So all of these things happen at the same time, that is why volcanic eruption sodangerou, caused by heating of earth surface causes magme rise and burst surface as volcation eruption with lava. · Various factors in the damage caused by an earthquake o Earthquake location § Focuse is the point withing the earth where seismic waves first originate § Epicenter is directly above the focus on the earths surface § Depth is the difference between the focus and epicenter § Notes : focus is beneath eart surface. The closer we are to the epicenter the greated the earthquak damage. Also the closer the epicenter to focus the more damage we have. o Earthquake waves § Body waves are seismic waves that travel throught the interior of the earth as they spread outward from the focus in all directions. There are two types , P and S waves. · P wave -compressional wave where the rock vibrates back and forth parallel to wave propagation ( 4 to 7 km/s) · S wave -transveres wave that travels throught near-surface rocks (2-5 km/s) § Surface waves are seismic waves that travel along the earths surface Notes : P WAVE PUSHING and pulling, p waves are the fastest moving , they can travel throught solid ground and throught fluids. Animas can hear the p waves. S WAVES ONLY travel throught solid rock, causes up and down movement, even tough slower more destrictuve because of up and down higher amplitude. o Factors in damage § Ground motion is the shaking or vibrating of the land that can cause building to vivrate · This can be broken gas lines and fallen electrical wires which an lead to fire. Landsclides may also be triggered by the motion · Notes : this image shows how energy is dispursed. So epicenter, full energy and energy comes out in circles, this energy Is distributed. If unwrap each line, still the same energy but spread over longer line, so less energy. So exponential decrease as you go away from epicenter. · Proximity to the focus is a major determinate in amount of damage · Buildings on softer ground wil experience more damage due to looseness of their base support · As the wave are traveling throught less dense material, their wavelength decreases and the amplitude increases ( resulting in stronger forces ) o Today, proper building construction can lessen the damage by moving with the earthquake o Notes : more shaking throught sofeter ground . o Richter scale § The richter scale works on a scale of 10. The number value is based on the height of the lines on the seismograph. A 7.5 earthquake is 10 tims stronger and releases 32 times more energy than a 6.5 earthquake § Notes : this on test, how we measure the power of earthquake. Simple idea,if move alo draws big line, longer line, means more movement or greater power. Logarithmic increase on richer sca.e Other guide: Types of Plate Boundaries - The divergent plate boundary is in the Atlantic ocean floor (Mid-Atlantic Range) - Trench = formed when 2 oceanic plates collide - Transform Plate Boundary = where 2 plates scrape and slide pas each other, creating earthquakes - Earth's surface is made up of 12 major plates and several minor plates - Plates move across earth's surface and interact in 3 ways: 1) Convergent boundary = move towards each other -3 results: A) converge to create a subduction zone (an oceanic and continental plate) B) Converge to create a mountain range (two continental plates) C) Move past each other (oceanic or continental) 2) Divergent boundary/spreading ridges = move away from each other 3) Transform boundary = slide past each other - San Andreas Fault = CA's transform plate boundary: from Gulf of CA to Mendocino, pacific and north American plates slide past one another - Divergent plate boundaries broke Pangaea apart - Where the continents are going now: Atlantic Ocean grows and Pacific shrinks, continents are coming together on the other side of the world from where Pangaea formed Volcanoes, Earthquakes and Earth Resources - Volcanic eruptions are found at convergent plate boundaries because mantle melts as a result of subduction: the subducting plate becomes hot and partially melts, which creates volcanoes above - Metallic mineral formation is common at convergent and divergent plate boundaries (where magma bodies are found) - If an ocean plate collides with continental plate à ocean plate is denser than the continental plate and therefore subducts/ plunges under the continental plate - Most earthquakes are caused by lithospheric plates moving against each other - Lithosphere is brittle, win it needs to move it cannot flow, but it breaks - Earthquake process: stresses build up as tectonic motions push plates together/apart/past each other, frictional forces hold crust together, but then when the stresses build up enough energy to overcome the frictional forces, the 2 pieces of crust slide past each other and cause an earthquake - 95% of earthquakes take place at plate boundaries : 80% around Pacific Ocean, 15% in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt, 5% = divergent plate boundaries or intraplate - Pacific Ring of Fire: most are convergent plate boundaries, few are transform plate boundaries - Focus = point in earth's crust where energy is released - Epicenter = point on Earth's surface directly above focus - Shallow Focus earthquakes = most destructive because they are closest to where people live - All earthquakes at divergent/ transform plate boundaries= shallow - Earthquakes at convergent plates= shallow to deep - Must be melting for a volcano to exist à mantle melts at divergent and convergent boundaries - Mineral deposits are often located near volcanoes because they from in and near magma chambers Study onoine Plate Tectonics Some of the most classic stories in history are about journeys at sea. From Homer's Odyssey to Gilligan's Island, it seems that we can't get enough of them. The story of plate tectonics is no different. Plate tectonics is the theory that the earth's crust is broken up into plates. And these plates, which go by the name 'tectonic plates,' float around on the hotter and more fluid layer of the earth below them. As these plates move, they might push together, pull apart or slide past each other. In this lesson, we will look at the evidence in support of the plate tectonics theory that was uncovered through analysis of samples drilled from the ocean floor. Deep Sea Drilling Project Our tale begins in the 1960s. That's the decade that introduced the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), which was an ocean drilling project designed to analyze the ocean floor. The task was to drill down into the ocean floor and extract samples of the ocean sediments and underlying oceanic crust. This task was accomplished aboard a ship called the Glomar Challenger. This was a research vessel equipped with a drilling platform that traveled across the Atlantic Ocean drilling core samples into the sea floor along the way. Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Seafloor Spreading Now, an important feature found on the Atlantic Ocean basin is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is an underwater mountain range that runs from Iceland to Antarctica. This ridge system was an important area to drill because at the time it was not fully understood how this large underwater ridge had formed. It had been theorized that the creation of the oceanic ridge system was caused by seafloor spreading, which states that new oceanic crust is constantly being formed due to the upwelling of magma through diverging tectonic plates. However, this was a lot for some scientists to believe. The scientific community was perplexed over the idea that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge may actually be a tectonic plate boundary that was separating and allowing magma from deep within the earth to ooze up through the crack and that this magma then cooled and was responsible for creating the new layers of oceanic crust that spread out from that area. You can imagine that this whole idea sounded pretty far-fetched to many scientists. Ocean Drilling Samples Yet, when samples were taken from this ridge system, they showed two important things. First, the rocks found at or near the seam or crest of the ridge were very young, and they got older farther away from the crest. Second, there were very thin layers of sediment found near the ridge crest, but the sediment thickness increased in samples taken farther distances from the crest, as if those areas had been there longer and had time to collect dust. This showed that new oceanic crust was being formed along the plate boundary and then spreading out laterally, just like the seafloor spreading theory proposed. And if that were true, then it also provided strong evidence that the earth's crust was made up of moving tectonic plates, giving credence to the theory of plate tectonics. Lesson Summary Let's review. The Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) was an ocean drilling project designed to analyze the ocean floor. The Glomar Challenger was the research vessel equipped with a drilling platform that extracted the samples. Samples were taken of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is an underwater mountain range that runs from Iceland to Antarctica. This ridge system was thought to be created by seafloor spreading, which hypothesized that new oceanic crust is constantly being formed due to the upwelling of magma through diverging tectonic plates. The idea that the earth's crust is broken up into plates that can move is the basis of plate tectonics theory. These samples showed that rocks found near the crest of the ridge were very young, and they got older farther away from the crest. They also showed that layers of sediment were thinner at the crest and thickened farther out from that area. This showed that new oceanic crust was being formed along the plate boundary and then spreading out laterally, providing evidence to support the theory of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics. Learning Outcomes After reviewing this lesson, you'll have the ability to: Summarize the theories of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics Explain what the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) was Identify the vessel used in the DSDP and the area where evidence was collected Describe how the evidence collected from this project supported the theories of seafloor spreading and plate In this lesson, we explore the causes of plate movement, including thermal convection, ridge push and slab pull. Students will learn how these processes complement each other and form a theory for tectonic plate movement. Background on Plate Movement Do you ever wonder if the crazy thing someone just told you is true? For instance, you may have heard that person declare that at some point in the near future, California is going to break off and fall into the ocean. My older brother told me that the Golden State is hanging off the end of the continent and will fall into the Pacific Ocean during the next big earthquake. Do the tectonic plates, or giant pieces of the Earth's crust that fit together and move around on the Earth's surface, really move? If so, what causes them to move? The best stories are often based on fact, so it is helpful to know what is real versus what is not. Yes, tectonic plates move, and the mechanism that causes them to move is the subject of this lesson. The part of my brother's story that is true is that the Western part of California, west of the San Andreas Fault, is moving in a different direction than the rest of the continent. The Western part of California is moving northwest at the rate of several centimeters per year. Looking to the future, California will indeed one day separate from the rest of North America and become an island. Where I think my brother got confused is the mechanism that will cause this to occur. Tectonic plates move around and can cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. First of all, it is important to know that the Earth's crust is broken up into large pieces called tectonic plates. Remember, tectonic plates are giant pieces of the Earth's crust that fit together and move around on the Earth's surface. This movement can be observed and measured using GPS systems, and the edges of the plates can be detected, as their edges can be seen. We also know that these plates move around with respect to one another. Earthquakes and volcanoes are the results of such plate movement. One question geologists have been trying to answer is: what is causing the plates of the Earth to move? This can be a challenging question because we are not able to get into the Earth's interior to observe it. There are several mechanisms that scientists have developed based on the observations of the plates and a deeper understanding of the inner layers of the Earth. These mechanisms operate at different points in the Earth and very well could complement each other, each assisting in moving the plate in its own fashion. Thermal Convection Scientists believe that one of the primary forces behind plate movement is thermal convection. Thermal convection is when heat from the core of the Earth is transferred to the surface of the Earth by the mantle. The mantle is the thick, mostly solid layer of the Earth between the crust and the core. Thermal convection works a lot like a pot of boiling water, which can be seen in this animation. In convection, heat from the stove warms up the water closest to the stove, causing the water to expand and rise. Cooler water near the surface of the pot sinks to take the place of the rising water. In doing so, a current of water is set up flowing toward the surface and back down again. Using this model, the stove is like the core and the water is the liquid mantle that rotates. The plates on the Earth's surface would be floating on top of the water. These currents push the plates along according to the direction of flow. Geologists think that this same phenomenon is what is happening inside the Earth. Liquid rock near the mantle is heated and rises toward the crust. The rock near the surface is cooler and sinks back down toward the core. This forms the same type of convection current that causes the plates to move. Scientists believe that this cycle of magma rising from the core to the crust and back again takes thousands of years to complete. Convection currents in the liquid mantle cause the plates to move. At the top of the mantle, the rock encounters the thin crust, and, as it pushes it aside, lava flows out from the mantle to form new oceanic crust. As this happens, the plates smash into each other, slide past each other or are pushed under another plate. This movement of the plate along with the upwelling of the mantle by the convection currents may also cause secondary actions that assist in plate movement. Ridge Push In ridge push, the mantle wells upward because of the convection and elevates the edges of spreading oceanic plates. Because these plates are higher at the spreading center, they are forced downhill due to gravity and eventually flatten out to the ocean floor. The gravity causes this movement down the ridge, and it gives the plate a push along as new crust forms behind the plate at the spreading center. This is like those coin bulldozers at the fair where one new coin may push forward and knock others out of the way! Slab Pull Another mechanism that forms as a result of plate movement is slab pull. As the plate is pushed along, it may run into another plate. Oceanic crust is easily forced under another plate and back into the mantle. These converging boundaries can be identified by deep ocean trenches that mark the location where one plate is sliding under another one. As it slides under the other plate and is forced back into the mantle, gravity again works to pull it along, giving the plate another force to keep it moving along. These two mechanisms are different. In slab pull, gravity is pulling on the front part of the plate; in ridge push, it is forcing movement from the back end. Trench Suction A diagram of the trench suction process A third force that forms as a result of plate movement is known as trench suction. As a plate gets pushed back into the mantle (as we saw in slab pull), it is forced down at an angle. Not only does gravity pull it down in the slab pull model, but another force can act on it as well. Underneath and behind the plate, a small convection current caused by the diving crust can form and help pull the plate into the Earth. It is very similar to the force that keeps a raft trapped in suction under a waterfall. This force aids in pulling the plate back to the Earth's interior to re-melt. This also differs from ridge push and slab pull because it is not the result of gravitational pull. Lesson Summary So, to recap, there are several mechanisms that scientists use to help explain the movement of the giant pieces of the Earth's crust (called tectonic plates). The force that causes most of the plate movement is thermal convection, where heat from the Earth's interior causes currents of hot rising magma and cooler sinking magma to flow, moving the plates of the crust along with them. Additional mechanisms that may aid in plates moving involve ridge push, slab pull and trench suction. In ridge push and slab pull, gravity is acting on the plate to cause the movement. Areas where the crust is pushed upward by magma welling up are also pulled downward by gravity, forcing edges of plates back into the Earth's interior. These processes pull the whole plate along. In trench suction, a small convection current is formed by the re-melting plate as it pushes back into the interior, and the current creates a force that pulls the plate downward. Learning Outcome After completing this lesson, you should be able to describe thermal convection, ridge push, slab pull and trench suction. Save Print Lesson Next Lesson this lesson we'll be exploring the forces behind plate tectonics. We'll look at different types of plates and their properties, including density and buoyancy, and how it affects the results of plate interactions. What are Plate Tectonics? Imagine hiking in the Himalayas. Snow covered mountains soar up into the sky all around you. The mountains are so high in fact that they extend above the cloud line. Very few living things are able to survive at this intense altitude. But, why are the Himalayas so high, while other areas of the Earth are so low and flat? Why are some areas prone to Earthquakes while others have remained stable for millions of years? The answer is plate tectonics. Plate tectonics is the theory that explains the movement of the Earth's crust, or lithosphere. The lithosphere is made of large areas called plates. These plates are rocky and maintain a rigid shape. Underneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which is viscous, melted rock. The plates in the lithosphere drift around on the currents of the asthenosphere, moving about one to two inches per year. Although this might not sound like much, this tiny amount of movement is responsible for all volcanos, earthquakes, and tsunamis we feel on Earth. Types of Plates Plates come in two forms, oceanic and continental. Oceanic plates lie under oceans. They are denser compared to continental crust, meaning they have more mass per unit volume. Continental crust is just the opposite. It is located under land masses and is less dense than oceanic plates. The reason for the differences in density is the composition of rock in the plates. Oceanic plates are made of dark basalt rock, like the type that makes up the black rocks and sand in Hawaii. Continental plates, on the other hand, are made of rocks similar to granite, like the countertops in your home might be made of. These rocks are less dense, and thus the continental plates are also less dense. But, why do we care about plate density? Things that are more dense tend to sink. Think of throwing a penny into a pond versus a plastic bottle cap. Although relatively the same size, the penny is much heavier because copper is more dense than plastic, thus the penny sinks and the plastic floats. The plastic is more buoyant, meaning it is more likely to float due to its low density. When two plates come in contact with each other through plate tectonics, scientists can use the density of the plates to predict what will happen. Whichever plate is more dense will sink, and the less dense plate will float over it. The exact result depends on which types of plates are interacting. Let's look at some examples. Oceanic and Continental Plates Think back, which plates are more dense, oceanic or continental? Oceanic plates are made of basalt rock, so they are denser. So, what do you think will happen when an oceanic plate and a continental plate collide? The oceanic plate is denser and sinks due to its lower buoyancy. It is sucked into the asthenosphere and is melted deeper into the Earth, called a subduction zone. The continental plate is less dense and floats over the top of it since it is more buoyant. The beautiful volcanos of the Pacific Northwest are an example of a convergent boundary between oceanic and continental plates. The Juan de Fuca plate under the Pacific Ocean is driving under the North American plate creating seismic activity under the Pacific northwest coast. Mount Rainer is formed by the subduction zone between the Juan de Fuca plate and the North American plate Oceanic and Oceanic Plates So, it's clear who's going under in a battle between an oceanic and continental plate, but what happens if two oceanic plates collide? It turns out that all oceanic plates aren't created equally. New oceanic plate crust is created when two plates slide away from each other. Molten magma spews into the surface and cools into new rock. As the plates spread further apart, the rock cools further and becomes denser. Whenever two oceanic plates collide, one will be older, thus colder, and more dense. This plate will slide under the newer, less dense plate and again a subduction zone will form creating volcanos arising from the ocean, called a volcanic arc. One example of an active volcanic arc is the Aleutian arc. This arc of volcanoes extends south-west from Alaska to separate the Bering Sea from the rest of the Pacific Ocean. It is formed from a convergent boundary between the Pacific and North American tectonic plates with 80 volcanic mountains and 41 historically active volcanos. The Aleutian arc is formed by two oceanic plates colliding Continental and Continental Plates Continental plates are less dense than the material below them in the asthenosphere, so when two continental plates collide, neither will sink because they have the same buoyancy. The result is one of the most enormous mountain chains in the world, the Himalayas. About 50 million years, ago the Indian plate rammed into the Eurasia plate. Both are continental plates and there was nowhere for the crust to go but up. The collision formed the spectacular jagged peaks that are characteristic of this region. The Himalayas were formed from two continental plates converging Lesson Summary Plate tectonics describes the movement of large chunks of lithosphere across the viscous asthenosphere. Oceanic plates under the ocean are made of basalt rock and are more dense than continental plates under land masses. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the oceanic plate creates a subduction zone, diving under the continental plate. When two oceanic plates collide, whichever plate has migrated further from its original creation will be more dense because it has cooled more, and that plate will subduct, such as the volcanic arcs in Alaska. When two continental plates collide, neither is more dense than the asthenosphere so both are slammed upward to form large mountain ranges like the Himalayas. Save Print Lesson Next Lesson n the theory of plate tectonics, the earth's crust is broken into plates that move around relative to each other. As a result of this movement, three types of plate boundaries are formed: divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries. Introduction to Plate Boundaries I hope you have never been in a car accident, but I know we all have seen one in our lives. If you have watched many movies, you almost certainly have. Have you noticed how even when the car is no longer at the accident site, you can tell what happened to it - like where it was impacted, how fast it was going (or the other car was going), and what part was hit first? Even without impacts, perhaps you can piece together what happened when a scratch shows up on the side of the car. As tectonic plates of the earth, or giant pieces of the earth's crust, move and crash into each other, similar tell-tale signs show up to give us some ideas about how they move with relation to each other. The theory of plate tectonics states that the crust of the earth is broken up into large pieces, or plates, that move around by floating on top of the layer of the earth known as the mantle. This process is driven by convection currents within the mantle. Convection currents are formed by hot magma near the core rising towards the surface, while cooler magma near the crust sinks, setting up a current that causes the plates to move. These currents are the primary driving force behind plate movement. This theory was the result of decades of work and observations made of the earth's surface. It is still the first model to neatly explain all the pieces of data scientists couldn't explain when they thought the surface of the earth was stationary. The red lines show where the crust is divided into several plates. The map above may seem confusing at first, but the main thing is that the colored lines show the lines where the crust is broken up into many different plates. Most are named after the continents that are contained on them. Some plates are entirely oceanic crust, or crust under the ocean, while others are a combination of oceanic and continental crust, which is crust of the continents. The boundary where two separate plates meet is where all the action occurs and is called a fault. A fault is a crack in the earth's crust resulting from the movement of the two plates. Getting back to the example of cars, when two cars are next to each other, there are three possible ways for the cars to move with relation to each other. Plates act in a similar manner. Divergent Boundary The first way two cars can move relative to each other is in divergent directions, like passing a car going the other way. Plates also can pull apart from each other. This is known as a divergent boundary. A divergent boundary is a fault where the two plates are moving away from each other. Rift valleys develop when a continent is broken apart by a divergent boundary. Now, as plates pull apart, several things may occur. First of all, volcanic activity is common in these areas since mantle easily moves to the surface through the thin, fractured rock as it separates. Volcanoes are a sign of a divergent boundary. This happens all along the mid-ocean ridge where magma is constantly streaming to the surface, creating new ocean floor as the plates separate. If a continent happens to be a place where a divergent boundary occurs, then the continent will begin to be torn apart as the sides of the plates separate, creating a rift valley. The African Rift Valley in East Africa is an example of this occurrence. Eventually, the ocean will separate East Africa from the rest, making a large island. Convergent Boundary A second way cars interact (unfortunately) is by colliding. When cars impact each other or another solid object, the energy is transferred to the cars themselves, showing up as dents, ripples, or cracks. Plates also show tell-tale signs of colliding, too, depending on the kind of crust colliding. Remember that at divergent boundaries, new crust is being made, but the earth is not getting larger. Why not? Well, at the opposite ends, crust is being pushed into the earth's interior by colliding plates and being re-melted at the same rate new crust is formed. This happens at a convergent boundary. A convergent boundary is a boundary where two separate plates are pushing into each other. There are two kinds of surface features that are associated with a convergent boundary. The first is a deep ocean trench that forms a line of the two colliding plates. One plate made of oceanic crust can slide down underneath another plate, forming this narrow, deep trench. This happens because oceanic crust is more dense than continental crust, making it more likely to be pushed back into the mantle. These trenches are the deepest places on the face of the earth, extending over 30,000 feet below the ocean surface. You could take Mount Everest and sink it in the Mariana Trench, the deepest point in the ocean, and still have a mile to the surface of the ocean. That's deep! As one plate is forced under the other one, it begins to melt, and a line of volcanoes forms in a parallel line to the trench. If the other plate is oceanic crust, the line of volcanoes will become islands, like the Philippines, and if it is continental crust, then it will become a line of volcanic mountains, like the Cascade Range in the western U.S. or the Andes Mountains in South America. The Philippines are the result of a convergent boundary. If both plates are continental crust, the plates will crumple up as they collide, forming a high mountain range, much like the Himalayas. Continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust and does not get forced into the mantle. The crumpling of the continental crust is similar to two cars colliding, as in the example from earlier. No matter which type of crust is colliding, you will see volcanic activity if one is oceanic crust because the more dense oceanic crust is pushed down into the mantle. As it is forced down, it begins to remelt, and the magma forces its way to the surface to form the volcanoes. All types will form strong earthquakes, forming from the plates grinding together as they slide under. Transform Boundary A third way that plates can interact is by sliding past each other. This would be like cars side-swiping each other. One car is moving one way and scrapes by one going the other way. Tectonic plates do this as well, grinding past each other as they move in opposite directions. This third type of plate boundary is called a transform boundary. The most famous example of a transform boundary is the San Andreas Fault in California. The San Andreas Fault is the edges of the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The fault line runs through the Gulf of California and through the western part of California before running back under the ocean. The Pacific Plate is moving northwest with respect to the rest of North America at the rate of several centimeters per year. This means that thousands of years in the future, San Francisco and Los Angeles will be on a piece of land that will break off from the rest of North America and move out into the Pacific Ocean as an island. Remember that this piece of North America is on a different plate, and the whole thing is moving. This part of California is not drifting around like a boat in the ocean. It's moving as a part of the whole plate, which is moving northwest. The San Andreas Fault is a transform boundary in California. At this type of boundary, the only effects are earthquakes. The sliding process is not smooth and moves in fits and starts. The pressure for the plate to move builds over time, and the rocks compress and strain. At some point, the stored energy is released as the plates move, which can be several feet at one time. When it does, an earthquake occurs. There are no mountains or volcanoes forming from this boundary, no matter how many Hollywood movies are made that portray volcanoes erupting in Los Angeles. Lesson Summary To recap, there are three types of plate boundaries that are formed by the interactions of different plates. Divergent boundaries are boundaries where plates pull away from each other, forming mild earthquakes and volcanoes as magma comes to the surface. Convergent boundaries are boundaries where two plates are pushing into each other. They are formed when two plates collide, either crumpling up and forming mountains or pushing one of the plates under the other and back into the mantle to melt. Convergent boundaries form strong earthquakes, as well as volcanic mountains or islands, when the sinking oceanic plate melts. The third type is transform boundaries, or boundaries where plates slide past each other, forming strong earthquakes. All of this crashing, banging, and erupting are one reason why the surface of the earth has such a variety of landforms and features. Learning Outcomes Following this lesson, you should have the ability to: Explain the theory of plate tectonics Summarize how convection currents cause Earth's plates to move Define faults Describe the three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform List the effects of each type of boundary and provide examples rthquakes, volcanoes, and tsunamis are all dangerous natural disasters, but they also have something else in common - tectonic plate movement. In this lesson, you'll see how these seemingly different events actually come from similar geological beginnings. Moving Puzzle Pieces The top layer of Earth is an interesting place. Also known as the 'crust,' this thin, solid layer is much more than meets the eye. If Earth were an apple, the skin of that apple could represent the crust in terms of thickness and location. But unlike an apple skin, Earth's crust isn't one large piece covering the entire planet. Instead, it's broken up into many different pieces called tectonic plates that fit together like a large puzzle. Also unlike the apple, underneath the solid crust is not a deliciously crispy interior. Instead, directly below the crust, we have a thick liquid layer called the mantle. Because it is liquid, the mantle flows and moves around, which moves the plates sitting on top like pieces of ice on a pond. When the plates get moved around, they wreak havoc because they crash into, and pull apart from, and rub against each other. And as you can imagine, these interactions can do some pretty serious damage. On Earth, these tectonic events result in dangerous natural disasters around the world, like earthquakes, volcanoes, and tsunamis. Earthquakes Earthquakes can and do happen anywhere in the world, but the majority of them occur in a region known as 'The Ring of Fire.' As you'll learn a little later in this lesson, this is also where most of the world's volcanoes are found and where the name comes from. The reason so many earthquakes occur in these areas is because this is where many of Earth's tectonic plates come together. Earthquakes begin deep underground along plate boundaries. Tension and pressure build up as the plates slide past and bump into each other and sometimes even stick together. Although the plate boundaries themselves may be stuck, the plates keep moving and pulling. Eventually, the pulling becomes too much and the plates suddenly break free from each other, causing an earthquake! You can think of an earthquake like a game of tug-of-war. If you and your friend are both pulling on opposite ends of the rope and suddenly your friend lets go, all of that tension quickly leaves the rope and down onto the ground you go! An earthquake is very much the same - the plates get stuck together as they move, building up tension. Suddenly, the plates slip past each other and break free, sending that built-up tension through the ground in all directions. Volcanoes Plate movement can also cause other natural phenomena, like volcanoes. Under the right conditions, when plates are pushed together or pulled apart, volcanoes are created, which is why they tend to occur in the same place as earthquakes. When tectonic plates spread apart from each other, hot magma rises up and fills the space between. As it cools, it forms new land, either on the continents or on the seafloor, depending on where the plates are located. When the plates come together, one of them may get pulled under the other one, getting recycled back into Earth's interior. During this process, called subduction, the piece of crust getting pulled under is melted and turned into magma - the very magma that erupts from a volcano! As the magma comes out of the volcano opening, it cools and builds the volcano even taller. The more subduction, the more buildup. Volcanic ranges like the Sierra Nevada and Cascade in the U.S. and the Andes in South America were formed from plate movement and rising magma. Tsunamis Earthquakes occur in the oceans as well as on land because the seafloor is made of crust just like the continents we live on. A tsunami, which is a series of large water waves caused by an earthquake, landslide, or volcano, occurs when one of these natural phenomena vertically displaces the water. The water is quite literally thrust upward during one of these large ground-moving events. The water then falls back down to the normal surface level, and a huge wave (the tsunami) is created. Tsunamis are very different from regular sea waves, though, because they are much larger and carry much more energy with them as they travel through the water. However, the real damage from a tsunami happens when it comes near shore. As a wave enters the shallower waters along shore, it slows down, but all that energy is still present. That energy has nowhere to go but up, which is why tsunamis may become tens of meters tall as they approach land and prepare to crash down. Lesson Summary Earth's surface may look like a stable place, but in reality the tectonic plates that make up our planet's crust are slowly and constantly moving due to the liquid mantle layer below. This causes the plates, which fit together like puzzle pieces, to bump into, pull apart from, and rub against each other. This movement is not without consequence and often causes some of the most deadly natural disasters in the world. Earthquakes occur when the plate boundaries get stuck together but the plates themselves keep moving. Volcanoes occur when plates crash into or pull away from each other and hot magma from below rises up to the surface in an eruption. Tsunamis arise when a large ground-shaking event vertically displaces water, sending a very energized wave toward shore. Many of these events occur in the same places on Earth, a region known as 'The Ring of Fire.' This is no accident. Many plate boundaries are also found in this region, and their movements and interactions leave a lasting impact on the landscapes and people who live there.

18e Demonstrate knowledge of the mechanisms and the significance of the greenhouse effect on Earth, including the roles of the oceans and biosphere in absorbing greenhouse gases.

Teacher prep: Energy transfer in relation to earth a. Ocean/atmosphere i. Heat radiates from the sun and is circulated throught convection. Some heat is reflected back to space. ii. Hot air will rise leaving a vacuum that will pull in cooler air Notes : heat move around earth. Heat radiates from the sun, release electromagentic radiation visible light, xra, gammay, et. And reacher earth, some I it when electromagnetic readation hits the atmosphere it gets reflected into space. Some of it gets absorbed into atmosphere, some of it alos comes and hits the ground, and energy is absornbed , stored, or released as heat, some to air to contribute to atmospheric heating as well. The grenehouse effect refers that there are certain greenhouses that allow the light to pass throught, and once that hits earth surface turn to heat, and can not pass back out as easily. ,many scientist believe that releaseing os certain chemicals from man mande acitivities into the atmosphere has increased the process contributing to global warming. This is process of how greenhouse effect takes place and this is how heat stored into atmosphere and ground. So heat can be transferred and stored in the atmmose and ground in diffren ways. iii. The sun warms the atmosphere, land, and oceans on earth.the oceans are able to absorb more heat than the land due to the hydrogen bonds in water . ( we can also say the oceans have a higher specific heat or Cp). 1. This affects the direction of wind flow in the day and night along the shoreline 2. Notes : bonds allow to store more heat energy. Heat is movement of molecues at moleculer level the faster moves, the hotter it gets. Thos bonds allow to store more heat in movement of particles. When substane store a lot of heat energy , we say it has a hight specific heat or Cp. In looking at diagram. We see two sceneraio. One is day A, the water has higher Cp, so storeing and not releasing air above water is cooler. B no high CP, cant store heat , so release heat so air above ground is hotter. So when land release heat, that hot air rises, and here is the water, this creates an area of low pressure, so we have higher pressure that wants to come in to lower pressure, so wants to take that air space,takes its place. When sun is beating down and land is hotter then water, wind flows offshore for A. B shows nighttime, water is warmer than land. Since land has lower Cp land gives off heat. Once we loose heat source, now land gives off heat, and air above land starts to become cooler, than air ove the oeacn where a lot of heat is still storedi n water ans is keeping that air above the water warme. Now that air over water is warmer and water over land cooler, that hot air is rising over the water leaving low pressure and the higher pressure over the land is causing air to flow out towards ocean to fill up that space of the air that rose. This causes breezes to occur day and night. b. Interior surface i. There is large amount of thermal energy stored inside the earther that is released in the form of hot springs, volcanic eruptions, hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor and natural gases. ii. Notes : heat heats mantle and crust, gets release in many ways , volcanic eruption,hot springs, ect. Pressure heat, rises towards surface. Same principle, under earth surface too much pressure heat , going up. Learning Outcomes After reviewing this lesson, you should have the ability to: Summarize what happens during the water cycle Describe infiltration and explain how it depends on porosity and permeability Define runoff and explain some of its negative effects Explain what erosion and deposition are nergy Transfer on a Small Scale Atmosphere and Ocean Have you ever felt a sea breeze on the beach during the day? I'm sure you have also felt the hot sand beneath your feet and the warmth of the Sun's rays as you were sunbathing. If so, you have experienced all three processes of heat transfer: convection, conduction, and radiation. These processes are the three basic modes of heat transport in Earth system physics. Once an object such as your feet makes contact with the warmer ground below, the transfer of heat takes place. Energy transfer by the physical contact of a warmer object to a cooler object, and through vibrating molecules, is known as conduction. This usually occurs before convection takes place if a warmer object or medium comes into contact with a cooler object. Convection is a macroscopic process or one that involves the movement of fluid or air, as in our example of the sea breeze. The occurrence of the sea breeze is mainly due to the difference in the heat capacity of the water or ocean versus the land. The heat capacity is the ability of an object to hold heat. The water has a higher heat capacity than the land, so it takes longer for the temperature of the water to change. With the Sun shining during the day, the land heats up faster than the ocean, and so the air is warmer above the land compared to the ocean. As a result, a low pressure system over the land and a high pressure system over the ocean develop. This creates an imbalance of pressure with the the flow of air blowing from the high pressure system (ocean) to the low pressure system (land). This is the process of convection and is a special case called a daytime sea breeze that we may feel on a bright sunny day at the beach. We can also call this process that occurs during a sea breeze convection currents. Using this same example of our day at the beach, the third process called radiation occurs when we may be uncomfortable lying on the very hot sand to get a sun tan. Because the sand's surface has been heating up all day from the Sun's rays, heat in the form of infrared radiation is emitted from the surface. Energy Transfer on a Large Scale Atmosphere and Ocean From our sea breeze example there exists a strong coupling between the atmosphere and ocean through the link of the temperature difference of the land and ocean and the surrounding air. On a much larger scale, or one that involves the whole ocean or Earth system, we can extend this smaller scale sea breeze to a well known weather phenomenon known as El Niño. An El Niño occurs when the water warms in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of South America. The El Nino of 1997-98. Recall how in our sea breeze example the wind blows from cooler air over the ocean to warmer air over the land. The same situation occurs during an El Niño with winds blowing from the cooler ocean in the western Pacific to the warmer ocean in the central and eastern tropical Pacific. This event can last a year or even more and can occur every two to seven years. It is know to affect weather and ocean patterns throughout the world. In order to understand how the radiation transfer of heat occurs on a large scale, we can think of the Sun as a great big driver of all the Earth's processes. One example of this is when the incoming radiation has been reflected from the surface or clouds in the atmosphere, and is then either emitted from the surface as infrared radiation as we saw on the beach, or is re-radiated back downwards towards the surface from the clouds. This re-radiation is one of the most important components in climate change research as it regulates the surface temperature of the Earth with changes over time. This concept is also known as the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect. Earth's Interior Similar to our day at the beach with the warm land surface and cooler ocean, conduction and convection also occur deep in the Earth's interior. By conduction the surface of the Earth or lithosphere can become hot because of melted rock deep in the interior that escapes through cracks of the surface. Events where melted rock flows through the surface of the Earth are called plumes. Once the hot rock rises towards the surface, cooler rock flows downward to the core of the Earth where it is then heated. This then causes circulation of warm and cold material within the interior. This is convection occurring in the deep interior of the Earth and is similar to the processes that occur in our sea breeze example. Lesson Summary Energy is transferred in the atmosphere, ocean, and Earth's interior system by three processes: convection, conduction, and radiation. These processes can all occur at the same time on either a small or large scale. There is also a strong coupling found between the atmosphere and ocean. Large scale phenomenon involving these energy transfer processes can affect weather worldwide. Convection and conduction also occur deep inside the interior of the Earth through processes similar to events in the atmosphere and ocean. fter completing this lesson, you will be able to explain what the greenhouse effect is, how it works, how significant it is on Earth, and how humans have affected it. A short quiz will follow. What Is the Greenhouse Effect? The greenhouse effect is the trapping of the sun's heat in the atmosphere of a planet by gases in that atmosphere. It's called the greenhouse effect because it has a lot in common with how the glass of a greenhouse traps heat inside: heat can get into the greenhouse, but has more trouble leaving. The greenhouse effect happens because of so-called greenhouse gases, which include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and others. The biggest components of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen, are not greenhouses gases. The amount of greenhouse effect present on a planet has a big impact on the temperature of that planet. For example, Venus is super hot and has a runaway greenhouse effect that's more intense than any in the solar system. On the other hand, Mars has very little atmosphere at all, and it's super cold there. The exact process works like this: energy from the sun in the form of visible and ultraviolet light arrives at the earth and enters the atmosphere. The atmosphere is transparent to these wavelengths of light, so it comes straight through without difficulty. Once on the earth, this radiation is absorbed by the surface of the earth and any objects that happen to be on it. The Greenhouse Effect This energy is later re-emitted by the earth's surface, but it's not re-emitted as visible light or ultraviolet, but as infrared. The gases in the earth's atmosphere are not transparent to infrared, so as it heads up towards space, it is stopped - absorbed - by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Nothing that absorbs energy keeps it forever, so the greenhouse gases do release this energy again, but they release it in every direction equally: some of it heads towards space and leaves, but some of it is emitted back down towards the earth; and this process, where the gases bounce some of the energy back to Earth, is what causes the earth to be as warm as it is. The Transparency of the Atmosphere at Different Wavelengths of Light Impact of the Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect is hugely significant. Without it, we wouldn't be able to live on Earth. It's believed that the greenhouse effect increases the temperature of the earth by approximately 33 degrees Celsius. This is an astonishing difference in temperature, and should the greenhouse effect end tomorrow, humans (and most of the life on the planet) would likely go extinct. So, the greenhouse effect is wonderful! We should be thankful it exists. But there are downsides, and one of those downsides is the impact that humans can have on it. Global Warming: Impact of Humans Since the greenhouse effect is caused by gases in the atmosphere, it logically follows that if you add more of those gases, the strength of the greenhouse effect will increase. Basic physics requires this, and that is what we've observed. Over the last century, humans have nearly doubled the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thanks mostly to travel (cars, planes) and industry. The increased presence of this gas in the atmosphere is strongly correlated to an increase in temperature. We Produce a Lot of Greenhouse Gases Based on some figures, we should already have increased the temperature of our planet by 3 to 9 degrees C, a number that would be disastrous for humans and animals alike. So far we've seen an average of around 1 degree (more at the poles, less at the equator) since the late 1800s, though there is a lag (or delay) in temperature rise, and 2 degrees is believed to be unavoidable. It's pretty clear that if humans don't change their behavior, more dangerous temperature increases will follow. Lesson Summary The greenhouse effect is the trapping of the sun's heat in the atmosphere of a planet by gases in that atmosphere. The greenhouse effect happens because of so-called greenhouse gases, which include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and others. The process works because the earth's atmosphere is transparent to the energy from the sun, but opaque to infrared. We absorb energy from the sun, and the earth's surface releases it again as infrared, but the infrared is absorbed by greenhouses gases in the atmosphere and sent back towards the earth. The greenhouse effect is hugely significant. Without it, we wouldn't be able to live on Earth. But human activities are releasing more greenhouses gases, like carbon dioxide, and making it stronger. So far the average temperature worldwide has increased by 1 degree Celsius. If humans don't change their behavior, more d ou hear a lot about greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect these days, but what exactly is a greenhouse gas? You may be surprised to learn that greenhouse gases are not only naturally occurring, but are also essential to life on Earth. The Greenhouse Effect In order to understand greenhouse gas, we must first understand the larger concept of the greenhouse effect. To do so, let's use a metaphorical example: Think of a car on a hot summer day. After it sits for a long time in the sun with the windows up, it gets pretty hot in there! Sunlight comes in through the windows and warms the car's interior. If the windows are completely closed, there is no place for this heat to escape. But if the windows are cracked, this creates a place for some of the heat to leave the car. When it comes to climate and environmental science, the earth is very much like the car, and greenhouse gases are very much like the windows. Greenhouse gases allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and reach the earth's surface. Some of this sunlight is captured as heat on Earth, and some of it is radiated back toward space. When greenhouse gases are present in the right amounts, they trap just enough heat to keep the earth warm enough for organisms to survive while letting some of that heat back into space. Without greenhouse gases, the earth would be a very chilly 0° F (-18° C). This trapping of heat under the atmosphere is called the greenhouse effect. So, if greenhouse gases are so good for us, why do they get such a bad reputation? The problem with greenhouse gases is that they need to be present in specific amounts. When too little gas is present, not enough heat is trapped under the atmosphere to keep the earth warm. When too much gas is present, too much heat gets trapped, which warms the earth more than usual. The types and amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are only beneficial when they are present in just the right balance. Greenhouse Gas Defined The earth's atmosphere is made up of many different types of gases, each of which contributes to the greenhouse effect differently. The most important greenhouse gases are: Water vapor Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide Fluorinated gases So in essence, a greenhouse gas is simply any atmospheric gas that traps heat within the atmosphere. This trapped heat creates the greenhouse effect, which in turn, contributes to climate change. Causes and Effects Greenhouse gases are naturally present in the atmosphere, but human production has been increasing the concentration of these gases faster than they can naturally break down. This increase is mainly due to the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas and excess methane production from livestock and landfills. The global temperature change from too much greenhouse gas can have serious consequences. Rising temperatures on Earth may produce severe changes in weather patterns, such as hotter summers, colder winters, and stronger storms, like hurricanes and tornadoes. Increasing global temperature may also lead to a rise in sea levels as the polar ice melts. As sea levels rise, many organisms will lose valuable habitat, and people will be forced to move farther inland. It is difficult to say just how much of the current increase in greenhouse gas concentration is due to human energy use, since some natural variations in greenhouse gases do occur. However, most scientists believe that because the increases are so large and are happening so quickly, that most of the change is not natural. There is also concern because we still do not know exactly how much damage such high concentrations of greenhouse gas can do. Nevertheless, slowing the production of greenhouse gas is the most important step we can take to prevent further greenhouse gas build-up in the atmosphere and reduce the effects of climate change. Lesson Summary Let's review. The earth's atmosphere includes a number of greenhouse gases, such as: Water vapor Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide Fluorinated gases A greenhouse gas is simply any atmospheric gas that traps heat within the atmosphere. These gases allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and reach the earth's surface. Some of this sunlight is captured as heat, and some of it is radiated back to space. When greenhouse gases are present in the right amounts, they trap just enough heat to keep the earth warm enough for organisms to survive. However, when too much greenhouse gas is present, too much heat gets trapped, which warms the earth more than usual. This trapped heat creates the greenhouse effect, which in turn contributes to the damaging effects of climate change. n this lesson, we're going to be learning about how the ocean and biosphere help control global warming by absorbing greenhouse gases. We'll look at how this is affecting the Earth and the prognosis for years to come. What Are Greenhouse Gases? In 2017, hurricanes pummeled the southern coast of the United States and the Caribbean in close succession. Many islands lost everything, with beaches, cities, and all infrastructure destroyed. In the same year, the worst wildfires in history raged through California while thousands were forced to evacuate. Meanwhile, droughts ripped through Africa and parts of the Antarctica pack ice broke apart during their winter, a time when pack ice should normally refreeze. What is going on in our world? Human activities are putting increasing amounts of stress on the Earth. Many of our problems stem from the production of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide or methane. These gases wrap the Earth like a blanket, trapping heat from the Sun. This is leading to climate change, or an increase in global temperature on Earth. This doesn't simply mean everywhere is getting hotter. Climate change results in rising sea levels, altered chemical composition of the ocean, and large-scale changes in weather patterns that are causing increased numbers of natural disasters. What Is The Carbon Cycle? Carbon dioxide cycles through living things, also known as the biosphere; the atmosphere; the oceans; and Earth. Normal processes like breathing and geological activities release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Trees take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere during photosynthesis, and the oceans are also able to absorb some. Over millions of years, the carbon in living things is compressed into fossil fuels deep within the Earth after they die. But, humans are disrupting this process. We are digging up fossil fuels and burning them faster than they can be made. Today, we're going to look at how two specific parts of the carbon cycle are involved in controlling levels of greenhouse gases: the biosphere and the ocean. Biosphere Redwood trees are some of the largest living things on Earth, growing up to 360 feet tall. Where do these trees get their mass? Many students might think of water or nutrients, but the answer is actually something invisible - carbon dioxide. Trees take in carbon dioxide and use water and light energy from the Sun to convert it to sugar through the process of photosynthesis. This reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and helps to mitigate human activities that are driving climate change. Photosynthesis allows plants to store carbon as sugar But, the biosphere includes all living things on Earth, so how is everyone else involved? All living things are made of carbon. Plants take carbon dioxide from the air and make that into carbon-based sugars, like glucose. When herbivores consume the plants, they eat the sugar, and thus the carbon, and use it to make energy, grow, and repair. But you might be thinking, 'what about the carnivores'? After all, carnivores only eat meat. But, remember, all living things are made of carbon. So, the plants got the carbon from the atmosphere, the herbivores ate those plants, and now the carnivores consume the herbivores and the carbon continues to be passed up the food chain. But, all good things must come to an end, and eventually, all of these living things will die. When organisms die in a natural ecosystem, their bodies are eaten by scavengers, again passing the carbon onto other parts of the biosphere. Whatever remains will be destroyed by decomposers like worms and fungi and the rest of the carbon will be returned to the soil. Over millions of years, the geologic processes of the Earth will compress those living things into rock, and eventually, they will become fossil fuels like coal and oil. Oceans The oceans are one of the most important ecosystems on Earth. Although we usually think of rainforests as providing most of the oxygen for Earth, it's actually our oceans that supply 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere. If that wasn't enough, our oceans are one of the largest carbon sinks on the planet, meaning a body that can store carbon dioxide. The ocean absorbs carbon dioxide and when it comes in contact with water, it is converted to carbonic acid. This is a natural process, and carbonic acid can also convert back to carbon dioxide. However, humans are adding so much carbon dioxide to the atmosphere that it's taking the process out of balance. The ocean is a major hold for our excess carbon dioxide emissions. Some scientists estimate that about 25% of the excess carbon dioxide we release into the atmosphere is taken up by the oceans. This prevents at least some of our carbon dioxide emissions from trapping heat in the atmosphere. However, everybody has a limit. With increased carbon dioxide comes increased production of carbonic acid, making our oceans more acidic. This process, called ocean acidification, is causing the death of many marine species. In addition, scientists believe eventually there will be a saturation point at which the ocean cannot absorb any more carbon dioxide, and all of our emissions will end up sitting in the atmosphere causing global warming. Ocean acidification is killing many marine species such as coral Lesson Summary Greenhouse gases trap heat in our atmosphere causing climate change. The biosphere, all living things on Earth, is one carbon sink, or holding tank for carbon. Green plants take in carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and covert it to sugars made of carbon. That carbon is transferred to other organisms when they eat plants and each other. When living things die, their carbon is released back into the soil and compressed into fossil fuels over millions of years. The ocean is another carbon sink, which absorbs carbon dioxide and converts it to carbonic acid. However, excess carbonic acid is causing ocean acidification, which is damaging to marine organisms. he human population continues to grow, but the size of Earth and the resources available for our use are limited. Humans greatly impact the world around them, and our actions can and often do have dramatic and long-lasting consequences.

What happense to resistance if you add resistors in parallel vs in series?

- Adding resistors in parallel DECREASES total resistance - Adding resistors in series INCREASES total resistance

8Demonstrate knowledge of the ways in which energy manifests itself at the macroscopic level (e.g., motion, sound, light, thermal energy

At the macroscopic scale, energy manifests itself in multiple ways, such as in motion, sound, light, and thermal energy. • These relationships are better understood at the microscopic scale, at which all of the different manifestations of energy can be modeled as a combination of energy associated with the motion of particles and energy associated with the configuration (relative position of the particles). In some cases, the relative position energy can be thought of as stored in fields (which mediate interactions between particles). This last concept includes radiation, a phenomenon in which energy stored in fields moves across space. · In our everyday experience, some of the most common ways that energy manifests itself are: heat, light, electricity, mechanical motion, and sound. · Heat · Heat is a form of energy that we can gauge by measuring a change in temperature. In chemical reactions, we often refer to heat and energy equivalently. Heat is the most common form of energy transfer in chemical equations. · When we look at the above example (the lightning storm story), heat manifested itself several times. The most obvious manifestation was the heat from the fire. But most of our energy expenditure also transfers some heat. When we ride a bike, we heat up, and the parts of the bike heat up; this is energy lost to heat. Electricity also loses some energy to heat. If we were to get too close to a lightning bolt, we would be burnt to a crisp, because there is heat energy in the lightning. · We can find evidence of energy manifesting as heat all around us. · Light · Light energy is energy that we can actually see. Light is technically a form of electromagnetic radiation. Typically we refer to visible light, which is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of 400-700 nanometers. But it could also be UV light, gamma rays, or other radiation that is not visible. These rays can be measured using special machines, but we cannot see them with our eyes. · Examples of energy manifesting itself as light in the example story are the sparkle from the fire, the lights from the television, and the light from the lightning. We are able to see the manifestation of energy as light when the wavelengths are within the visible light spectrum. · In chemical reactions, sometimes light is needed in order for a reaction to occur. The light gives the energy for the reaction to occur. Photosynthesis is the most common chemical reaction that requires light, when a plant takes in light and turns it into food. · Electricity · Electricity may be confusing to imagine compared to the other more evident forces. Strictly speaking, we can't see it, hear it, feel it, or touch it, although we can see its effects (for example, when a television turns on). Electric energy is the energy of an electric charge. · We see a natural manifestation of electric energy when we see lightning, although it's light energy that we see and not the electric energy itself. Another natural example of electric energy is how electron transfer (the transfer of electric charge in molecules) allows our body to get energy from food. In the past couple of centuries, we've learned how to contain and use this electric energy. This is why we're able to plug a television into an outlet in the wall and then it works. · We can look at a chemical equation and see how electrons are moving in order to follow the transfer of energy. In fact, when you see little arrows in chemical equation mechanisms, this is indicating a movement of electrons. · Mechanical Motion · Mechanical motion is the physical motion of objects. This is probably the most apparent or intuitive manifestation of energy. We see it when we move our arm, when the tires of a car or bicycle spin, or when a ball falls from a cliff. When a mom tells a kid they need to go 'burn off some energy,' typically she means to go run around for a while. We think of movement as a result of energy. Mechanical motion can be seen in the spinning of a bicycle wheel. · Mechanical motion is often what we want to ultimately accomplish with energy. We want to move our arms, so we transfer electrons from food to our body. Heat energy may be generated in this process, but it's all to move our arms and pump our heart. · Sound · The manifestation of sound energy is similar to light energy, as both move as waves. Our ears interpret waves of compressed air as sound. These sound waves occur when something vibrates (for example, a guitar string) or merely when air is compressed in some way (for example, dropping a box on the ground), which creates pressure waves. A good illustration of this is how our vocal chords vibrate to create sounds when we speak. · We could think of sound energy as motion, but the motions are on such a small scale that we can't see it occurring. But our ears are able to pick up on this motion and translate it into sound. · Lesson Summary · Energy is the power of everything around us. It manifests itself in many different ways. In chemistry, we often experience energy as heat or the change in temperature as energy is transferred from one molecule to another. We are able to physically see light energy and hear sound energy. Electricity involves the transfer of electrons and is apparent to our senses only through its effects. Mechanical motion is the energy we observe when something moves. · Energy stored in chemical bonds is chemical energy. Chemical energy isn't just in the chem lab at school, it's the energy stored in our food molecules and in our bodies. When you use energy to run around the block, you're using chemical energy. · There's also energy due to heat, or thermal energy. Light energy from the Sun provides visible light needed to see the world. There's also energy stored in any moving object, called kinetic energy, and stored energy in objects due to height, called gravitational potential energy.

hwo do humans contribuite to and what is habitat fragmentation? How does fragmentation affect population sizes ? How is habitat fragmentation a risk for keystone speciies ? how do humans contribuite to overharvesting why is this bad ? how can we counter human enviornmental impact ? what is wildlife corridor ? how can we protect foresnt ? what are types of ecoloialc conservation for ocenas , fish farm, ? what are 7 types of ecological conserviation ?

Human Environmental Impacts Our Earth has just so much space and just so many resources for the species that live here. As humans, we often forget that we share our planet with many other species, taking what we need and/or want from our surroundings and putting the neighboring non-human species at risk of starvation, loss of habitat, and even extinction. All of what we need to survive, as well as everything we want, comes from the Earth. We harvest trees to build homes; we drain lakes and underground aquifers for drinking, cleaning, and supporting agriculture. Coal, oil, and natural gas extraction destroy multiple habitats to power our cars, cell phones, and computers. We clear land to grow more food and to build more homes for ourselves. We harvest wild and farmed plants and animals to feed ourselves. We introduce invasive species that disrupt the natural balance of ecosystems and create tremendous impacts upon the native species. Everything we do impacts the world around us. We are destroying coral reefs, reducing biodiversity, unbalancing the carbon and nitrogen cycles, and even impacting our own health. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation Many human activities, such as farming, development, deforestation, mining, and environmental pollution, are very destructive to natural habitats. These activities cause habitat fragmentation, which splits larger habitats into smaller disconnected spaces or eliminates them completely. Human impact on natural habitats is the biggest threat to biodiversity. This impact causes animals to lose access to resources they need for survival, unless they travel across roads or other dangerous areas close to humans. Habitat fragmentation occurs not only in urban areas, but also in rural areas. Logging and logging roads fragment forests. Dams alter wetlands, and development along coastal areas, oil spills, trash, and cargo ship accidents pollute our oceans, affecting freshwater and marine habitats. Fragmentation reduces the amount of functional habitat available, and isolates species populations into sub-populations that may be near the minimum viable population size to risk local extinction from resource competition, disease, and natural disasters. Some species may not be able to travel between fragmented patches of their ecosystem, causing them to suffer from inbreeding, increasing their risk of disease. If habitat fragmentation affects keystone populations, which are those that form a central support within an ecosystem, the entire ecosystem can fail. Fragmentation can cause a keystone species to disappear or overpopulate, which has a ripple effect and consequently causes overpopulation or loss of other species within the ecosystem. Overharvesting Humans consume more than we need, particularly in industrialized countries. We harvest plants and animals and other resources much faster than populations can recover. This is called overharvesting. This is especially prevalent in our oceans where we have reduced some species to near extinction by overfishing. We now consume fish that were once thought of as trash fish. Clear-cutting forests is overharvesting of trees. Poaching has put animals such as tigers, rhinoceroses, and elephants at serious risk of extinction. Ecological Conservation There are numerous ways to counter human environmental impact through ecological conservation. One example is wildlife corridors, which link areas of larger habitats together. They work like roads for animals, including over- or under-passes for crossing busy roads. Strict poaching laws and armed guards protect some of our most imperiled species. Reforestation helps return trees to logged areas. Protecting our oceans requires cooperation between all nations and coastlines. Sanctuary zones allow marine creatures space to recover from over fishing, pollutants, and other impacts. Fish farms are producing fish for human consumption, counteracting overharvesting. Many urban areas all over the world are encouraging rooftop and community gardens for growing food. New technologies in water permeable roadways conserve water and reduce heat returning to the atmosphere. These are a few of the ways conservation biologists are working to counter habitat fragmentation and human environmental impact. Human activities do not have to cause irreparable harm to the Earth and its inhabitants. With ecological conservation management and planning for biodiversity from genes to ecosystems, we can mutually exist in sustainable ways with nature. Ecological conservation can help to diminish the effects of human environmental impact by use of: Wildlife corridors Strict poaching laws Reforestation Sanctuary zones Fish farms Urban gardening Permeable roadways Human Environmental Impact: Key Terms Term Explanation Habitat fragmentation Splits larger habitats into smaller disconnected spaces or eliminates them completely Keystone populations Species that forms a central support within an ecosystem; if the population fails, the entire ecosystem can fail Overharvesting Harvesting plants and animals and other resources much faster than populations can recover Ecological conservation Working to counter or diminish the effects of human environmental impact Wildlife corridors Link areas of larger habitats together; roads for animals, including over- or under-passes for crossing busy roads

a. Demonstrate knowledge of sustainable uses of resources with respect to utility, cost, and demand. e.

Human population is growing at an exponential rate. Our demand for resources are very high (food, water, clothing, natural gas, coal, electricity, etc). Thus, there is a need to find methods to extract resources or produce resources at a low cost. Recycling sometimes provides resources at a lower cost than the process of extraction.Alternative Energy Sources: Nuclear Energy: approximately 8% of energy is produced by nuclear power plants. The fuel source is from radioactive materials that release energy by nuclear fission (bombarding heavy atoms to split into smaller nuclei, which emits neutrons and heat energy. The ejected neutrons then bombard nearby atoms, causing a chain reaction). Pro: 1) Does not emit carbon dioxideCons:1) Cost: very expensive to build a a nuclear facility that contains numerous safety features. 2) Safety: A big concern is radioactive debris escaping during a meltdown or a malfunction. Disposal of nuclear waste is another area of concern. Solar Energy: use of the sun's rays to supply energy. Passive solar collectors is most widely used. Examples: south-facing windows, greenhouses, and sun rooms. The sunlight passes through the glass windows and is absorbed by the objects in the room. The object then radiate heat that warms the air. This method can cut heating costs. Active solar collectors are much more elaborate and complex. Panels collect the sunlight and stores it for later use.Pro: Solar energy is free. In regards to the active solar collectors, it can be very economical in many parts of the US, especially as prices for other fuels continues to increase. Con: In regards to the active solar collectors, the con is the initial cost for the equipment and installations. Wind Energy: moving air has kinetic energy. A portion of that energy can be converted to other forms of energy such as mechanical or electricity. Wind energy can pump water, propel boats, generate electricity, and grind grains. Pros: clean source that does not release harmful products into our environment, free renewable wind source, economicalCons: noise pollution, fluctuations in wind, blades can injure wildlifeHydroelectric Power: 3% of the countries demand for energy is met by hydroelectric power. Most of the energy is produced at large dams. Pros: renewable, generating electricity with hydroelectricity does not cause pollution, and safeCons: environmental consequences (change water flow, affect fish life), expensive to build dams, will not work if there is a droughtGeothermal Energy: taps the the underground reservoir of steam and hot water. Pros: clean, no fuel is required, simple and reliableCons: location-specific, high construction costsTidal Power: harnessed by constructing a dam across the mouth of a bay or an estuary in a area that has a large tidal range. The flow of the tides is used to drive turbines and electrical generators. Pros: no fuel is required, renewable, clean, efficient and reliableCons: expensive to build, disrupts regular tide cycles, impacts marine wildlife such as affecting mud flats where birds feedteacher prep: · Sustainable uses of resource o Sustainable resources can continuially be replenished as they are used. This allows future generations the ability to obtain resources and preserve a liable environment o Using resources ina sustainable way does sometimes cost more initially for set up but has many long term benefits o Ex: replant trees.

orgnalles and their function?

Lysosomes- (aka, waste disposal) special type of round vacuoles that contain powerful enzymes. Lysosomes takes in bacteria and foreign bodies to be destroyed by the enzymes. Outer skin does not allow enzymes out into the cell, but if the cell is damaged, then the skin disappears and the cell digests itself. Contains hydrolytic enzymes necessary for intracellular digestion. This organelle helps keep excessive macromolecules from building up in the cell. This is common in animals cells. Vacuoles act like this in animal cells. Ribosomes- tiny round particles usually attached to the endoplasmic reticulum that are involved in the building of proteins from amino acids. "Coded" information is sent to the ribosomes in strands called the messenger RNA that pass on the codes so that ribosomes join the amino acids in the right way to make proteins. Ribosomes are also present as ribosomal RNA and molecules of transfer RUNA "carry" the amino acids to the ribosomes. Found in both plant and animal cells. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- (aka transport system) flat sacs folding inward from cell membrane and joining up with nuclear membrane. It provides large surface area for reaction or fluid storage, and a passageway for fluids passing through. ER with ribosomes is rough ER. ER without ribosomes is smooth ER. Found in plants and animals. Golgi Apparatus- (aka delivery system) a special area of the smooth ER. It collects substances made in the cell. Once the sac fills up, it gets pinched off (vacuole) and travels out of the cells via cytoplasm. Found in plants and animals. Centrioles- vital to cell division. In animals, they lie just outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm. They form an x-shape and is made up of nine sets of three tiny tubes. Found only in animal cells. Nucleoli- one or two small round objects in the nucleus that produces the component parts of ribosomes which are carried out of the nucleus and assembled in the cytoplasm. They are then attached to the rough ER. Found in plants and animal cells. Mitochondria- Commonly referred to as the Powerhouse. The mitochondria provides the cell energy it needs to produce secretory products. Inner layer of the folds that provides large surface area for vital chemical reaction which go inside the mitochondria. Places where simple substances taken into cell are broken down to provide energy. Found in plants and animals. Plastids- these are tiny bodies in the plant cell's cytoplasm. Leucoplasts store starch, oil, or protein. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll to make food (photosynthesis). Found in plant cells only. Cytosol- the "soup" where organelles reside and metabolism occurs. Mostly water and full of proteins that control metabolism. Signals transduction, glycolyis, intercellular receptors, and transcription factors. Peroxisomes- These are membrane-bound sacs filled with oxidative enzymes. In plant cells they play a variety of roles such as converting fatty acids into sugar and assisting chloroplasts with photosynthesis. Within the animal cells, peroxisomes protects the cells from the production of hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is produced to kill bacteria. Peroxisome enzymes then break down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Organelles found in both plants and animal cells.

what is deforenstation ? what is desertification ? why is biodiversity impornat ofr ecosystmes ? how is dfeoresttation and desertification bad for biodiveristy , such as in rainforest ecocystme ?

Natural Environments Imagine that you are out on a camping trip deep within the forest. During the day, you enjoy watching the animals and birds as they play among the trees and plants. Then, at night, you climb into your tent and fall asleep listening to the crickets, bullfrogs and other creatures of the night. But, as morning breaks, you step out of your tent to find that all of the plants and animals have disappeared and, in their place, is dry and barren land. Okay, this is a bit extreme, and this drastic of an environmental shift could not happen overnight. However, with mismanagement of woodland and natural disasters, lush forests can be negatively impacted and can even turn into deserts over time. In this lesson, we will take a look at how these changes take place and how they impact the biological diversity of the ecosystems. Deforestation Deforestation is the term that describes the cutting down or clearing of trees from a wooded area. There are a number of reasons woodlands or forests are cut down. In some cases, the trees themselves are the desired resource. Trees have been a source of fuel for many generations and continue to be used in this way today. They are also turned into timber for use in building and carpentry, as well as used in the production of paper products. In other cases, trees are cleared because they are in the way of progress. Forests may be cleared to make room for farmland or for grazing land for cattle, or they may be removed to make room for new houses, neighborhoods or expanding cities. Some deforestation is not intentional and can result due to natural causes, such as wildfires. Regardless of the cause, deforestation can be detrimental to the environment. A forest acts as a carbon sink because it absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis. When trees are destroyed, they release their stored carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere, which contributes to the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the phenomenon whereby atmospheric gases, like carbon dioxide, trap the sun's heat, causing the earth's surface to warm. The harmful effects of deforestation can also be seen on land. Without trees to protect soil and hold it in place, soil erosion, or the washing away of soil, can occur during periods of rain. Trees also play a pivotal role in the water cycle, which is the constant movement of water between the earth and the atmosphere. Tree roots absorb water from the ground and return water vapor back to the atmosphere. If trees are removed and can no longer contribute to the water cycle, the previously forested land can transform into a much drier climate. This dry environment can spread due to a decrease in atmospheric water vapor and results in a decline in precipitation levels in the area. Desertification These factors all combine to create a warmer and drier climate and may result in desertification, which is the transformation of once fertile land into desert. Deforestation is not the only cause of desertification. Land can turn dry and barren due to drought, shifts in the climate or aggressive agricultural or grazing practices. All of these causes, along with deforestation, lead to the loss of vegetation in the area. Without the vegetation, soil erosion accelerates and water does not easily absorb into the ground. The soil becomes dry and deplete of moisture and groundwater reserves go unfilled. The soil is left unfertile and barren with nothing to do but bake in the hot sun. Biodiversity It's easy to see that deforestation and desertification have many detrimental effects on the environment, but one of the most devastating impacts is on the loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is the variability of life forms within a given ecosystem. This is an easy term to recall if you remember that the word 'bio' refers to 'life' and the word 'diversity' refers to 'variety.' So, the term 'biodiversity' literally means a variety of life forms. Forests support biodiversity by providing natural habitats for various plants and animals. Forests, and especially tropical rainforests, provide some of the greatest areas of biodiversity on the planet, and a decline in these environments means a decline in biodiversity. Biodiversity is important for the proper functioning of all types of ecosystems and plays a role in recycling nutrients and providing healthy soil. A biologically diverse ecosystem is a stable ecological community, but if this diversity is compromised, by such things as deforestation, the natural balance of the ecosystem is disrupted. This leads to the loss of habitats for many lesser species. It also destroys medicinal plants that have been used for hundreds of years to heal human ailments. The tropical rainforests are still the origin of medications used today for the treatment of cancer and other diseases. If deforestation continues at its current pace, the loss of biodiversity could compromise the existence of medicinal plants used for therapeutic purposes. Lesson Summary Let's review. Deforestation is defined as the cutting down or clearing of trees from a wooded area. A forest acts as a carbon sink because it absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When trees are destroyed, they release the stored carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere, which contributes to the greenhouse effect. Trees prevent soil erosion and play a pivotal role in the water cycle by absorbing water in the ground and returning water vapor back to the atmosphere. If trees are removed, the area can become much warmer and drier, which may result in desertification, which is a transformation of once fertile land into desert. Deforestation and desertification have many detrimental effects on the environment, but one of the most devastating impacts is the loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity is the variability of life forms within a given ecosystem. Forests, and especially tropical rainforests, provide some of the greatest areas of biodiversity on the planet. If this diversity is compromised, it can lead to the loss of habitats for many plants and animals and destroy medicinal plants.

6c c. Identify the separate forces that act on a system (e.g., gravity, tension/compression, normal force, friction), describe the net force on the system, and describe the effect on the stability of the system.

Normal force may be the most common force that acts on a body. Occurs when two bodies are in direct contact with each other and are perpendicular to the body that applies force. An example is a man standing on a platform. Gravity pushes the man down, while the platform counteracts the force pushed down on the man. This force is called normal force. This force is an example of Newton's third law (every force has an equal and opposite reaction force). If object not moving, that means force normal force is equal to gravity force. Friction is the force that acts to oppose the motion of two touching objects over each other. It is caused by the intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules of the surfaces.the force from friction is perpendicular to the normal foce and in the same direction as the edfe. It is qual to coefficient for surface. In this, we have gravity pulling down. Gravity is the force of attraction between two objects which have mass. Pushing up is normal force. pulling down Is force of gravity. FG is the force pulling straight down. F1G is line comes from normal force, this is the force of gravity counteracted by the normal force going this way , F1G. but F2 Is the part gravity pulling it down the force sliding down. Gravint pulling agains ramp and pulling it so it slides down ramp. Since its just sitting on ramp, F1G=Fn.it it slides down depend on friction, that goes in the opposite direction. F2G wants to overcome Ffricton. If F2G is greated, then it slides down. Lest say put a pice of ice, it would slide, whats the difference? The friction coefficient. Every surface ha sits own friction coefficient. If they tell you to calculate , they will give you that friction coeffiction. Another force that act on a body is tension. Tension occurs when equal and opposite forces are applied to the ends of an object and pulls the object apart. The molecules are held together by the intermolecular force of attraction. Lest say hang weight, tnesion is going upward , being pulled by the rope. When have solid the rope it is getting deformed and it wants to go back to its orgiinal form, so the atoms that want to be back to normal they want to pull back , that creates force of tension, so it does no bend easily. Atoms getting pulled by weight want to go back to normal . Compression is the force opposite of tension. The force also has equal and oppositve forces that is applied to the ends of an object that decreases the length of an object. This force is opposed by the intermolecular force of attraction. This pushing force that squeese it together, so atoms deformed want to spring back out ot normal shape. This force squeese instead of pulling ( tension). pressure on an object is the force exerted by a liquid, solid, or gas on a unit area of the object (solid, liquid, or gas). The smaller the area the pressure force acts on, the greater the pressure.example test : skydiver falling down, force of air resisantce Fair resistance. Fg is pushing down. So when he falls, Fg is greater then Far. So he is accelertting downward. As he falls, the air is pushing more and more up. He reaches speed equal to the downward force of gravity . when Fg =Far, he reached terminal velcolity, he cant go faster. Another example : he have a pulley. We have Fg puling donw box. Normal force equal to boxes weight is pushing up Fn. Since box is sitting there, Fn=Fg. If attach rope and weight , we created more force. the weight wants to come down, Fg2 puling downward. The pulley wants to pull . There is also upward force of Ftensing Ft pushing up. We also have Ft going this way , the line pulling from box up to the right. So Ft of box is the same as Ft of the wegiht. Friction is also between box on the top, opposing the direction of Ft, so it is oppostige. So it comes down to if Fg 2 pulling down is greater than Ffriction ( top left) then box falls to the right. Fg2 is = Fn. So they may ask, if box fax which force of friction is greater ? be able to exaplain these. Antoher example : car driving circle in constate speed. Force car going this way inward that is Fc centripedal force. there is inertia that wants car to go straight. We have normal force going upward. That is opposing force of graivyt. Weight is mass x gravity pulling down. Fg pulling down. Then we have Force engine . Force of friction is resisting Fengine.Ffriction goes opposti direction of force of engine. As long as these are equal, the car goes the same speed. We have additional force, centripedal force. the centripefa force Fc does not have another force that counteracts it, so the car makes a curve. That diagrams car going in circel. Be able diagram how force act on object. able to calculate basic relationships. so here, N pushing up. Weight is mass pulled by graigyt. N resistnt gravity. IfN GREATER, IT WOULD FLOAT. If gravity greater, it would crack table . if equal it stays the same. F1 watns pull down ramp. F2 resistn normal force. that creates friction. If friction goes oppostei to the driection the box wants to move. If F1 is grated then force of friction, then box slides down ramp. So there needs to be a net force to see box move. So if they tell you there is no net force, or forces cancel out then either body continue moving at state of motion or if at rest it stays. If there is net force, then it acceleration or start to move if it was originally at rest. Gravity is the force of attraction between two objects which have mass.The pressure on an object is the force exerted by a liquid, solid, or gas on a unit area of the object (solid, liquid, or gas). The smaller the area the pressure force acts on, the greater the pressure.Another force that act on a body is tension. Tension occurs when equal and opposite forces are applied to the ends of an object and pulls the object apart. The molecules are held together by the intermolecular force of attraction.Compression is the force opposite of tension. The force also has equal and oppositve forces that is applied to the ends of an object that decreases the length of an object. This force is opposed by the intermolecular force of attraction.Normal force may be the most common force that acts on a body. Occurs when two bodies are in direct contact with each other and are perpendicular to the body that applies force. An example is a man standing on a platform. Gravity pushes the man down, while the platform counteracts the force pushed down on the man. This force is called normal force. This force is an example of Newton's third law (every force has an equal and opposite reaction force).Friction is the force that acts to oppose the motion of two touching objects over each other. It is caused by the intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules of the surfaces. A lever is an object which is pivoted about an axis (falcrum). The load and effort can be applied on either or the same side. Load is the scientific word for weight. Effort is the amount of effort that is needed to move the weight. An advantage to this machine is that it makes it easier to move or crush the load.There are three different types of levers. Type 1 Type 2 Type 3Fulcrum is between the effort and the load The load is between the fulcrum and effort. Effort is between the fulcrum and load.(ex. Shovel on top of a rock) (ex. Nut cracker) (ex. Arm bones) Pulleys use a wheel (or more) and a rope (or belt or chain) to move an object. An advantage to this pulley system is that since it involves the rope being being wound around the pulleys, the load is reduced, making it easier to pull an object vertically.Inclined plane is a plane surface that is placed at an angle to the horizontal. An advantage to this machine is that it is easier to move an object up the inclined plane than it is to move it vertically upwards.The mechanical advantage is the number of times a machine multiplies your effort force. Steps to find the mechanical advantage: 1) Identify the fulcum.2) Identify the input and output forces. Input force is where the force is applied to the lever. The output force is the force that is being applied to the object.3) Find the distance between the fulcrum and the input force, called resistance arm.4) Find the distance between the fulcrum and the output force, called effort arm. 5). Take the length of the effort arm and divide it by the length of the resistance arm. MA= effort arm/ resistance armClass 1 and class 2 can be used to gain mechanical advantage.Examples: First class leverEffort arm= 100 centimetersresistance arm= 10 centimetersMechanical advantage= 10Second Class LeverEffort arm= 100 centimetersResistance arm= 25 centimetersMechanical advantage= 4Third Class LeverEffort arm= 100 centimetersResistance arm= 25Mechanical advantage= .25The mechanical advantage for a class 3 lever will always be less than 1. Contact forces are just what they sound like: forces that result from the interaction of two objects in contact with each other. Forces that belong in this category are friction, air resistance, normal force, applied force, tension force, and spring force. Friction is a force that you are quite familiar with already. This force occurs when objects rub against each other. The burn you feel on your skin when you go down a slide? Friction! Your brake pads and rotors stopping your car? Friction again! Friction acts in a direction to oppose motion - when you pull a bag across the floor to the right, the force of friction on the bag is to the left. Even objects falling downward through the air experience friction acting upward, this time from the air. This special type of frictional force is called air resistance. It's the friction that acts on an object as it moves through the air. Again, this force is in a direction opposite to the direction of the object's motion. There's a really important force that keeps us from falling through the floor called the normal force. This is the upward force that balances the weight of an object (another force that we'll talk about later) on a surface. If the object is at rest on a horizontal surface, the normal force is the same as the object's weight. Gravity pulls you down, but the normal force pushes back up on you from the floor. An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by another object. If you push a box across the floor, your force pushing on the box is the applied force. And remember how we said before that you can have multiple forces acting at once? You better believe that in addition to your applied force on the box, that box is also experiencing friction from the floor, gravity pulling it down, and the normal force pushing it up - all at the same time! Tension force is the tension through a string or other fully-stretched object. If you tie something to a string and let it hang from your fingers, the tension force is the same for both the object at the end of the string and your fingers holding that string. Spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring. This force acts on the object that is compressing or stretching the spring. Push a spring together with your hands, and I bet you'll feel that spring force being exerted! The same idea is true for net force. This is the vector sum of all forces acting on an object. As we learned in another lesson, forces are vector quantities because they have both magnitude and direction. We represent vectors with arrows - the size of the arrow shows the relative magnitude of the force, while the direction of the arrow shows in which direction the force is acting. Calculating Net Force Because forces have different magnitudes and directions, we can't just add up the forces and get a total amount. What we have to do is find the difference between the forces as we add up the vectors - we have to find the net force. This is quite similar to adding positive and negative numbers. For example, if there is a force acting on an object and it is 5 Newton (capital letter 'N' for Newton) to the left, we could see this as +5 to the left. If at the same time there is a 5 N force to the right acting on that same object, this would be like subtracting 5 to the right. 5 - 5 = 0, so we have zero net force. The forces cancel each other out. Forces don't always cancel out, though. For example, if there are two forces acting toward the right, and they are both 5 N, then we have 5 + 5 = 10. This would be 10 N to the right because both forces are acting in the same direction with the same magnitude. But let's say we have 5 N to the right and 15 N to the left. 15 - 5 = 10, and since the greater magnitude force is acting to the left, that's where our net force is, too. So in this case, the net force is 10 N to the left. We can do this for vertical forces as well. Say that an object is falling toward the ground, which means that both gravity and air resistance are acting on it. If gravity is pulling down with 600 N and air resistance is pushing up with only 200 N, then 600 - 200 = 400, so we have 400 N downward as our net force. Net Force Changes State of Motion Newton's first law says that an object continues in its state of rest or motion unless acted on by an outside unbalanced force. Forces are unbalanced when there is a net force greater than zero. When there is no net force, we say the forces are balanced. This can be true for both moving and stationary objects. For example, an airplane traveling at constant velocity (so both constant speed and direction) can have balanced forces acting from the front and the back. The plane is moving, but if both forces are the same magnitude, then there is zero net force and the plane will continue traveling along that path until there is a net force. When the net force of an object is zero, we say it is in equilibrium, a state of 'no change.' Free-Body Diagrams Net force can be written out mathematically, but we can also create a visual representation of the forces acting on an object. We do this through free-body diagrams, which are force-vector diagrams. You already know that vectors have both magnitude and direction and are represented by arrows. In free-body diagrams, the size of the arrow still indicates the magnitude, and the direction of the arrow tells us which way the force is acting. But now we also have the object, which is represented by a box, and the forces acting on the object come out from its sides. So if we return to our first example of 5 N of force acting on an object both to the left and the right, our free-body diagram would be a box in the middle with two equal-sized arrows, one pointing left and the other pointing right. If we draw a free-body diagram for the final example, an object falling toward the ground, our box would have an arrow pointing upward to represent air resistance, but a larger arrow would be pointing toward the ground to represent the greater magnitude force of gravity. To be absolutely clear, you should always label your vectors in your free-body diagrams. Each force should be labeled as well as the magnitude if you know it. Lesson Summary Forces are vector quantities, which means that they have both magnitude and direction. Since forces act on an object in opposite directions, we calculate the net force, which is the the vector sum of all forces acting on an object. The net force is the difference between the two forces, just like your net pay is the difference between your gross pay and the deductions that come out of your paycheck. Net forces can be calculated with simple addition, but we can also visually represent forces with free-body diagrams. These force-vector diagrams display forces with vector arrows coming from a central point, usually a box that represents the object. The size of the arrow represents the relative magnitude of the force, while the direction the arrow points tells us in which direction the force is acting. All vector forces should be labeled with as much information as possible, such as the magnitude and type of each force. Any net force greater than zero causes a change in an object's state of motion. A net force of zero tells us that the object is either stationary or moving at a constant velocity. And remember, just because an object is in equilibrium doesn't mean there's no force; it just means that there is no change in the object's state of motion. When an object remains in its state of motion, we say it is in mechanical equilibrium. This is when there is no change in an object's state of motion. To write this, we use the equation: Mechanical equilibrium equation The 'sigma' symbol means 'vector sum of,' and 'F' is the forces. What we're saying is that the vector sum of the forces is zero - because remember, force is a vector quantity, so it's the sum of the vectors. Since equilibrium is a state of 'no change,' it's not limited to objects at rest. State of motion includes objects that are traveling in a straight line path, too. And, as long as the forces are balanced, that object will keep traveling in that straight line path. Take a bowling ball for example. If you send a bowling ball rolling down the lane and it rolls at a constant velocity, it remains in equilibrium until it hits the pins. This is because the vector sum of the forces on the ball is still zero, even though it's moving! Let's look at another example. An airplane flying at a constant velocity (so, flying at a constant speed and direction) is in equilibrium because the thrust of the propeller pushes it forward at the same magnitude as the opposing air resistance. Because the forces are acting in opposite directions but are equal in magnitude, the forces are balanced, and the moving object is in equilibrium - a state of no change. To distinguish between the two, we specify equilibrium for stationary objects as static equilibrium, and equilibrium for moving objects as dynamic equilibrium. But remember, they are both mechanical equilibrium. Forces Can Be Unbalanced As you have probably experienced, forces are not always balanced. Unbalanced forces are when the forces are not equal in magnitude, which causes a change in the object's state of motion. If your coffee table is at rest in your living room, you can get it moving by pushing on it, which results in an unbalanced force. That bowling ball from before? When it hits the pins, there's a new interaction with the pins and a resulting unbalanced force that both disrupts the ball from its path and knocks over the pins. Unbalanced forces can be thought of as starting or stopping motion. Objects at rest do not need a force to remain at rest, but an unbalanced force is needed to get it moving. Likewise, an object in dynamic equilibrium does not need a force to keep it moving (as long as there is no friction). But to stop it from continuing along its straight line path, an unbalanced force is needed. Lesson Summary A force is the push or pull resulting from an interaction between objects. Though it may not feel like it, even when you are just standing still, you're involved in an interaction. You are being pulled down by gravity, and at the same time, the floor you stand on pushes back up on you. The reason you may not notice the forces is because they are balanced. This means that the forces are equal in size and opposite in direction. The pull downward is the same magnitude as the push upward, but in the opposite direction, so they essentially cancel each other out. Moving objects can also experience balanced forces, like a plane flying through the sky at a constant velocity. When an object has no change in its state of motion, it is in equilibrium. We express this as: Or the vector sum of the forces is zero. We use the term static equilibrium for objects at rest and dynamic equilibrium for objects in motion that have a constant velocity. When the magnitude of the forces in an interaction are not equal, the forces are unbalanced. An unbalanced force is needed to change the state of motion of an object in equilibrium, regardless of whether that object is at rest or moving in a straight line path. - Hooke's Law: Fs = -K (change in x/displacement) - Static friction = force you must overcome to get an object moving - Force of friction does NOT depend on the area of contact between the surfaces - The magnitude of the frictional force is proportional to the normal force but does not point in the same direction of the normal force o Ffriction = u N - if an object is at rest, the forces sum (as vectors) to zero - constant velocity implies no acceleration and therefore no net force Gravity and Circular Motion - Velocity is tangential to the circle and points in the direction the object is traveling at that moment - the acceleration of an object moving in a circle always points to the middle of a circle - circular acceleration = v^2 /r - uniform circular motion: magnitude of the velocity vector is constant but direction is changing - avg speed: 2 (pie)(r) (T= period of revolution) Levers - Work = force x distance - Simple machines can make jobs easier by "spreading out" the required force over a larger distance, it does not reduce the amount of work required o Ex: car jack : apply a small force with the arm muscles over a greater distance (traveled by crank) - mechanical advantage: quantifies benefits of using a machine, tells you quantitatively by what factor you can multiply the force 3 classes of Levers: categorized by what is in the middle of the lever 1) fulcrum in the middle and load and effort on either end - ex: seesaw - always change direction of the force - can affect the force on the load, the distance through which the load moves, and the speed with which it moves - MA can be greater than 1 or less than 1 depending on the location of the fulcrum relative to the load and effort 2) resistance or load is in the middle - ex: wheelbarrow, nut cracker, car door - does not change direction of force - always confers a mechanical advantage 3) effort in the middle, fulcrum at one and load at the other end - ex: broom - does not change direction of force - always produce a gain in the speed of the load - mechanical advantage is less than 1 o mneumonic = FRE (fulcrum, resistance, effort) - 2nd class lever = push up - 3rd class lever = biceps curlA A vector diagram depicts an arrow drawn to scale that points in a specific direction. The vector arrow has a head and a tail. The direction of a vector is expressed in angles of rotation of the vector about its tail. The magnitude of the vector is expressed in the scaled length of the arrow. - - This drawing of a vector has a scale of 1 cm=10 m/s. Find the magnitude and direction of the vector. Magnitude is 2.5 cm, so it's 25 m/s. The direction is 45 degrees. The arrow is moving in a counter=clockwise direction.

11 . a. Demonstrate knowledge of the importance of mitosis and meiosis as processes of cellular and organismal reproduction. Genera prokaryotes vs eukaryotes , eukaryotes multicellular organism include what ? Eukaryotes unicellularorganism include what ? what is endosymbiosis theory?

Prokaryotes organism Prokaryoties are single celled organism, including bacteria and archaea, which are tought to be roughly 4 billion years old. Despite their simplicity, their ATP synthesis and usage is still very similar to other cells( no mitochondria, no nucleus, DNA and protein just float in the cytoplasma) Eukaryotic organism Eukaryotic cells are about 2 billion years old. There are single celled eurkaryotes, but eukaryotes also comprise multicellular organism like plants, animal, fungus and algae. ( protist are single cell eukarytoes ) Endosymbiosis states that a larger prokaryote engulfing a smaller prokaryote led to the first eukaryotes

What does the skeletal system have to do with bood andcalcium? muscles are connecte to bones by... bones connect to bones at the... bones meet at many... fixed joints movement or no movement ? where are blood cells produces

Skeletal System:Provides: shape and form for our bodies, supports and protects the internal organs, allows body movement (along with the muscular and skeletal system), produces blood, stores mineral (such as calcium). Muscles are connected to bones by tendons. Bones are connected to each other by ligaments. Bones meet at many joints. Some are fixed joints and allows no movement. Blood cells are produced by the marrow located in some bones.

function of skeletal systme what are the four types of joints?

o The skeletal system is comprised of bones. They provide support and protection for other organ systems. there are multiple join types including ball and socket ( shoulder), hinge ( knee), pivot (neck) and saddle (fingers). Hinge joint only moves in one fixed direction. Pivot joings in neck let pivot movement. All of these allow for specific motions. Ribcage protects internal organis. So skeletation system for protection and structure

8Demonstrate knowledge of the principle of conservation of energy, including analyzing energy transfers 1. what is conservation of energy 2.energy in the universe, 5 ways its found ? 3.example of a car engine, windmills, and solars in forms of energy changed? 4. what is potential and kinetic energy. what is the equation of KE ? example of car engine for kinetic and potential?? 5.in a steam engine, the pressure and volume are ...? what is energy? define heat? define temp? what is thermal energy? what is conduction, convection, radiation? what is chemical energy? clies of chemical reaction t hat take place? second law of thermo ? discuss transfer of energy for roller coaster, electrical power plants? how about our food from plants to us doing work?

1.Online : of Conservation of Energy (also known as First Law of Thermodynamics)- in the middle of the 19th century, it was proposed by the English and German scientists that the total energy in the universe is constant. Essentially, energy cannot be created nor destroyed. Energy can, however, by converted from one form to another. The total amount of energy stays the same. 2.There are five different forms of energy present in the universe: mechanical (associated with the motion), heat, chemical, electromagnetic, and nuclear. 3.Examples of Energy Transfer: A car engine burns fuel. This converts the fuel's chemical energy into mechanical energy in order to make the car move. Windmills changes wind's energy into mechanical energy to turn turbines, which then produce electricity. Solar cells changes the sunlight, which is radiant energy, into electrical energy 4.Potential Energy- this type of energy has not yet been used. Kinetic Energy- an object is considered to have kinetic energy if it has mass and is in use or in motion. .The formula for kinetic energy is:KE= 1/2mv2Example: A tank of gasoline has potential energy that is converted to kinetic energy by the engine. 5.Other study guide : - Steam engine depends on: the piston, steam release valve, pressure and volume are inversely proportional - energy = capacity to do work, moving matter against natural forces such a friction or gravity - heat = form of energy transferred between 2 objects with carrying temperatures - temperature = measure of the AVERAGE energy of motion/ KE of particles in matter - thermal energy =TOTAL kinetic energy of all the particles in a material - absolute zero cannot be reached because this would require a thermodynamic system to be fully removed from the rest of the universe -conduction: direct transfer of energy from molecule to molecule through molecular collisions - -convection: physical motion of heated material - -radiation: transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves( ex: sun, light bulbs, x-rays, infrared rays, fire)( transfer of thermal energy caused by electromagnetic waves that do not involve the motion of electrons, atoms, or molecules of any other type of matter, only the transfer of energy from one place to another) - chemical energy = type of stored potential energy - chemical changes result in the formation of new substances - clues if a chemical reaction has taken place: substance becomes hotter or colder, gas is produced, solid is produced, light is produced, substance changes color - 2nd law of thermodynamics = increased entropy, every time energy is transferred or transformed from one type to another, the overall system becomes more disordered - Energy transfers can be seen in every aspect of our lives. On a roller coaster, the gravitational potential energy of the cart is transferred to kinetic energy as the cart moves down the track, and then to dissipated energy as it stops. Electrical power plants convert chemical energy to thermal energy and finally to electrical energy. Our food comes from plants that convert light energy to chemical energy, which allows us to do work.

Organicmolecules tha make up all living things contain ___. Carbon is found where ? In what from can we find carbon in the air, ocean, ? What are the 3 ways carbon may turn into the air ?

Carbon Cycle- Organic molecules that make up all living things contain carbon. Carbon is also found in air, oceans, and rocks. In the air, it's found as carbon dioxide. In the ocean, it's CO2 dissolved in water. Carbon cycles through the living and nonliving environment. Plants take in CO2 along with water to build organic molecules during photosynthesis. Carbon may turn into the air in several ways: 1. respiration- this is a process where organisms use oxygen to release energy from carbon-containing organic molecules. CO2 is a product of this processe and is released into the air. 2. Combustion- when material burns, carbon that Is tied up in the wood of trees for hundreds of years is released. Some carbon is also locked away for millions of years in the form of fossil fuel (coal, oil, and natural gas). 3. Erosion- many marine organisms contain carbon in their calcium carbonate shells. Wen they die, their shell forms sediments on the bottom of the ocean. Over millions of years, these sediments form limestone. The carbon may be tied up in the limestone for years. During erosion, the limestone may become exposed and undergo chemical changes that returns the carbon into the atmosphere.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of the factors contributing to the extent of damage caused by an earthquake (e.g., epicenter, focal mechanism, distance, geologic substrate). (

Online : An Earthquake is a vibration of Earth produced by the release of energy (for example in the slippage of a transform boundary, vertical displacement in the forms of waves, horizontal movement). This energy radiates out in all directions from the focus (source) or hypocenter. The epicenter is the location on the Earth's surface, directly above the focus. The shaking of the ground causes liquification of the soil causing damage to buildings and structures, power, and gas lines. Earthquakes produce vertical and horizontal ground motion. Seismographs indicate that there are two main types of seismic waves. One of the waves, surface waves (L), travel along the outer part of Earth. Waves that travel through the Earth are called primary (P) and secondary (S) waves. P waves are "push-pull" waves (compress and expand). S waves "shake" the materials at right angles to the direction of travel. Since gases and liquids do not respond elastically to changes in shape, S waves are unable to pass through. Surface waves move in an up-and-down and side-to-side motion (which is very damaging to the foundation of structures). P waves arrive first at a recording station, then S waves, then surface waves. These waves travel at different speeds because each waves behaves differently as it travels through the earth. Differences in density and elastic properties influence the velocity. Each wave also has different amplitudes, thus causing the greatest destruction. S waves amplitude are a bit less than L waves and P waves are the weakest. The difference in velocity between P and S waves helps scientists to determine the location for the epicenter. Destruction from an earthquake can also be affected the they magnitude of the quake and its distance to a populated area. Destruction can also be based on how the buildings were constructed. The amount of structural damage will be based on the intensity and duration of the earthquake Also, the nature of the material upon the structure rests, and the design of the structure. Soft ground will aplify the vibrations more than a solid bedrock. Thus an earthquake that takes place in a city located over a firm foundation of granite will suffer less damage than one above a soft, unconsolidated sediments. Other: Earthquake Processes and their roles - San Andreas Fault is a right lateral strike slip fault: motion is horizontal, a person standing with 1 foot on pacific plate and one on north American plate would have the crust beneath the right foot moving toward them - Scale that best reflects size of earthquake = moment magnitude scale (measures total energy released by earthquake) - Scientists use info about the arrival times of P and S waves to find the location of the epicenter of an earthquake (via triangulation: using info from 3 different seismic stations) - Focal mechanism: amount of motion that the rocks along the fault undergo and the orientation of the fault - Dip-slip faults = has vertical motion à 2 TYPES: 1) normal fault: hanging wall goes down relative to footwall 2) reverse/thrust fault: hanging wall goes up relative to footwall - Strike-slip fault: only horizontal motion à 2 TYPES 1) Left-lateral / sinistral strike slip fault 2) Right lateral / dextral strike slip fault - earthquake energy travels as seismic waves: TYPES 1) P waves: Primary waves = fastest, 1st to arrive at seismic station, can travel through any substance, compressional waves 2) S waves: Secondary waves: travel in a side-to-side motion, shake buildings side to side, can only travel through solids 3) Surface waves: much slower waves, roll along surface like ripples, do significant damage to structures, 2 types: A) Rayleigh 2) Love - Richter Scale: measures amplitude of the largest seismic wave - Moment Magnitude Scale: measures total energy released from earthquake What Is an Earthquake? An earthquake is a violent shaking of the ground caused by motions of the Earth's crust. The Earth's surface might look solid and stationary, but it really isn't. The Earth's crust isn't a single, unbroken surface. Rather, it's broken down into a lot of sections, like cracks in a smashed window. We call these tectonic plates, the pieces that make up the whole of the Earth's crust. What's more, those parts are always moving. The Earth's plates shift toward each other, away from each other, or alongside each other, depending on which plates we're talking about. And these motions can cause violent destructive events, including earthquakes and volcanoes. Earthquakes happen either when two plates collide with each other or when two plates slide alongside each other. This is why California has so many earthquakes: there is a plate boundary called the San Andreas Fault that lies right along the coast. The sliding motion of the fault creates friction along it, resulting in a lot of tectonic movement and, as a result, earthquakes. But why do California's earthquakes rarely cause huge destruction? Why do so few people die in American earthquakes, but so many do in other countries, like Nepal? Today, we're going to talk about the factors that affect the impact of an earthquake. Factors that Affect the Impact of an Earthquake There are seven main factors that affect the impact of an earthquake: Severity Some earthquakes are just bigger than others. In fact, earthquakes hit the United States every single day, but most are too small to notice. We know they occur because of seismographs, sensitive devices that detect tremors in the ground, and the application of the Richter scale, which rates earthquakes on a scale of 1 to 10. The most severe earthquake ever recorded was in Valdivia, Chile, in 1960 and registered at 9.5 on the Richter scale, though, strictly speaking, the scale doesn't have an end point. Distance Earthquake intensity is affected by both the distance along the surface of the Earth and how deep the earthquake is below the Earth. There have been earthquakes that were very severe but didn't cause much damage, because they occurred a long way from places that humans live. Earthquakes can also hit anywhere from the surface to about 450 miles below the surface. By the time a deep earthquake has reached us, its energy has often dissipated through the ground, leaving little left to do damage. Population Density Another big deal is population density. If the earthquake hits in an area where people are spread out, the impact will be much smaller, since fewer people will be affected. However, if it occurs in a dense metropolitan area, a larger number of people will be affected. Development Perhaps the most well documented factor is development level. When an earthquake hits a poor country, the impacts tend to be disastrous. There are many reasons for this. The buildings in poor countries are typically not earthquake-proof, because building such structures is expensive. This causes a large number of deaths when buildings collapse. But the aftermath can often be the worst part. With limited funds and resources, cleaning up after an earthquake can be a daunting prospect and can take a very long time. If electricity and water supplies are not fixed quickly enough, the death toll can rise. Communication When an area has poor communication links, it can be difficult for rescue teams to get in and out and to communicate with each other. After all, how do you hear that people are trapped in some rubble if there's no way to pass on the message? Time of Day When the earthquake happens during the span of the day plays a role in its impact. Time of day is important, because it determines where people are. At work in their offices or at home in their houses? Are they awake or asleep? This affects their ability to react to the disaster. Time of Year The time of year is also a factor, particularly when it comes to the aftermath of the earthquake. For instance, If people are left homeless by an earthquake, they are more likely to freeze to death in the winter. In the extreme heat of summer, they could suffer dehydration. All these things have a big impact on how many people survive. Lesson Summary An earthquake is a shaking of the ground, usually suddenly and violently, that can cause a lot of damage. It happens when two of the Earth's tectonic plates hit each other or slide alongside each other. There are seven main factors that determine the impact of an earthquake: Distance (along the surface and depth) Severity (measured by the Richter scale) Population density Development (building quality, financial resources, healthcare, infrastructure, etc.) Communication links Time of day (where people are located and whether they're asleep or awake) Time of year (people out in the cold may not survive, etc.) Some earthquakes pass without incident, and others cause huge damage, destruction and loss of life The focal mechanism of an earthquake describes the deformation in the source region that generates the seismic waves. In the case of a fault-related event it refers to the orientation of the fault plane that slipped and the slip vector and is also known as a fault-plane solution. Focal mechanisms are derived from a solution of the moment tensor for the earthquake, which itself is estimated by an analysis of observed seismic waveforms. The focal mechanism can be derived from observing the pattern of "first motions", that is, whether the first arriving P waves break up or down. This method was used before waveforms were recorded and analysed digitally and this method is still used for earthquakes too small for easy moment tensor solution. Focal mechanisms are now mainly derived using semi-automatic analysis of the recorded waveforms.[1] How do scientists know which direction the fault moved deep underground? When an earthquake occurs, seismologists create graphics of focal mechanisms, informally referred to as beach balls,to show the faulting motions that produce the earthquake. They use the patterns of compressions and dilatations received by seismometers. Simply put, the focal mechanisms are based on the direction of the first arriving P wave. This is a difficult concept for many, but this animation walks viewer through steps to understand how scientists know what kind of fault motion occurred deep underground. The different faulting mechanisms for each focal-mechanism end member includes: strike-slip fault, normal fault, and thrust fault. GIFs for select segments of the animation available as optional download. CLOSED CAPTIONING: A .srt file is included with the downloiad. Use appropriate media player to utilize captioning. Keypoints: · P-wave arrivals to many stations give information about an earthquake · Data yields what kind of fault occurred deep below ground · Graphics depict normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults and their focal mechanisms A focal mechanism, or "beachball", is a graphic symbol that indicates the type of slip that occurs during an earthquake: strike-slip, normal, thrust (reverse), or some combination. It also shows the orientation of the fault that slipped.

Why is the lympathic system importnat ? Organs of lympathetic system consist of what ? lympth is fluid found ... What gland in the upper part of the cheset is part of the lympathic system? The liquid in lymph vessesl has what cells that pick up from the tissue fluid and fatparticles??

The lymphaticsystem works with the immnume system to remove bad agenst , it is made of organis thymus, spleen, and lymphnodes. Lymphatic System:Important in recycling body fluid and fighting against disease. Organs consist of lymph, lymph nodes, vessels, white blood cells, T- and B- cells. This system works with the circulatory system. The food and oxygen carried by the vessels do not actually tough the cells. A fluid surrounds the body cells, called intercellular fluid, and seeps out through the capillary wall. It carries oxygen and dissolved food to the body cells and carbon dioxide and wast away from them. Protein molecules and waste too large to re-enter the capillaries pass into the lymph capillaries. The liquid in lymph vessels is called lymph and contains lymphocytes, some substances picked up from tissue fluid and fat particles. Lymph vessels are tubes that carry lymph from all area of the body up to the neck where it is empties back into the blood. The lymph vessels are lined with endothelium and have valves that stop the lymph from going back due to gravity. The lymph capillaries pick up fat particles that are too big to enter the bloodstream directly. These capillaries join to form lymphatics which finally unite to form the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. This system works with the sleep organ, where it holds onto an emergency store of red blood cells, contains some white blood cells (fixed macrophage) and destroys foreign bodies. Thymus gland found in the upper part of the chest that eventually undergoes atrogphy.

how does a microscop and relfecton telescope work?

both use concave mirror, plaint mirror, and covex lens. both are magnifying. one len gather the light while other focuses on viewer yee.

draw a convex lense, object outside the focuse. is the image learger or samller , real or virtual , upright or inverted ?

real, inverted, larger or smaller

5e a. Demonstrate knowledge of the central role of carbon in the chemistry of living systems.

role organic and inorganic compoinds withing living system Central role carbon in living system Currently around 10 million organic compounds account for about 90% of all known substances with over 50,000 new organic compounds being synthesized each year. One of the main reasons for their begin so many different organic compounds is because carbon atoms have the ability to link together to form long chains. Carbon is able to make large molecules with multiple bonds. Carbon is the central role in living systems because all living things are made of carbon, along with other elements. Carbon has four valence electrons so it can combine with large number of other elements. Carbon shares its valence electrons to form covalent bonds. Organic Compounds- contains the element carbon. Most organic compounds also contains hydrogen. Organic compounds can be found in nature, produced by living things, or synthesized in a laboratory. Organic compounds, because of their covalent bondings, are insoluble in water. When a carbon molecule is bonded with other carbon molecules, it can form many different kinds of molecules. Example of carbon compounds: glass fiber plastics nylon polyester protein sugar Inorganic Compounds- bonds are ionic, soluble in water, does not contain carbon. Examples include: salt concrete water Organic and inorganic compounds work together efficiently in biological systems. Carbon-Based Life Carbon is the most important component of all life found on Earth. Even the most complex molecules that make us up contain carbon bonded to other elements: carbon bonded to oxygen, carbon bonded to hydrogen, carbon bonded to nitrogen. You name it - it has carbon. There are certain key molecules that are a big part of our bodies and the bodies of other living organisms. Proteins, for example, form almost our entire bodies, and proteins on Earth are based on carbon. Nucleic acids are vitally important to animal life, and indeed also contain carbon. Carbohydrates and lipids (fats) are also major parts of the bodies of animals like us. All of these things are reliant on carbon. For this reason, life on Earth is known as carbon-based life, or life that contains building blocks that are made up of combinations of carbon and other elements. We often assume, therefore, that if we were to find life on other planets, in other parts of the universe, that it would also be carbon based. But some say that we are foolish to make that assumption. There are other elements, like silicon, for example, that contain many of the properties of carbon. Perhaps if we ever meet aliens, their bodies will be made of silicon, not carbon! There's a famous episode of Star Trek where they did just that. I guess there's only one way to find out! Biological Processes The nucleic acids mentioned previously contain carbon and that includes DNA. When humans are created inside the womb, they are built based on instructions contained in DNA. So, without carbon, we wouldn't be able to have children. It's not just animals though - even plants need carbon. The process of photosynthesis, where plants turn sunlight into energy (glucose, which is a type of sugar) to allow them to live and grow, also requires carbon. Plants combine the sun's energy with carbon to form glucose, a molecule that contains carbon. The plants get their carbon by absorbing carbon dioxide from the air. Respiration is another biological process where carbon is important. Respiration is a process in living organisms where energy is produced by taking in oxygen and food and releasing carbon dioxide. The food we eat as part of respiration contains carbon, because all life on Earth does. But then we also breathe out carbon dioxide, which is used by the plants in photosynthesis. So, the process continues on and on - carbon is everywhere! Lesson Summary Carbon is one of the elements, one type of atom. It contains six protons and six neutrons in its nucleus, with six electrons orbiting around the outside. The number of protons and electrons is what determines its properties and those properties are incredibly important. Carbon is the basis for life on Earth. We, as humans, are considered to be carbon-based life. The most complex molecules that make us up contain carbon bonded to other elements: carbon bonded to oxygen, carbon bonded to hydrogen, carbon bonded to nitrogen. You name it - it has carbon. Key molecules that contain carbon include proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids. Carbon is an integral part of many biological processes, including reproduction, photosynthesis and respiration. We often assume that life in other parts of the universe, if we ever find it, will be carbon-based. Maybe we're right. But there are other elements with similar properties, like silicon, for example. Perhaps if we ever meet aliens, their bodies will be made of silicon, not carbon. There's only one way to find out! currently around 10 million organic compounds account for about 90% of all known substances with over 50,000 new organic compounds being synthesized each year. One of the main reasons for their begin so many different organic compounds is because carbon atoms have the ability to link together to form long chains. Carbon is able to make large molecules with multiple bonds. Carbon is the central role in living systems because all living things are made of carbon, along with other elements. Carbon has four valence electrons so it can combine with large number of other elements. Carbon shares its valence electrons to form covalent bonds.

Diagram how yo go from a parent Diploid cell , interphase, mitosis, and what you end up with ?

see notes. 1. Start with 2n cell that is in G1 PHASE. Heere you have two homologous pairs. 2. THEN DURING S,G2 of interphase, that 2n cell undergoes chromosome replication. So now you have a copy of each homologies pair, so now you have 4 homologous pairs! 3. During mitosis, the end results is those homologous pair undergonig PMAT, and result is two daughter 2n cells, each cell has 2 pairs of homolgous chromosome!!

6e-1. Identify fundamental forces?

· Gravity is force of attraction acting up all particel that have mass. · Electormagentis is force between all electircly charged particles, and includes electric ,magnetic, and electorstatic. Electromagentic foce can overcome gravitySbhapes universide as whole. Electromagnetic force ( electric and magnetic ) , unlike gravity, depends on electrical charge instead of mass. It is carried via photons and holds atoms and molecules together. Electromagnetic forces can be either attractive or repulsive. They are long-range forces, which act over extremely large distances, and they nearly cancel for macroscopic objects. (Remember that it is the net external force that is important.) If they did not cancel, electromagnetic forces would completely overwhelm the gravitational force. The electromagnetic force is a combination of electrical forces (such as those that cause static electricity) and magnetic forces (such as those that affect a compass needle). These two forces were thought to be quite distinct until early in the 19th century, when scientists began to discover that they are different manifestations of the same force. This discovery is a classical case of the unification of forces. Similarly, friction, tension, and all of the other classes of forces we experience directly (except gravity, of course) are due to electromagnetic interactions of atoms and molecules. It is still convenient to consider these forces separately in specific applications, however, because of the ways they manifest themselves. · .The strong force is the force that holds together the nucleus of the atom. It is also the force that brings the smallest known particles, quarks, together to form neutrons and protons in the first place. t is basically attractive but can be effectively repulsive in some circumstances. Without the strong force the atomic elements wouldn't be able to form. This would mean no living animals, plants, or even stars would ever exist. The strong force is aptly named as it is the strongest of all the forces at this small scale. It overpowers the electromagnetic force trying to pull the nucleus apart and keeps it together. The strong nuclear force also binds protons and neutrons in the nucleus of atoms. · · Weak nuclear force is responsible for beta decay. When atoms give up particles, isotope for example, certain decay involves this weak nuclear force. the weak nuclear force is foundation concept for starndar model accepted in physics. Understand what each one does. Questions are conseptual. The weak force plays a role in nuclear reactions, fusion and fission. It is also the only force, besides gravity, that effects neutrinos. It also plays a role in radioactive decay. Despite its name, the weak force isn't actually the weakest of the four fundamental forces. It comes in as the second weakest above gravitational force. While it's not the weakest force, it does have the smallest range of all the fundamental forces of nature: 10-18 meters to be exact. Even though its range is minuscule, the effects of the weak force can be great. In fact, no life on Earth would exist without the weak force.The weak force is the repulsive force responsible for some types of nuclear decay, including beta decay. Two types of interactions can occur when an atom undergoes beta decay. Either a neutron turns into a proton and ejects an electron and an antineutrino from the nucleus, or a proton turns into a neutron and ejects a positron and a neutrino from the nucleus. So you might be wondering what this has to do with life on Earth. It turns out that beta decay created by the weak force is necessary for nuclear fusion to occur in the Sun. Without the weak force, the Sun wouldn't burn, and we wouldn't have the heat necessary for sustaining life on Earth. The weak nuclear force enabled complex atoms to form through nuclear fusion. If the strong and weak nuclear forces did not exist, then stars, galaxies, and planets would never have been formed. · Gravity acts like glue, holding stars, planets, and galaxies together. Gravity causes dispersed materials to coalesce (for example, in the formation of our solar system); it is responsible for keeping planets and comets in orbits around the sun; it is responsible for keeping satellites in orbit; gravity causes tides ; gravity helps control the starts temperature, allowing the star to expand when its core temperature increased, and increases in gravitation if the stars core temperature cools too much; and is a dynamic process that helps shape the Earth through processes such as weathering, erosion, and plate tectonic movement. · Gravitational force is the attractive force between all objects with mass. So even a marble exerts its own gravitational force; however, gravitational force is an extremely feeble force. It is the weakest of the four fundamental forces. So it takes an astronomically huge object for us to start noticing gravity's effects with our bare eyes. The marble's gravitational force is so feeble that you'll never see anything attracted towards it.

7.what are the three laws of refraction?

1. incident reay and refracted ray and normal line athe the point of incididce litin in the same plame. 2. angle of sine of incidene to the angle of since of refraction is equal to a constnat.n1 sinO1=n2sineo2. 3. angle of incidene =angle of refrracton

4ga. Demonstrate knowledge of the physical and chemical characteristics, including pH, of acids, bases, and neutral solutions.

Chemical properties of a material involve its ability to react, such as ability to react with acid or base. Acid and base properties were proposed by Robert Boyle in 1661. Acid- any substance that releases Hydrogen ions, H+ properties of an acidic solution taste sour,litmus paper turns red in presence of H ions, ph less 7, reacts with bases to give a salt and water, release H when dissolved in water, called proton donors. , turns phenolphthalein clear, reaction with metals to make hydrogen gas. Acids have more H+ (hydronium ions) than OH - (hydroxide ions) . they have a pH lower than 7 Basic- an substance that releases hydroxide ions, OH-, in water. Bases taste bitter, feel slipper/soapy,litmus paper turns blue, pH value greater 7, reactis with acids to give salt and water, accepts/reacts with H+ion., Turn phenolphthalein pink. Bases have more OH- than H+ . they have ph above 7. alkaline Acid-base indicators exhibits different colors due to a substance that is sensitive to a change in pH.Methyl red- if the substance is above pH 5, Hydrogen turns red, below turns yellow.bromthymol blue- below pH 7, yellow; above pH 7, blue.phenolphthalein- below pH 9 is colorless, above pH9= pink. Salts- forms as a result of a chemical reaction between an acid and base. Example: NH3 + HCl --> NH4Cl. Another common example is HCl + NaOH --> H20 + NaCl. Do you recognize this equation? It is formed from the acid-base reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide- known as sodium chloride, the most common table salt. Another example: Ca + Cl2 --> CaCl2 Neutral solutions like water, have an equal number of free hydronium and hydroxide ionspH is a measure of how little H + is in a substance. The scale goes from 1 to 14 and is logarithmic. Formula For neutral solutions, you may see this concept presented as an equation like (H+) = (OH-) = 1*10^-7. Let's break the equation down for a moment. It just means that when hydrogen ion (H+) is equal to hydroxide ion (OH-), the concentration will be 1*10^-7.

Hyperopia and how its corrected draw

Farsightedness: Light rays focus behind the retina. -corrected with biconvex lenses, which causes light rays to converge slightly before striking the eye.

11 . a. Demonstrate knowledge of the importance of mitosis and meiosis as processes of cellular and organismal reproduction. why is meiosis important, what does it create, in terms of what kind of celsl are the result? 1 chromosome=? set of homologus chromosomes = ______ chromatids why is meiosis importnat for evolution?

Meiosis is the process of creating 4 haploid cells from one diploid cells. This process is used to make sex sells. Meiosis is essential to maintain the same chromosome number generation after generation Important to remember 1 chromosome= 2 sister chromatids So a set of homologous chromosomes are made of 4 chromatids Notes: this creates variation, allows some to be more fit to adapt ot environment, helps genetic variation and evolution

What is myopia and how is it corrected? draw

Myopia, or nearsightedness, occurs when the eyeball is too long. Parallel rays from a distant light source, which are bent by the cornea and the lens, normally converge at exactly the same plane as the retina. When the eyeball is too long, the rays of light converge and cross before the retina. As a result, the image on the retina is a blurred circle rather than a point. To see distant points clearly, nearsighted people must use artificial concave lenses that help focus the image on the retina.

6 4. unnderstand motion and stability: forces and interactions. (SMR 2.3) a. . Apply knowledge of Newton's laws of motion and law of universal gravitation and recognize the relationship between these laws and the laws of conservation of energy and momentum.

Newton law of univerasl graviation: This law states that there is a gravitational force of attraction between any two objects that have a mass and this force depends on the mass of each object and the distance between them. the more massive mor pull. The closer, the mor pull. Larger mass more potnetial for pull, but force is equal. Each of them contribute to the pull, the by same amount, but pull is still equal. So force is the same. o R CAN BE DISTANCE FROM SUN TO EARTH. This gives us total force between earth and sun. so force earth pulls is the same as force pull form sun, since force is created by both masses put togeter. Force mass is difrent then force of sun. the more distnace, smaller force. Don't memorize gra constant. Force= a force is something that can change an objects speed or direction.each force acting on a body can produce acceleration independently and the resulting acceleration of the body is the vector sum of each independent acceleration .unbalanced forces cause changes in velocity. units of force: Newtons = kg x m x s-2 Newtons First Law states that an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. In other words, an object will move with constant velocity as long as there is no friction/air resistance or a force that acts to slow it down.Velocity is the speed of an object in a specified direction. Force is any influence that causes an object to change its shape or its state of motion. An unbalanced force is an external force that changes the state of motion of the object. Newton's first law of motion is also referred to as the law of inertia, where inertia is the resistance to change in motion. Newton's first law of motion applies to objects both on earth and in space.Friction: this is the force which acts to oppose the motion of two touching surfaces over each other. It is caused by the intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules of the surfaces. There are two kinds of frictional force: static and kinetc. Static: force between two touching surfaces when a force is applied to one of them but they are not moving.Kinetic (sliding): force where one surface is moving over the other one at a constant speedApply: A spaceship traveling in space does not need any fuel to keep moving as there is no friction (such as air) to slow it down. force table pushing up is normal force. Force pushing down table is grav force, since equal, table does not move, no net force. In second example, gravity wants pull coment straight in. inergy want to go straight. It creates curve path, this is why start orbit sun. example of newton first law .another example, ball is not moving, someone pushes ball,and begins to roll. A comt flies by a star in straight tregetory, the gariviatonal pull changes the course of the coment. Second law : Newton's second law states that the acceleration of an object is proportional to the force acting on it, and inversely proportional to its mass. This law can be used to help demonstrate the conservation of energy, or that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant over time. Newton's second law of motion provides an explanation for the behavior of objects when forces are applied to the objects. The law states that external forces cause objects to accelerate, and the amount of acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. Net force is the sum total of all forces acting on an object in a particular direction. Forces acting in the same direction can be added together while forces acting in opposite directions are subtracted from each other to determine the net force. Acceleration is a change in velocity. The formula for calculating acceleration is as follows: a = f (net) / m, where a = acceleration, f (net) = the net force acting on the object, m = the mass of the object. Force can be calculated by simply rearranging the formula to solve for force, as you can see on the screen, f (net) = m * a. If all the forces acting on an object are balanced - that is, the net force is zero - the object does not accelerate. If an unbalanced force is applied, then the object will accelerate. F=ma. The relationship can also be represented with a g ( accelariton due to gravity). This is a constant value of 9.81 m/s ^2 on earth. F=m g. If the mass of an object is constant, then the force is proportional to the acceleration of the object. Force= mass x acceleration (F=ma). If the momentum of an object changes, for example if it accelerates, then there must be a resultant force acting on it. Force = change in momentum / time. Momentum = mass x velocity.The amount of acceleration depends on the object's mass and also the strength of the net force. Newton's Second law tells us what is happening to an object when a net force is present. Example: baseball exert 10 N force. Baseball is 1 kg. what is its accelartion? They say there is bowling ball, and it also exert same force 10 N. the bowling ball weight 10 kg what is accelearion? Which has greater acceleration? Vector quantities are fully described with both magnitude and direction and are represented with arrows. Consider an object being pushed to the left with 10 Newtons of force and to the right with 5 Newtons of force. The net force = 5 N to the left as 10 N - 5 N = 5 N. The forces are subtracted from each other since they are pointing in opposite directions. The forces would be added to each other if they were pointing in the same direction. Once the net force is determined, the acceleration of the object can be determined.Let's look at an example. Consider a 10 kg object forced to the left with 10 Newtons and to the right with 20 Newtosn. What is the acceleration of this object?Let's recall the formula for acceleration. a = f (net) / m Newton's Third Law- "For any force, there is always an equal and opposite reaction force." The interacting objects experience two forces that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. No matter the size of the interacting objects, the forces are always equal and opposite. Newton's law applies to objects on Earth and in space.Apply: A rocket blasting into outer space is propelled by a force equal and opposite to the force with which gas is expelled out its back. when you jump up , earth moves down too. Both have same force acted upong them. When earth gravity pulls you down, you pull earth slightly back up.when superman thrws asteroid in space, he should move back and faster too duw to less mass. If an object collides with another object, they will boucnde away from eachother in opposite direction. -weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity (same units as force) By starting with Newton's third law, for every force there is an equal and opposite force, we can derive conservation of momentum, which tells us that a change in momentum in one of two objects colliding is equal and opposite to the change in momentum in the other colliding object.

11 . a. Demonstrate knowledge of the importance of mitosis and meiosis as processes of cellular and organismal reproduction. 1. What are the stages of mitosis, describe what happens in each stage.

People Meet And Talk (plants have preprophase) Prophase : 1. chromotain condenses into chromosomes, 2. ( prometaphase in plant cells only) the nuclear membrane disappears , the mitotic spindle forms and the centrosomes eventually move toward opposite sides of the cell ( this also in animal cells but as prophase) Metaphase : the chromosomes often line up at the equator of the cell( aka the metaphase plate) due to the pull of the centrosomes Anaphase : the proteins binding sister chromatids together are cleaved, and the two new daughter chromosomes are pulled apart toward opposite ends of the cell.Resultant daughter chromosomes move towards poles. Telophase: Daughter chromosomes reach the poles and form two nuclei form .The chromosomes loosen up. This is not the splitting phase. The chromosomes reach the poles, nuclear envelope begins to form again, the spindle disappears, the nucleus division is complete now it's reformed now you have two nucleases. The chromosome condenses in its new nucleus. the cell is not split yet that is cytokinesis. after mitosis, is cytokenes when cytoplast and evrything else splits.

10 b. Recognize and differentiate the structure and function of molecules in living organisms, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. what are protein subunits ? what makes up amino acids what elements are they made of ? function of proteins? two amino acids bond how ? more than one amino acid bonded is called ____? multiple polypeptides form _____. discuss what is the primary, secondary, tertiery , and quaternary shape of protien ?

Proteins- subunit are amino acids, joined together in a peptide chain. There are only 20 amino acids, each with a Hydrogen, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group (composed of varying molecules). Provides structure, catalyst in biological systems, provides support, movement, growth, and repair. Proteins speed up chemical reactions , enzymae, provided structural support, storage,transport, celular communication,movement,define .aminoa acids are monomers, aminoa acids are the building blocks of protien. two amino acids are bonded toegher by a peptdie bond formed throught dehydration reaction.more than one amino acid bound together is called a polypeptide. multiple polypeptides bond together form a protein. o Primary is the sequence of amino acids · Secondary is the coils and folds found in sequences · Tertiary is the overall shape of polypeticdes, folding up · Quaternary is the overall shape of the protein make up of polypeptide, so multiple amino acids bonding together

9 E. Interpret simple series and parallel circuits. The flow of electrons start from ____potential ( ___terminal) of the battery , passes throught the light bulb, and back to the ___ potential (____ terminal) o fthe battery. draw this. current flows from ____potential to ___ potential, current flows from ___ to ___ ( posive/neg?). summary, the what is the flow of electrons vs . the flow of current in a simple series circuit?

The flow of electrons starts from the low potential terminal (negative terminal) of the battery, passes through the light bulb, and back to the high potential (positive terminal) of the battery. Current flows from high potential to low potential. Christmas lights can be an example of a simple series circuit. If you take a bulb out, then the rest of the lights will not be lit anymore. This is because there is now an open circuit and the current can no longer flow through the circuit. A flashlight is another example of a simple series circuit, with a switch, light bulb, battery, and wires connected to form a circuit, . In a parallel circuit, electrons has several paths that it can take. For example, in a parallel circuit, there could be two resisters, such as light bulbs, on two different wire paths. Electrons can choose which path through the resistor to take. The total current is equal to the sum of the currents in the indiviual paths. I= I1 +I2 + I3.... All elements have equal voltage. V= V1 = V2 = V3.... The total resistance decreases as more paths with resistors are added to the circuit. 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3... Total resistance is always less than the smallers individual resistance. This of a light switch that controls the lights in a hallway at home. If one of those lights goes out, the other still stays lit. If the electrons move in one direction, then it is called direct current. If the electrons is constantly being revered forwards and backwards, then it is called alternating current.Volt: unit that measures a battery's strength

5b a. Apply knowledge of the principles of conservation of matter to chemical reactions, including balancing chemical equations

The law of conversation states that mass is neither created nor destroyed by chemical reactions or physical changes. Thus, according to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of the products in a chemical reaction must be the same as the mass of the reactants. We use chemical equations to represent the chemical reaction that took place. Each side of the equation must have the same number of atoms; the equation must be balanced.Practice: Balance this equationH2 + O2 --> H2OThe equation is unbalanced as there is an unequal amount of atoms on each side of the equation. On the left side and on the right we have 2 Hydrogen atomsOn the left side we have 2 oxygen atoms and on the right we have oneSo, why the hydrogens are in balance, the oxygens are not. We can put a 2 in front of the water on the right sideH2 + O2 ---> 2H2OThis now balances the oxygen atoms. 2 oxygens on the left side and 2 on the right. However, this now caused the hydrogens to become unbalanced. To balance it, we can place a 2 in front of the H2 on the left side. 2H2 + O2 ---> 2H2OThe equation is now balanced. Some notes when balancing an equation: 1) You cannot change the subscript2) You cannot place a coefficient in the middle of a formulaPractice:Balance the following equation (scroll down for the answer)H2 + Cl2 ---> HClAnswer:H2 + Cl2 ---> 2HClPractice: O2 -----> O3Answer: 3O2---> 2O3Think about the LCM to help balance this equation. The LCM of 2 and 3 is 6. This tells us how many atoms will be needed to balance the equation. Principles of conservation of mattern and chemical reactions The law of conservation of mass states that in a closed system, the mass of the system cannot change over time. Look at our example of the candle in the closed room. Though much of the wax itself is no longer present in its original form, all of the mass of the wax is still present in the room, albeit in a different form. When the flame was lit, oxygen gas from the room reacted with the candle wax to produce water vapor and carbon dioxide gas. If you massed the reactants oxygen and wax, it would equal the mass of the products water and carbon dioxide. We can remember the law of conservation of mass with this simple statement: The mass of the reactants must equal the mass of the products. Sadly for fans of magic, anything that has mass, including matter and energy, cannot be created or destroyed. That means, mass cannot simply appear out of nowhere and equally it cannot disappear. Matter may change forms however, giving the illusion of nothing out of something or vice versa, but the mass of the matter is always the same before and after the change. If 22 grams of reactants go into a chemical reaction, then 22 grams of products must be produced. Importance Discovery of the law of conservation of mass helped to turn chemistry into the respectable science it is today. Chemistry has its foundations in alchemy, a protoscience that put much stock into magic and mysticism. With the advent of the law of conservation of mass, chemists took the mystery and illusion of alchemy and brought predictability and reliability to the science of chemistry. The law of conservation of mass is very important to the study and production of chemical reactions. If scientists know the quantities and identities of reactants for a particular reaction, they can predict the amounts of products that will be made. Chemical manufacturers can increase efficiency by applying the law of conservation of mass to their laboratory practices. Examples Imagine you are lighting up your gas grill for the first summer barbecue. The propane from your heavy gas tank reacts with the oxygen in the air, generating a hot blue flame. The products of this reaction are water vapor and carbon dioxide gas. If you were to capture all of the water vapor and carbon dioxide produced as you grill your food, the total mass would equal that of the propane and oxygen that went into the reaction. If 100 grams of propane and oxygen are used, then 100 grams of water vapor and carbon dioxide are produced. In another scenario, you let a 10-gram ice cube melt within a closed container on a hot day. Though the ice cube will gradually changes forms, from liquid to vapor, the mass of the container will never change. Even once completely vaporized, the mass of the water in the system will be 10 grams. The law of conservation of mass is observed in a balanced chemical equation, which is a chemical equation that shows all mass is conserved throughout the reaction. In a balanced chemical equation, the number and kinds of atoms on each side of the equation should be equal. Chemical equations that do not obey the law of conservation of mass are known as unbalanced equations, or skeleton equations. This chemical equation does not obey the law of conservation of mass: We know that this equation is unbalanced because the number and kinds of atoms are not the same on either side of the equation. For example, on the reactants' side there are three carbon atoms, while on the products' side there is only one. There are eight hydrogens on the reactants' side and only two on the products' side. By comparison, the equation below does obey the law of conservation of mass. Notice in the equation above that coefficients have been added in front of each chemical species. These coefficients are just like those seen in math; the number of the coefficient modifies the number of atoms or molecules of each type present in order for the reaction to occur. We know that this equation is balanced because the number and kinds of atoms are the same on either side. There are three carbon atoms on each side, eight hydrogens and ten oxygens. Lesson Summary The law of conservation of mass states that in a closed system, the mass of the system cannot change over time. We can remember the law of conservation of mass with this simple statement: The mass of the reactants must equal the mass of the products. The law of conservation of mass is observed in a balanced chemical equation, which is a chemical equation that shows all mass is conserved throughout the reaction. Chemical equations that do not obey the law of conservation of mass are known as unbalanced equations, or skeleton equations. Conservation of Mass Vocabulary & Definitions Law of Conservation of Mass: This law states the mass of a system cannot change over time within a closed system. Balanced Chemical Equation: When a mass undergoes a chemical reaction, this chemical equation shows all the mass is conserved. Unbalanced Equation/Skeleton Equations: These chemical equations appear when the chemical reaction on a mass does not obey the law of conservation of mass.

7. Demonstrate knowledge of resonance and of the reflection, refraction, and transmission of waves. for this quizlet questions, answer and go over what is resonance?

The principle of resonance affects how we perceive sound and light waves. All objects possess a natural or resonant frequency at which they tend to vibrate. When vibrations from one object match the resonant frequency of another object, the two are said to resonate because the first object amplifies the vibrations of the second object. Resonance in light waves results in absorption of the light frequency. When no resonance is present, then the light is transmitted through the object. For sound waves, resonance results in a loud sound that matches the resonant frequency of the instrument. Resonance in either case is always caused because one object vibrates at the resonant frequency of another.

the electron will not flow through a circuit unless ?? what are voltage sources?

- Electrons will not flow through a circuit unless there is a potential difference between 2 points in the circuit and a voltage source to sustain the potential difference - Voltage sources: batteries, electric generators, fuel cells, solar cells (maybe called emf)

compare and contrast euk and pro, how arethings like DNA, size,organells, appendages, DNA, membrane receptors, cell division, cell walll, and ribosomes,andcytoskeleton diffrent in eukarytos vsprokary? flagella? flagella?plasmamembrane? cytoplama?cell division? ribocomes ?chromosomes ? what is the structure of a virus, draw it , what are the structure and fucntion of virus compoennts >

EUKARYOTES - bigger,membren bound organiless and nucleolus, complex appendages, linear DNA with histons, membren bound organells, membrean receptors, mitosis, cell wallsimple when present, cytoskeleton ,big ribosomes pro- smaller, unbound nucleid, simeple appendages, circular DNA, no membrane bound organlells, small ribosomes, no cytoskeleton both- flagella,plasmamembrea, cel ldivision is diffrent but both have cell division,cytoplasma, both have ribosomes althoguht diffrent, both have chromosomes virus has noorganels,, no nulcues, no membrean no roganless, it cannnot reproduce on its own, and its unicellulr. It has a head, Dna, capsid which is protein coat give virus its shape. nucleir acid, DNA or RNA. envelope is a protective coat made oflipids, protein, andcarbs.

9.a. Demonstrate knowledge of electrostatic and magnetostatic phenomena, including evaluating examples of each type of phenomenon. CAN YOU DRAW AND EXAMPLE OF ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENA AND ONE OF THE MAGENTIC PHENOMENA?> MAGNETIS come from what material ? are magnets stronger at higher temp or lower tmep? magnets attract what materials ? FERROMAGETNIC VS PARAMAGNETIC VS DIAMAGNETIC ? WHICH ONE IS THE STRONGERST TO WEAKEST? WHAT ARE THESE MADE OF ? how many north and south poles do magnetic have , they tend to be ___ numbers ? magnetic fileds are strongest at the ____? what is convection (in terms of magnets ) draw it ? For what is an insulator? what are conductors ? a semiconductor =? on a capacitor, what can you do to increase the charge and electric field that can be build up?

Online : Eectrostatic is a phenomena that comes from the forces that electric charges exert on each other. The force is between two charges. If they are of opposite charges, then they attract each other, and if they are the same charge, then they repel each other. Electrostatic occurs when there is a buildup of charge on a surface of an object. This may be due to contact with other surfaces. The electrostatic force between these charges are very strong and is difficult to separate opposite charges. Examples of electrostatic phenomena include static and electricity produced from a magnet.Magnetostatic is the study of magnetic fields. Magnetostatic phenomena explains that charges are either stationary or in a direct current. · Teacher prep: Electrostatic and magnetostatic phenomena: electrostanti phenome occur due to stationary or slow moving electri field . this cases electric charge on surface because of contact with other surface. Magnetostate due to stationary or slow moving magnetic field. These are related. On exam, diagram, and be able to pick out when one is drawn. The concept is that charges move toward the negative of the charge. If we show something negative , the arrow should be draw toward that thing. You can have something positive. So where whould positive charge go, a positive charge moves away from another positive. Likes repel. If we have a positive and negative, then we can end up with flow away from positive towards negative. Be able to know if correct image or no. Other : Magnetism - Magnets can be cut from metal or iron powder can be mixed with plastic - Most strongly magnetic materials: iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium - At high temperatures, materials LOSE their magnetism - Permanent magnets retain magnetism for longer and at higher temperature (made from mixtures of magnetic elements and ceramics) - Magnets attract ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials - Ferromagnetic = strongly magnetic (iron, cobalt, nickel, etc.) - Paramagnetic = weakly magnetic (aluminum, platinum, etc.) - Diamagnetic = no attraction by magnets (copper, lead, silver, wood, diamond, living tissue). - Many magnets have multiple north and south poles (always have an even number) - Magnetic fields are strongest at the poles - Convention: lines of force start from north and end at south: NORTH à SOUTH Electrostatics - Insulator = material that hold ON to built-up electrical charge - Conductors = materials that quickly carry off a buildup of electrical charge - Semiconductor = poor conductor - On a capacitor, increasing the plate size or decreasing their separation increases the charge and electric field that can be built up

11b. Compare single-celled and multicellular organisms, including the role of cell differentiation in the development of multicellular organisms. Most single cell organims are in what kigdom> multi cellered organism are in what kigdom? Single cell organims may have what oranells, ? how doe they reproduce ?hwo do they live ? are they mobile? how do they get their energy or food ? when did single-cell org develop? Multicellular organism may have what organells ? Kingdoms ? how do they reproduce ? how do they live ? When did we really see alot of multicellular organism rise ? Describe the theory of have unicellular organismhave rise to multicellular organism? The earlies cology of bacterial may have evolved when? THe first multicellular organizma that may have evolved where the .... Descrbine how metazoan multicellular organism explain the process of difffrenration? Explainho single cell work well as individuals and how that led them to evolved to multicellular? How does cell specialization throught diffrentitation come about ? What are the different types of cells that go throught differentiation? what aer pluripotent cells what are totipotent cells what are multipotent progenitor cells ?

Organisms can be made up of a single or multiple cells. Most single-celled organisms are found in the Kingdom Monera and Protista. Most multi-celled organisms are found in the Kingdoms Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Single-Celled organisms- these are tiny and microscopic. They may have a nucleus or chloroplast or other cell structures. They can be plant-like, animal-like, or bacteria-like. They reproduce either sexually or asexually. They live either alone or in colonies. Some are able to move around and some do not. They can get food from other organisms or make their own food. Single-celled organism were the first living organisms to develop on Earth approximately 3.5 billion years ago. Multicellular organisms- They may have a nucleus, chloroplasts and mitochondria. They can be a plant, animal, or fungi. They reproduce either sexually or asexually. They live alone or in groups. Can more or cannot. Multicellular organisms evolved independently numerous of times. Beginning of the Cambrian Era, we saw a widespread arrival of multicellular organisms. Multicellular life evolved from single cells in two stages. First, single-cells evolved the ability to form loose cooperative communities, called biofilms. Perhaps the earliest colony bacteria were the cyanobacteria that evolved more than 3 billion years ago (bya). Present day biofilms include slime, mold, dental plaque, films on rocks in streams, etc. perhaps 1 by a true multicellular organism formed, known as metazoans. Unlike cells in biofilms, all cells in a metazoan originally share the same DNA. As the organisms develops the cells genetic programs direct them to permanently silence much of their DNA, thereby becoming specialized. Single=celled organisms function very well as individuals. However, some of that individuality had to be given up when cells combine together as one multicellular organism. For example in order to wok together as a coherent, multicellular body. Individual cells can't just dive into cell division otherwise, cancer forms. Cell Specialization through Differentiation- Differentiation is intricately regulated by gene expressions which switches specific genes on and off at specific times. Differentiation can involved changes in numerous aspects of cell physiology (size, shape, activity, responsiveness, etc). There are different types of cells that go through differentiation: Pluripotent Cells- these cells have the potential to develop into most types of specialized cells, not restricted to a specific system. For example, embryonic cells are pluripotent. Totipotent Cells- these are cells that are able to regenerate into a whole new individual. For example, zygote and spore cells are totipotent. Multipotent Progenitor Cells- these cells have the same basic features as stem cells. They differentiate into other different types of cells, but on into closely related family of cells. Blood stem cells are able to differentiate into different kinds of blood cells, but not into other cells, such as brain cells. Mitosis and meiosis in us. Binary fission in prokaryotes like bacteria only.Pro single cell do not have membrane bound organies;;. The cells first replicate their DNA. Then cell spitsn. Bateria only has one chromosome, so there is no pairing of chromosomes like mitosis. Mitosis cells make copies called daughter. Meiosis is produce sperm cells or egg cells. Binary fission is process bacterial cell and other prokaryotes use to reproduce. Multicellular organism cells organized into cells, tissue orgains, and organ system. Mutlicelluar organism capachle of responding to stimuli,grow, repdouce, maintaine homeostaices,. Most cells form groups called tissue,then organi and so on.

7. what are the diffrent manners wave move?

Transverse wave: particles oscillates perpendicular (right angles) in the direction that the wave in moving in. An example of a transverse wave is holding a piece of paper or a rope and moving your hand up and down. Transverse waves are unable to pass through liquids or gases. Transverse waves are able to travel through a solid medium. Transverse waves requires a rigid medium in order to travel. All electromagnetic waves are transverse. Mechanical waves can be transverse. Longitudinal wave: known as "l" waves. Mechanical longitudinal waves also called compressional waves. Particles move in a direction parallel to the direction that the wave moves.Transports energy from left to right, forward and backwards. Unlike transverse waves, longitudinal waves are able to travel through liquids, gases as well as solids.

a. Recognize the hierarchical levels of organization (e.g., cells, tissues, organs, systems, organisms) in plants and animals.

cella, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

7.draw a concave lens with object inside focus, vs outside? draw convex lens? for all of these, is the image virtual or ral? inverted or upright?smaller or larger?

check notes

convex lense ( object inside the focuse) is it larger or smaller ? real or virtual? upright or inverted ? draw it out.

refraction, convex, object inside the focuse! upright, virtual, LARGER.

9 E. Interpret simple series and parallel circuits. what is a resistor, how is it measured ? what is a capacitor, how is it measured ? what is the formula for voltage, resisteance, and current? lets say you have a resistor in series , R1=10, R2 is 5, R3= 5 ohms, what is the total resistance ? if you have a series in paralletkm r1=5 ohms, R2=10 ohms. what is the total resistnace ? What is the equation capacitators ? How do you calculate capacitor if it is in serie vs. parallel ? Current is the rate of flow of electric charge carried by electrons or ions, that is measured in what units ? how does current , charge, and time relate? Lets say you have a a parallel , C1=1 fardas and c2=2 farads. on a 10 volt system. what is the charge of this unite? lets say have in series,, C=5 farads,C2=5 farads ,C3=5 farads. ON A 10 VOLT . what is the charge on the conductor ? example: lets say have total resistance in the systme show to be 4 ohms in series. what is the total current if the voltage is 5 volts. ? We have 2 voltat circuits in series, , each 12 volts. Circuit A has 12v 6 ohms resigistered. the second B circuit is 12 Volts and has 3 ohms of resistnace. which one has more current ?

· Teacher prep: Series and parralle circuits a resistor opposes the flow of electricity passing throught its terminal, reisistnace is measuredi n ohms. a capacitor consist of at least two electrical conductors with an insulator between them where eneryg builds up. capacitance is measured in units of farad. V=IR voltage = currentx resistance o Lets look at that example. Here we have R3, R2, and R1. If we want to know total resistne , first example in series.resister in series : R=20 OHMS o Example: simple if resister and added. If resister in parrale, then R total is the recriprical of R tota.. a/Rtotal.ressinatce series in parallel, 1/5+1/10. add reciprecal, get 3/10 ohms. capacitance C is equal to the charge on the CondUCTOR Q divided by the volrage V. C=Q/V Q= MEASURED COLUMBS, V=VOLTS. C=MEASURED IN FARADS capacitors in series are equal to hte reciprocal of the total of each component reciprocal. 1/C1+1/C2... capacitor in paralle ar simply added together. C1+C2+C3... Current I is the rate of flow of the electric charge caried by electron or ions. That units are ampere. It is equal to the charge Q divied by t time. I= Q/T example: Here we have 12 volt circuit in series parallel, your have to add c=q/v. 3=q/10 voltus. Q= 30 columbs lets say have in series,, C=5 farads,C2=5 farads ,C3=5 farads. ON A 10 VOLT . what is the charge on the conductor ? c=Q/V 1/5+1/5+1/5=3/5 SO 3/5=Q/10 ,..Q=6 COLUMBS ets say have total resistance in the systme show to be 4 ohms in series. what is the total current if the voltage is 5 volts. V=IR 4= I(5) I= 1.25 AMPS We have 2 voltat circuits in series, , each 12 volts. Circuit A has 12v 6 ohms resigistered. the second B circuit is 12 Volts and has 3 ohms of resistnace. which one has more current ? They ask which has more current. V=I*R. resistne and current are inversitly proper. Circuit B has more current , 4 amps. it has double , v=ir, current and resistnac are inverly propotion, so the lower the reisstant the hight ther current.

11 . a. Demonstrate knowledge of the importance of mitosis and meiosis as processes of cellular and organismal reproduction. Cell replication in eukaryotes occurs in what process? What happens in interphase, describe each step. Is interphase part of mitosis?

Mitosis is process in which most eukaryotic cells replicate. CELL the cycle is interphase then mitosis. cell replication in mitosis, not interphase., don't get that confused. MITOSIS ONLY IN EUKARYOTES! Cell Spend most of lifecycle in interphase, ( G1, S, G2 ), interphase is comprised of 3 sub-phases G1,S, ANDG2. G1 is grown and normal metabolic growth. S phases is for synthesis where DNA or chromosome replication occurs, then G2 phase is growth and with duplicated material and preparing for cell division or mitosis, second growth phase. interphase is not part of mitosis!

8d (Demonstrate knowledge of how the transfer of energy as heat is related to changes in temperature and interpret the direction of heat flow in a system.) Heat moves from what regions, what are these regions called? what is heat? what is temp? three ways heat is transferred ? explain each. what is specific heat? how much does 1 calorie of heat raise 1 gram of water per what degree c? what warms up faster, land or water ? what is latent heat? discuss the concept of laten heat of water , how relates to hurricanes and storms?leaten heat of evaporation/condnesisation is an example of what type of heat transfer? discuss the concept of ground temperature and overall what type of heat transfer is this? same for rising air parcels ?

Simply put, heat will naturally move from high to low temperatures. The region you find the higher temperature in is called the heat source. The region with lower temperature is called the heat sink. Heat and temperature are both measures of energy.Heat does not equal temperature. Heat- measures total kinetic energy of molecules in motionTemperature- measures the average kinetic energy of the movement of particles. Higher temperature= faster particles. Lower temperature = slower particles. Heat is always transferred in three ways: Convection- movement of huge amounts of material taking the heat from one area and bringing it in another. For example, when warm air (less dense) rises, cold air which is more dense sinks to replace it. The heat has moved. Radiation- transfer of energy where there is no conductive medium (for example in space) for heat to transfer through. Heat takes place instead in the form of electromagnetic waves. When these waves fall on an object, some of the energy is absorbed, increasing the objects internal energy. Conduction- heat source and heat sink are connected by matter. Transfer of heat occurs through collisions. Heat energy is transferred in solids, liquids, and gases (but in a lesser extent). Energy is transported by conduction as molecules vibrate, rotate, and/or collide into each other. Transfer of heat energy to a mass changes its temperature and its dimensions. Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise one gram of material one degree Celsius. 1 Calorie of heat will raise 1 gram of water 1 degree C. Land areas warm up more rapidly than water areas for the same heat input. Latent heat is the heat required to change a state of matter (from solid to liquid, or liquid to gas)The water latent heat of fusion is 80 cal/g. The water latent heat of evaporation is 600 cal/g. When water evaporates, it takes heat from the environment. When it condenses, it releases heat to the environment. Latent heat of evaporation/condensation is an important sink/source of atmospheric energy. This latent heat drives hurricanes and thunderstorms. Differences in ground temperatures causes hot and cool spots. Warm air is forced upwards by the cooler air (convection). Rising air parcel goes to lower pressure. Air parcel expands and cools (gas law). If the air parcel is still warmer (buoyant) than the environment, then it will continue to rise. On the other hand, if the air parcel is the same or cooler temperature than the environment, then it will stop rising

6b a. . Demonstrate knowledge of the definition of pressure and how pressure relates to fluid flow and buoyancy, including describing everyday phenomena (e.g., the functioning of heart valves, atmospheric pressure).

as pressure goes up, initially higher pressure in atrial. Vernullies prince as pressure goes up, fluid speed goes down. As presrue goes down, fluid spped goes up. If you have two regions, one has higher pressure, so it speeds up toward sthe lower pressure area, into ventricle. Then contraction continues, that applies pressure ventricle, out toruhg aorta or thorught aorta to lung. Each valve works because of pressure different. Veins have little check valves, don't let stuff flow back. as move up in elevation, less pressure. More oxygen up , so higher eleveation have mor red bloods because they need that. Water boilds lower tem at higher elevation , boiling point goes down why , less particles require less heat. online : Pressure is the force, which acts at right angles, that is exerted by solid, liquids, or gases on a unit area of a substance (solid, liquid or gas). Pressure is found by force/area. Within a vessel of water that has three holes, one of the top, one in the middle, and one on the bottom, the force of the water fluid flowing out of the holes will differ. The water flowing out of the bottom hole has greater pressure and shoots out further than the water flowing out of the top most hole. There is less water molecules pressing down on the water near the top hole so there is force and thus, less pressure, whereas it is the opposite for the bottom most hole.Pascal's law of fluid pressures: states that pressure applied anywhere to a body of fluid will cause the force to be transmitted equally in all directions. the force acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid. Buoyancy is the upward force an object feels when it is fully/partially submerged in water. Objects placed into water undergo two forces, the upward force (buoyant) and the downward pull, gravity. Objects that float are called positively buoyant. Objects that sink are negatively buoyant. Objects that neither sink nor float are neutrally buoyant. So, to determine if an object will float or sink, we need to know the density of the object. If the density of a solid object is greater than the density of the liquid, then it will sink. If the density of a solid object is less than the density of the liquid, this it will float. According to Archimedes Principle: "Any object, wholly or partly immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object." So, when an object floats, not just its weight is considered but the amount of water that is displaced. That is why a very large ship can float on water, whereas a penny sinks. Online : To find the Density of a material: mass divided by its volume (think DMV)D=M/VWater is 1g/mL (1 g/cm3). If the density of an object is less than 1g/cm3, it will sink into the water until it displaced an amount of water equal to its own mass. Thus, a 1 g object will sink until it displaces 1 g of water. If an object is placed in a bin of water, it will float if its density is less than 1g/mL. If an object's density is greater, then it will sink. For example, will a box float if each side is 5 cm and has a mass of 250 grams? Scroll down to find the answer Other study guide : Fluid Dynamics - the buoyant force acting on an abject that is partially or fully submerged is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaces. The mass of the displaced water is the mass of the entire object - the fraction of the object that is underwater is the same as the ratio of the object's density to the density of water o ex: if the object has a density 1/12 that of water, then 1/12 the volume of the object will be under water - static fluid pressure = density x gravity x height o doesn't depend on the total mass or total volume of the fluid, doesn't depend of the surface area or shape of fluid o depends only on height of the fluid above it - valves in the heart prevent back flow o Right side = tricuspid valve (btwn R atria and ventricle) o Left side = bicuspid /mitral valve (btwn L atria and ventricle) o Pulmonary semilunar valve: prevents backflow from the lungs to the right ventricle o Aortic valve prevents blood from seeing back from aorta to left ventricle - Study webste : Introduction: Pressure - Johnny Dalton and his family have just arrived on Ideal Island, where all gas particles behave ideally. They move rapidly and randomly, they don't interact with each other, they have elastic collisions (meaning they don't lose energy when they collide), and they are point particles (meaning the individual particles don't have any volume). - Just like when you travel to a foreign country and have to use a different currency or different units to measure things, Johnny must use different units on Ideal Island. Today, we are going to discuss pressure and the pressure units that are used here on the island. - I want you to think about the last time you measured the pressure of something. It may have been the pressure of the air in your car tires. Do you remember what it was? The air in my car's tires is 32 psi. Psi represents the pounds per square inch, which is a common unit for pressure. Let's look a little more closely at 'pounds per square inch.' What does a pound measure? If you said weight, you are correct. Weight is just the force of gravity's pull on an object - we measure it in pounds. Now, the square inch is just an area. If we put the two parts of 'psi' together we get the definition for pressure: the force per unit area. Pressure in a tire is caused by the air molecules hitting the sides of the tire. - So, now we know what pressure is, but what causes it in our tires? To answer this, I want you to picture the gas particles flying around inside of your car's tires. They're in there flying past each other, hitting each other, and hitting the walls of the tires. The pressure comes from each time they hit the inside walls of the container (or, in this case, it would be the tires). The more times they hit the inside walls, the higher the pressure in the tires. So, if you keep adding air to the tires, you're going to increase the number of particles that hit the inside walls of the tires and increase the pressure. - Atmospheres - Let's go back to the unit that we use to represent pressure: psi. This is one of many different units that can be used to measure pressure, and it's probably the one that you use most on a daily basis in the United States. But, on Ideal Island, different units are used, so it's important to know what they are and how to convert among them. On the island, the most common units of pressure that are used are atmospheres (atm) and millimeters of mercury (mmHg). 1 atmosphere is often abbreviated as atm, and it's really just the weight of all of the air above you 'pressing down' on you while you stand at sea level. Now, if you were on a mountain, there would be less air 'pressing down' on you, so the pressure would be lower (less than 1 atmosphere). - Millimeters of Mercury - The unit millimeters of mercury (mmHg) goes back to the device used to measure pressure, the barometer. In the barometer below, we have an inverted tube containing a column of mercury with the chemical symbol Hg, and it's sitting in a pool of mercury. As the atmosphere 'presses down' on the mercury pool, the liquid extends up into the inverted tube, and the height is measured in millimeters (or some other length measurement). So, if the weather is changing, resulting in an increase in the barometric pressure, the increase is measured by how far up the mercury extends in the column. At sea level, the mercury extends about 760 millimeters up the column. - The unit 'millimeters of mercury' can be pretty confusing because it seems as if it's a unit for length, not pressure. Sometimes you may see the unit 'torr' used instead. A torr is equivalent to a millimeter of mercury, and it's named after Evangelista Torricelli, the first person to use a barometer to experiment with and document the pressure of the atmosphere. A barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure created by weather changes. - Converting Among Units - Mercury barometers are not used much anymore because mercury is a toxic liquid, but the unit 'mmHg' is still used as a unit of pressure. When converting among the different units of pressure, it's important to know how they relate to each other. 1 atmosphere (the force of all of the air 'pushing down' on you at sea level) is equal to 14.7 psi (the unit you use to measure the pressure in your car's tires). 1 atmosphere is also equal to 760 mmHg (or 760 torr). The two most common units used on Ideal Island are atmospheres and mmHg. - Sample Problem - Let's try a practice conversion. Say you're hiking up a mountain on Ideal Island and the pressure changes from 1 atmosphere at sea level to 0.89 atmospheres at the top of the mountain. How many mmHg would this be equivalent to? Now, you may be able to easily figure out the answer to this question using a calculator, but I am going to set it up using dimensional analysis. - First, I start out with my given: 0.89 atmospheres. I will then multiply by a conversion factor, which is just a fraction equivalent to 1. My conversion factor is 760 mmHg over 1 atm because the numerator and the denominator are equivalent pressures. I will then multiply the two fractions, canceling out atmospheres, giving me 676 mmHg as the answer. - Lesson Summary - Pressure is defined as the force per unit area, and when a gas fills a container, the particles sometimes collide with the inside walls of the container, which causes the container to have a certain amount of pressure. You may measure pressure in psi, but the two units that are most commonly used when measuring pressure of an ideal gas are atmospheres (atm) and millimeters of mercury (mmHg). An atmosphere is the amount of pressure you 'feel' at sea level on a normal day. It is equivalent to 14.7 psi and 760 mmHg (or 760 torr). Pressure - When you step on a scale, you get a reading of your weight, which is simply the force due to gravity. Your weight on the scale will read the same no matter how you stand on it - with both feet on the scale, with one foot in the air or even if you do a handstand! - What's different is the pressure you exert on the scale in each of these situations because this is the force exerted over a given area, or in equation form, P = F/A. Your weight is the force, but the pressure depends on how much area that weight is applied over, be it both feet, one foot or your two hands. - Pressure in a liquid is also the force exerted over a given area, but the difference is that a fluid's pressure pushes on the walls of the surrounding container, as well as on all parts of the fluid itself. This is true for both liquids and gases because they are both fluids, but pressure in a liquid is a little different from that of a gas. - Pressure in a Liquid - Gas particles are not very friendly. They spread out to fill the entire space of their container, enjoying their personal space and freedom. But as gas particles fly around, they sometimes collide with each other, as well as the walls of the container. These interactions create pressure in the container, and in a gas, this pressure is the same throughout the entire fluid. - But you can clearly see that this is not the case for liquids because they do not fill their entire container like gases do. This is because of the bonds between the liquid's molecules, which are what hold them together. When you pour a liquid into a container, it fills the bottom because gravity pulls it down. This force due to gravity is the same as your scale reading - it's the liquid's weight and is what creates pressure in that liquid. - The pressure in the liquid also increases with depth because of gravity. The liquid at the bottom has to bear the weight of all the liquid above it, as well as all of the air above that! You don't notice the weight of the air around you because your body is 'pressurized' the same as the atmosphere, but any liquid under that atmosphere definitely feels it. - You can experience this change in pressure when you swim to the bottom of a pool. As you go deeper underwater, you feel the pressure increasing because there is more and more weight on top of you. But the pressure doesn't just build up on top of you. Because you're in a fluid, you'll feel that pressure increase all around you. - Calculating Liquid Pressure - When a liquid is at rest, meaning that it is not flowing, we can determine its pressure at a given depth known as hydrostatic pressure. The way we determine this is through an equation: P = rho * g * d, where P is the pressure, rho is the density of the liquid, g is gravity and d is the depth. - You may also see the hydrostatic equation written as P = rho * g * h, where the h stands for height. This may be used because sometimes we want to calculate the pressure of a liquid as it fills a column (like when measuring barometric pressure), so we need to know the height of the fluid. It's like taking the depth and flipping it upside down. As long as you use the appropriate measurement, either letter is okay to use, but it might help to stick with the letter that best represents what you're measuring - either the depth or the height. - It's important to remember that the density of the liquid doesn't change with depth any more than the density of a candy bar changes when you break it into separate pieces. Liquids are not compressible, meaning their molecules are already about as close together as they can be. It's also a good time to take note of that g in the equation. It acts as a constant reminder of how gravity plays a crucial role in the pressure of a liquid at any given depth. - Examples - Now that we know how to calculate hydrostatic pressure, let's put it into action. Let's say we want to calculate the pressure of water at the bottom of a pool that's four meters deep. Luckily, you don't need to memorize the densities of various fluids since those can be looked up, and the density of water is 1,000 kg/m^3. We know that g is always 9.8 m/s^2, so it looks like we have everything we need to find the pressure. - Plugging in our values, we get: P = 1,000kg/m^3 * 9.8 m/s^2 * 4 m. Our pressure then is 39,200 kg/m-s^2. These units of pressure are perfectly acceptable, but we can also write them as Pascal. This is represented by the letters 'Pa,' which is the standard unit of pressure and is named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal. A Pascal is the same as 1 kg/m-s^2, but writing Pa sure takes a lot less time! - We can also rearrange this equation to determine other information about the liquid. Say, for example, that we already know the pressure and the density of a liquid, but we want to find the depth at which this pressure occurs. All we have to do is move the variables around in the equation and then calculate the depth. Let's say our pressure is 10,000 Pa (same as 10,000 kg/m-s^2) and our liquid this time is milk, which has a density of about 1,035 kg/m^3. - Our equation needs to be rearranged so that depth is alone, so we simply divide the pressure by the density of the liquid and g. Plugging in our variables, we get: 10,000 Pa/(1,035 kg/m^3 * 9.8 m/s^2) = d. Once we do the math, we find that this pressure occurs in our milk at a depth of 0.986 m. - This same principle can be used to find the density of the liquid if the pressure and depth are known. In fact, since g is always 9.8 m/s^2, as long as you know two of the other variables, you can easily calculate the third. All it takes is a little rearranging followed by some quick math. - Lesson Summary - In a liquid, pressure pushes not only on the container that holds the liquid but also on all parts of the fluid itself. Pressure in a liquid is caused by the weight of the liquid, which is the force due to gravity. As the depth increases, so does the pressure because there is more weight (or force) coming from above. - The pressure in a liquid at a given depth is called the hydrostatic pressure. This can be calculated using the hydrostatic equation: P = rho * g * d, where P is the pressure, rho is the density of the liquid, g is gravity (9.8 m/s^2) and d is the depth (or height) of the liquid. - Using this equation, we can determine the pressure at any given depth within a liquid as long as we know the liquid's density. We can also find the density or depth of the liquid, as long as we know the other variables and rearrange the equation appropriately. the buoyant force, which is the upward force of a fluid. Buoyancy is an easy concept to understand if you know a little about pressure in a fluid. In a fluid (either a gas or a liquid), pressure increases with depth. So when an object is submerged in water, meaning that it is completely in that fluid, the pressure on the bottom of the object is greater than on the top. This creates a net upward force on the object, so the object is buoyed upward against gravity. When you jumped in the pool, the pressure against your feet was greater than on your head because your feet were deeper in the water. Therefore, the buoyant force acted upward, pushing you upward and making it easier to lift yourself in the water. Archimedes' Principle Think that's cool? It gets even better! Not only does the buoyant force create an upward lift on an object in a fluid, but it's also equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by that object. This was discovered by Archimedes back in the 3rd century B.C., so we call this Archimedes' Principle. Again, it's important to remember that we're talking about fluids, so both liquids and gases, like water and air. Imagine that you have a full glass of water sitting on the counter. It's so full that if you put anything else into it, the water will spill over the top of the glass and on to the counter. If you were to collect the water that spills out, you would find that this is the same volume as that of the object you put into the glass. This is what we mean by displacing the fluid, and it's a simple way to measure the volume of an irregularly shaped object since we can easily measure the fluid it pushes out of the way. And remember, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of this displaced fluid, NOT the weight of the object itself. This means that if the weight of the submerged object itself is equal to the buoyant force (the weight of the displaced fluid), then the object will neither sink nor float. But if the weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force (the weight of the displaced fluid), then the object will sink. And, if the weight of the object is less than the buoyant force (still the weight of the displaced fluid!) then it will rise to the surface and float. Fish don't float or sink because their weight is equal to the buoyant force. But a heavy boulder sinks to the bottom of a lake because its weight is more than that of the fluid it displaces. And a piece of wood floats on the surface because its weight is much less than that of the fluid it displaces. Calculating Archimedes' Principle Archimedes' principle describes the relationship between the buoyant force and the volume of the displaced fluid, but also the density of the displaced fluid. We can write this principle in equation form as: FB = ρf Vf g where FB is the buoyant force, ρf is the density of the displaced fluid, Vf is the volume of the displaced fluid, and g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/s2. It's very important to remember that the density and volume in this equation refer to the displaced fluid, NOT the object submerged in it. This equation is helpful because you can use it to determine the buoyant force on an object. For example, say you submerge an object in water and find that the object displaces 1.0 liter of water. Water has a density of 1.0 kg/L, so now we have everything we need to determine the buoyant force acting on the submerged object because we have the volume and density of the displaced fluid. Consequently, we also have the volume of the object because this is the same volume as that of the displaced fluid! To calculate the buoyant force, simply plug in the numbers. Now our equation reads: FB = 1.0 kg/L * 1.0 L * 9.8 m/s2. Once we do the math, we find that the buoyant force equals 9.8 kg-m/s2, which is the same as 9.8 Newtons. If the weight of the object is more than 9.8 N, then the object will sink. If it is less than 9.8 N, the object will float. But if the weight of the object is exactly 9.8 N, then the object will neither sink nor float because it is the same as the buoyant force. Flotation We've touched on flotation already, but floating objects are special enough to deserve just a little more time and explanation. Have you ever seen a large ship traveling through the water? It floats on the water, even though it's heavy enough that you may think it should sink. In this case, it's the shape of the object that determines whether it will float or not. If you take an entire iron ship and melt it into a solid block, it will take up less volume because it fills a smaller area. But this also means it displaces a smaller volume of water, which in turn decreases the buoyant force. A block of iron will sink, but an iron ship will float because its wide bottom takes up more space in the water, displacing more water and weight, and therefore increasing the buoyant force pushing upward against it. In fact, a floating object will displace a weight of fluid equal to the weight of the object. This is known as the principle of floatation, and engineers take this into account when designing objects that need to float. Be it a giant cargo ship or a hot air balloon, the object must displace a weight of fluid equal to its own weight in order to float. This also means that the buoyant force will be greater on objects in denser fluids than fluids that are less dense. You are more likely to float in salt water than freshwater because saltwater is denser than freshwater. But the reverse is also true: less dense objects float more easily than denser ones. For example, women float more easily than men because men are more muscular (and therefore more dense) than women. You can also try this with soda cans - a can of diet soda will float in water, but a regular soda will sink. This is because the diet soda is less dense than the regular soda, so the buoyant force pushes it upward to the surface. Lesson Summary Objects submerged in fluids have forces acting on them from all sides, but the upward force in a fluid is a special one, known as the buoyant force. Objects are buoyed up from below because the pressure in a fluid increases with depth, so the force on the bottom of the object is greater than that on the top of it. Archimedes' Principle tells us that the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by an object. If the weight of the object is greater than the buoyant force (the weight of the displaced fluid), then the object will sink. If the weight of the object is less than the buoyant force, the object will float. But, if the weight of the object is the same as the weight of the displaced fluid, then the object will neither sink nor float. Floating objects are special cases because they displace a weight of fluid equal to their own weight. This is known as the principle of flotation, and it tells us why a block of iron will sink, but a wide iron ship will float on the surface. This discovery was made by Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli and is called Bernoulli's principle. Bernoulli studied fluids in pipes and found that where the speed of a fluid increases, the internal pressure in the fluid decreases. This is not an easy concept to grasp. In fact, you may be thinking that if the water is in a tighter space, the pressure should increase. Well, it does, but not the pressure within the fluid. The pressure increase is experienced by whatever is surrounding the fluid. In fact, it's this change in pressure that actually causes the fluid to change speed, not the other way around. Applications of Bernoulli's Principle It might help to think of a traveling fluid in terms of streamlines. These are imaginary lines that represent the path of fluid particles. Streamlines are far apart when the area surrounding the fluid is wide. But when the area becomes narrow, the streamlines are pushed together, decreasing the pressure in the fluid and increasing its speed. We can apply the idea of fluid streamlines to all sorts of situations. Since both liquids and gases are fluids, we can apply Bernoulli's principle to things like air as well as water. Airplane wings provide a great example of this principle in action. Airplane wings are designed so that air will flow faster over the top of the wing than underneath it. The top of the wing has a greater curve than the bottom, and this curve crowds the streamlines together. Since the streamlines are closer together, there is less pressure in the fluid (the air) above the wing than below it. Since the pressure below the wing is greater, it creates an upward lift toward the area of lower pressure, pushing upward on the bottom of the wing. When two semi trucks pass next to each other on the highway, they are drawn to each other because of this same type of pressure difference. As they pass each other, the space between them creates an area of low pressure because it is quite narrow. The pressure on the outside of each truck is greater than the area between them, so they are pushed together as they pass each other. Ships experience this when they pass each other as well. The water between the two ships is traveling faster than the water on the outer sides, creating an area of low pressure between them. In fact, ships have to steer away from each other when they pass to avoid crashing into each other! When a windy storm rolls through, your roof has a good chance of being lifted off your house because as the air passes over the top, the streamlines are crowded together and there is a pressure drop. The pressure underneath the roof is greater than above it, providing the same type of lift as we saw with the airplane wing. Lesson Summary Thanks to an important discovery by Daniel Bernoulli, we can understand how pressure changes within a fluid as it moves through different spaces. Called Bernoulli's principle, this is the idea that where the speed of a fluid increases, the pressure in the fluid decreases. A fluid's speed will increase as it travels through narrower spaces and decrease as it travels through wider spaces. The increase or decrease in speed is caused by a pressure change within the fluid. Visualizing streamlines makes this concept easier to understand. These are imaginary lines that represent the path of fluid particles. As the fluid moves through a narrower space, the streamlines are crowded together, decreasing the pressure within the fluid and increasing its speed. Bernoulli's principle can be applied to many everyday situations. For example, this principle explains why airplane wings are curved along the top and why ships have to steer away from each other as they pass. The pressure above the wing is lower than below it, providing lift from underneath the wing. The pressure in the water on the outer sides of the ships is greater than the faster moving water between them, which pushes them toward each other as they pass. The Venturi Effect When water flows through a pipe, it exerts a certain amount of pressure outwards. This pressure can either keep the pipe's walls from collapsing or can make them explode. In general, we want to avoid the second option—specially when talking about certain kinds of pipes, like the roughly 100,000 miles of blood vessels circulating throughout your body. Yeah, we want those to stay intact. Just like hydro engineers watch water pressure to make sure pipes don't burst, doctors watch our blood pressure. Only, with blood vessels we're not just worried about them exploding. They could also collapse, which is just as terrifying. Now, if every vein and artery and capillary were the same size, blood pressure would be relatively straight forward, but they're not. Some are larger, some are smaller, some are narrower or angled or constricted. So, we need to understand how pressure changes within a system, and for that, we turn to the Venturi effect, which claims that when fluid is constricted, it decreases in pressure but increases in velocity. Need a closer look? Let's check it out. The Venturi Effect and Bernoulli's Principle So, let's see exactly how this effect works. The blood vessel must maintain an overall constant pressure and velocity, so when constrictions like this occur, the blood has to speed up and decrease pressure to compensate. The Venturi effect was named for 18th century Italian physicist Giovanni Battista Venturi and is basically a specific example of the Bernoulli principle, one of the fundamental laws of fluid dynamics. According to this principle, an increase in fluid velocity always results in a decrease in pressure, but that total pressure along a streamline is constant. So, when we see restrictions like this, we know that the velocity has to increase, and pressure must decrease so the overall pressure in the vessel can remain constant. This can be tested by inserting a tube at a right angle in the stream both before and within the constriction. The fluid pressure fills the tube until pressure is stabilized then stops. See how the amount of fluid is lower in the tube over the constriction? That means the pressure is lower. The Venturi Effect and Bloodstreams So, now that we understand the basics of the Venturi effect, let's see where this actually occurs in the body. Your blood travels through blood vessels in a specific way, moving from the heart through arteries then capillaries then veins back to the heart. Now, major veins and arteries are substantially larger than capillaries, which are actually pretty tiny. So, for blood to move from arteries to veins, it has to pass through the constricting capillaries. And there it is, the Verturi effect in action. In order for the overall blood pressure to remain constant, blood must flow faster but at lower pressure through these smaller veins. Now, throughout the body, the Venturi effect is pretty common. We see it as blood passes through vessels of various sizes and through the various pressure valves of the heart. But, the Venturi effect is also where we can see some serious health risks. This is a healthy artery. See how well the blood is flowing? Now over here, this is a section of artery that is being clogged by cholesterol. The cholesterol build up creates a constriction, one that the artery is not naturally designed to handle. So, as blood passes through the constriction, it speeds up and loses pressure. To compensate, the blood pressure on either side has to be higher, and the heart has to pump harder to maintain total pressure. Also, if this section of the artery gets too clogged, and the pressure decreases too much, the blood vessel won't be able to sustain its own weight and could collapse in on itself. If an artery in the heart suddenly collapses or even spasms from rapid constricting, it can cause a heart attack. Which, again, is something we want to avoid. So, keeping blood flowing in the right way is important. You want those pipelines to work exactly how they're supposed to. Lesson Summary To understand how blood travels through the body, it's important to understand the basics of fluid dynamics. According to Bernoulli's principle, an increase in fluid velocity always results in a decrease in pressure, but that total pressure along a streamline is consistent. We see this in action when pipes are constricted. This specific situation, first mathematically evaluated by the 18th-century Italian physicist Giovanni Battista Venturi, is called the Venturi effect. Basically, when fluid is constricted, it decreases in pressure but increases in velocity. That's the Venturi effect. This is important for how our bodies maintain blood pressure. Blood leaves the heart through arteries and is pumped through much narrower vessels called capillaries before entering the veins that transport the blood back to the heart. The Venturi effect occurs as blood passes through these narrower vessels. Now, the body is equipped to handle this, but not as equipped to deal with constrictions blocking major arteries. The loss of pressure inside the constriction can cause things like heart attacks. So eat well, get plenty of exercise, and make sure to schedule regular appointments with your local hydro engineer. fter watching this video, you will be able to explain what vector diagrams are and how they are used, including vector addition and subtraction. A short quiz will follow.

what are two types of reflection, hwat are some examples oc ommon phenomenos that occure with waves ?- draw example for reflection example of earthquake ?

- Reflection from the surface of a mirror, or any reflection where all the light rays reflect off a surface at the same angle, is called specular reflection. But, in fact, the law of reflection is always true. When you go from a mirrored surface to a regular surface, it isn't the law that changes, but the surface itself. - Take a look at the table on which your computer is sitting. Run your hand across it. Does it feel smooth? Although something might feel smooth to our hands, the surface contains millions of tiny imperfections. Because of those imperfections, a light wave doesn't hit the flat surface we see. Most of the time it hits an imperfection, and those imperfections could be pointed at any angle at all. Therefore, light waves hit different imperfections and bounce off at different reflected angles. This is called diffuse reflection. - Specular reflection and diffuse reflection are two types of reflection. The more shiny and mirrored a surface, the more specular reflection occurs, and the more dull a surface, the more diffuse reflection occurs. - The vibrations in the Earth that form earthquakes are also waves. While you might think that being closer to an earthquake is the only way to feel the vibrations strongly, due to the reflection of waves, seismographs can detect earthquakes at a great distance. - When an earthquake occurs, the vibration moves through the Earth in every direction, creating waves in concentric circles. But the waves also go downwards, heading under the Earth. When those waves hit the Earth's core, they can refract or reflect, and then bounce to other parts of the Earth's surface. In fact, an earthquake can, on occasion, be detected at almost the opposite side of the planet. It is this reflection that first allowed scientists to determine the structure of the Earth, with its crust, mantle, inner core and outer core. - Listening to the Radio - When we listen to the radio, that signal can be transmitting from a great distance away. So, how does it get to us? - Radio signals are also waves, and those kinds of waves can bounce off the ionosphere, or upper atmosphere, of the Earth. If they didn't do this, you would only be able to listen to the radio if you were in direct line of sight with the transmitter. Waves, like light, usually travel in straight lines. - Lesson Summary - Waves are everywhere in our lives, from light and sound, to radio and infrared. Understanding how waves reflect was vital in developing many of the technologies we use today, and it all comes from the basic law of reflection. The law of reflection says that incident angles and reflected angles will be the same, which is true even on imperfect

7.Demonstrate knowledge of the relationship between wave frequency, wavelength, and amplitude and energy.

o Amplitude is heaight of wave. Peak to peak amplitude is the distance from the top to the bottom of the wave. Frequency is the measure of number of cycles per unit of time, cycle is crest and throught. Frequency is measure of number cycles per unit of time, measured in Hz hearths if it is per second. Waveleght is the distance it takes for the wave to repeat. Period T is the amount of time it takes for a repeat of the entire cycle. Period and frequency are reciprecals of one another. Frequency = 1/ period f=a/T. frequency is veloicy / wavelength. If veloicy is higher, frequency is higher , makes sense. If it's a longer wavelenht, it will pass slower , so lower velocity too. Wavelength and frequency are inversely related so that longer waves have lower frequencies, and shorter waves have higher frequencies. The energy of a wave is directly proportional to its frequency, but inversely proportional to its wavelength. In other words, the greater the energy, the larger the frequency and the shorter (smaller) the wavelength. The amount of energy carried by a wave is related to the amplitude of the wave. A high energy wave is characterized by a high amplitude; a low energy wave is characterized by a low .amplitude.

5c a. Describe the effect of temperature, pressure, and concentration on chemical equilibrium (Le Chatelier's principle) and reaction rate.

· Reaction equiplibrium and le Chateliers principle o If a system is in chemical equilibrium, this means that the forward and backward reactions are happening at the same rate o LeChatellier's principle states that is stress if applied to a system that is in equilibrium , the position of equilibrium will shift in whichever direction alleviate the stress and reinstates equilibrium For instance, you know that the volume of a gas decreases with increased pressure. So, if you have two volumes of gas in equilibrium, if one volume decreases with increased pressure, the other volume must increase with decreased pressure. Think of it like a teeter-totter. As one side goes up, the other must go down. Equilibrium adjustments between two gas volumes can be compared to a teeter-totter. Effect of Change in Concentration Chemical reactions that are in equilibrium are affected by three different changes: change in concentration of products or reactants, change in temperature, and change in pressure. When one of these changes or 'stressors' is applied to a reaction in equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are no longer equal. The system will change so that either more product or more reactants are made. In time, though, a new chemical equilibrium will be reached, and the forward and reverse reactions will again be equal. Equilibrium shifts right when the forward reaction increases. If a chemical reaction in equilibrium has changes in the concentration of the products or reactants, the reaction changes until it comes back into equilibrium. For instance, if you increase the concentration of the reactant, this added stress on the system causes the reaction to make more product, essentially making its forward rate greater than its reverse rate. Since the forward reaction is increasing, the equilibrium is said to shift right. This will continue until the concentration of the reactant has lessened. At this point, the forward and reverse rates will be equal again, and the reaction will be in equilibrium. Effect of Change in Temperature Equilibrium shifts lefts when increasing the temperature of exothermic reactions. Temperature is also a stress on the reaction system. If a reaction is exothermic, meaning it gives off heat as it proceeds forward, increasing the temperature of the reaction leads to a shift to the left. Therefore, more product is being broken down and more reactant is being made. As product of a usually exothermic reaction is broken down, energy is absorbed, so by making more of the reactants, some of the energy that is added to the system through the increased temperature is then removed. The opposite is also true. If energy in the form of heat is added to an endothermic reaction, the equilibrium will shift to the right and more product is made. Effect of Change in Pressure The last stressor on a system is pressure. Pressure has little effect on reactions that are in solution, but it can affect gas reactions. The reason for this is that the volume a gas takes up is related to how much pressure the gas is under. This is explained by Boyle's Law, which says that the volume of a gas increases as the pressure on that gas decreases. An increase in pressure favors the reaction that produces fewer gas molecules. So, if you have a gas reaction, A2 + 3 B2 --> 2 AB3, you can see that on the left side of the reaction, there are four molecules of gas (one molecule of A2 and three molecules of B2), and on the right side, there are two. So, increasing the pressure of this reaction would cause the equilibrium to shift right to make fewer molecules overall. If the reaction were the other way, though - 2 AB3 --> A2 + 3 B2 - then increased pressure would favor the reactant because there are only two molecules of reactant for every four molecules of product. Lesson Summary When a system that is in equilibrium is disturbed, the system adjusts itself to reduce the change. Equilibrium is explained in chemistry by Le Chatelier's Principle, which states that any change in a substance on one side of the equation in concentration, temperature, or pressure results in an equilibrium shift to oppose the change until a new equilibrium is reached. When a chemical reaction system is stressed by an increase in the concentration of the reactants, the system shifts to the right, toward the products. If the concentration of products increases, the system shifts to the left, toward the reactants. When an exothermic chemical reaction system is stressed by a rise in temperature, the reaction shifts to the left. If the chemical reaction is endothermic and the temperature rises, the reaction shifts to the right. When a reaction that involves gases has an increase in pressure, the system will shift in the direction that has the fewest gas molecules, whether that is reactants or products.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of how the availability of natural resources and the existence of natural hazards and other geologic events have influenced the development of human society.

Environmental consequences of resource consumption Fossil fuel usage frequenty leads to air and water pollution ( release of carbon dioxide, main pullinat burning coal which power plants use) Mining, drilling, and logging affect the immediate environment including the ecosystem and all the organism that live in that area Immediate use of getting energy can lead to long term detrimental effects, mining and drilling contribut contamination of ground water, mining can destabilize land contribute pollution and earthquake due weaking land beneath certain zones, all generation be aware of consequence of how we consume and extrtact resources leadingto effect Natural Disaster Research Students are typically very interested in natural disasters, and the more extreme the more the engagement. In this research activity, students will be researching some of the worst natural disasters in history. Students will choose the type, but will be required to investigate the events that happened, how people were affected and how the community recovered. Some examples of natural disasters students might research include the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, the 2005 Hurricane Katrina, or even a historical disaster like the 1889 Johnstown Flood. Students can have a choice about their research product, such as a digital presentation, a poster, or an essay. Directions Natural disasters can have long lasting consequences for a community. In this research activity, you'll be researching a deadly natural disaster of your choosing. For the disaster you pick, you should research how the events happened, how people in the community were affected and how the community recovered. Your final product can be a choice of a digital presentation, such as Google slides, a poster, or an essay. To get started, consider some search terms that would be useful. Searching for full questions won't get you the most scientific sources, so brainstorm some keyword combinations, such as "deadly floods" or "extreme hurricanes" to get what you're looking for. When choosing sources to research, make sure you are using credible websites that come from the government, scientists or a news outlet. Examples of credible sources include USA today, the History Channel, NOAA, NHC, Smithsonian Institute, USGS, NASA, or National Geographic. After watching this video, you will be able to explain the environmental reasons why humans settled where they did, both historically and more recently. A short quiz will follow. Why Do Humans Live Where They Live? Over 12,000 years ago, humans were hunter-gatherers. We lived a nomadic lifestyle, moving from place to place over the seasons and years. Considering humans have been around for hundreds of thousands of years, the way we live now - settling down in one place for long stretches of time - is a pretty new lifestyle. But if you're going to settle down, you have a lot of places to choose from. So, why did we choose to live where we did? And what decides where we live today? When humans first started to settle down, it was because we started to switch to an agrarian society. An agrarian society is a society where cultivating the land is the primary source of wealth, and the focus is on agriculture and farming. So naturally, the places we chose to live were the places that were best for this new life as farmers. What do farmers need? They need good quality, fertile soil and a strong water supply. Both of these things can be found on the flood plains of rivers. So, it's not surprising that many of the first human settlements were along these rivers. This even influences us today - many of the oldest cities are along rivers, either because of those same farming reasons or because it allowed for boats to sail down the river, carrying goods to be traded. Trade was a big part of how humans advanced, building more and more impressive architecture and things to make our lives easier. This was only possible because of the extra time and funds, gained through trade. So that's the long-term historical perspective. But now let's talk about what attracts humans to certain locations today. Let's talk about settlements built over the last few hundred years. Natural Resources & Water Natural resources and water remain vitally important to this day. Humans can't live without fresh water and still can't farm without it, so it's a necessity. Though less important with the invention of indoor plumbing, it's still a major consideration. But in the last few hundred years, water and soil were replaced with many other natural resources of importance. The presence of wood (trees), stone and metal ores allowed us to manufacture and build products like tools and weapons. And since these natural resources could be sold, a settlement located near these natural resources would prosper. And then there were the rarer, expensive natural resources, like gold, silver and oil. The gold rush was a rapid movement of people because of the discovery of gold, especially to California and other parts of the Western United States in the 19th century. When we discovered gold, people saw their opportunity to get rich and rushed to find their own piece of the prize. Climate & Natural Disasters But it's not just natural resources and money that attracts people to an area, because they have to actually live there. A warm, temperate and pleasant climate can be attractive to people. There was never the same number of people migrating to Northern Canada as there were to the United States, and climate is a big reason for that. And it's important to feel safe where you live; so natural disasters like hurricanes, earthquakes and volcanoes tend to make a place less attractive. All these factors and more are rather random - they're based on the environment and outside human control, but they have a big influence on where the towns and cities in which we live are located. Lesson Summary Over 12,000 years ago, humans were hunter-gatherers. We lived a nomadic lifestyle, moving from place to place over the seasons and years. When humans first started to settle down, it was because we started to switch to an agrarian society. An agrarian society is a society where cultivating the land is the primary source of wealth: where the focus is on agriculture and farming. So naturally, the places we chose to live had good quality, fertile soil and a strong water supply. Both of these things can be found on the flood plains of rivers, and so it's not surprising that many of the first human settlements were along these rivers - these factors even influence us today. There are other natural resources of importance, though. The presence of wood, stone and metal ores allowed us to manufacture and build our products. And because these natural resources could be sold, a settlement located near any of these things tended to do very well for itself. And then there were the rarer, expensive natural resources, like gold, silver and oil. But it's not just natural resources and money that attracts people to an area, because they have to actually live there, too. A warm, temperate and pleasant climate can be attractive to people. And it's important to feel safe; so natural disasters like hurricanes, earthquakes and volcanoes tend to make a place less attractive. All these factors and more are rather random - they're based on the environment and outside human control, but they have a big influence on where the towns and cities in which we live are located. Learning Outcomes Take in the facts of this lesson and develop the ability to: Recognize the role of original agrarian societies in determining where humans settled Reference the resources and natural events that draw people to given areas

Explain the major structures and their functions in vascular and nonvascular plants How do vascular plants carry liquid or fluid? Vascular bundles vs vascular cylinder? What are the two types of vascular tissue ? What separates the xylem and phloem? What is the function of the xylem tissue ? As the xylem ages, what happnes ? Where is the cambium located ? What is the function of the Cambium? Xylem and phloem cells are made in the region of cambium, know as the what region? What is the function of the phloem tissue ? Draw a plant's epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pith, and cuticle. What kind of cells do you find in the cortex? In what parts ofthe plant do you find the cortex?What happens to the cortex as the plant ages ? What is the inner most layer of root cortex? Where is the pith found ? Where is the cuticle found, what is it made of ? What is the purpose of cuticle ? How are nonvascular plants diffrent fromv vascularplants ? What are the two subgroups of nonvascular plants ? Where are non vascular plants found ?

Explain the major structures and their functions in vascular and nonvascular plants #1 VASCULAR These types of plants have a complex system of special fluid-carrying tissue called vascular tissue. This tissue runs throughout the vascular plant and helps to carry fluid and provides support. In young stems, it is arranged in separate units called vascular bundles and in older stems, they are joined up and are called a vascular cylinders. There are two types of vascular tissue: xylem and phloem. There is a layer of tissue that separates them called cambium. Xylem Tissue- these tissues carry water up through the plant. The way I remember this is that the letter x is right next to the letter w (xylem=water). It is made up of vessels with long, thin fibers that provides support between them. As the xylem ages, it begins to fill in. It does not transport water anymore, but still provides structure.It carries water from the root up. Cambium- is a layer of narrow, thin-walled cells found between the xylem and phloem. These cells are able to divide and create more xylem and phloem. This region is called a meristem. Phloem Tissue- these tissues transports and distributes the food made in the leaves to other parts of a plant. There are sieve tubes with special fluid-carrying companion cells beside them along with other cells packed around for support. Epidermis- this is a thin layer of tissue around the parts of a plant. In the leaves are tiny holes (stomata). In older plants, it is replaced by phellem. Cortex- is a layer or tissues inside the epidermis of stem and roots. Consists of a tissue with large cells and air spaces (parenchyma). There is also a tissue with long, thick-walled cells (collenchyma). As it ages, the cortex tends to get compressed and replaced by other tissue. Endodermis- is the inner most layer of root cortex. Pith- this is the central area of tissue found in stems. Cuticle- this is a thin layer of waxy substance (cutin) made by the epidermis. This prevents too much water from being lost. #2 NONVASCULAR PLANTS Non-vascular:These types of plants have no vascular system. They do not have roots, stems, or leaves. There are no phloem or xylem tissues to carry water and nutrients through the plant. Instead, many non-vascular plants posses tissues specialized for the transport of water to parts of the plant. Two groups of non-vascular plants are the bryophyta (mosses and liverworts, and hornworts) and algae. The lack of vascular tissue means that most non-vascular plants reside in moist habitats.

What is the function of the excretory system, what waste products are release by other systems. What does the urinary system do ? What is it reonsible for and waht does it regulate ? What are the organs of the urinary system ? What are the filtering units that remove waste in kidnetys? Can you draw and nephron and its structrues, including capillaries, tubules, collecting duct, ? What supplies blood to the nephrons ?Cna you draw the veins arterin and capillaries with the nephrons systme ?

Excretory System This system works to remove wastes produced in metabolic activities. The lungs work to remove carbon dioxide and water . The skin works to remove water and salts from the sweat glands. The liver contributes by breaking down waste and excess protein to produce urea. This process is called deamination. The urinary system handles the major work of excretion. Responsible for removal of liquid waste. It also regulates water and pH. Organs include: Kidneys- comprised of a million microscopic nephrons (more about this below). Responsible for filtering liquid waste from the blood Uterus- pair of tubes leading from kidney to the bladder Urinary bladder- muscular sack that stores urine Urethra- tube leading from bladder to the outside of the body nephrons: these are millions of microscopic filtering units in each kidney that removes waste products from the blood. Nephrons are made up of several structures: glomerulus (capillaries), Bowman's capsule (cup-shaped structure) that leads to the kidney tubule (this is comprised of the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting duct). The nephrons are supplied with blood from the renal artery.

5. What is the reaction in DNA replication catalyzed by DNA ligase?a) Addition of new nucleotides to the leading strandb) Addition of new nucleotide to the lagging strandc) Formation of a phosphodiester bond between the 3'-OH of one Okazaki fragment and the 5'-phosphate of the next on the lagging strandd) Base pairing of the template and the newly formed DNA strand What is DNA replication?a) Conservativeb) Non-conservativec) Semi-conservatived) None of the mentioned 3. Eukaryotes differ from prokaryote in mechanism of DNA replication due to ____________a) Use of DNA primer rather than RNA primerb) Different enzyme for synthesis of lagging and leading strandc) Discontinuous rather than semi-discontinuous replicationd) Unidirectional rather than semi-discontinuous replication

Explanation: DNA ligase catalyzes the formation of a phosphodiester bond between 3'-OH of one Okazaki fragment and 5'-phosphate of the next. Answer: cExplanation: Each DNA strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new strand, producing two new DNA molecules, each with one new strand and one old strand. Explanation: In eukaryotes one strand of DNA is synthesized continuously but the other one is made of Okazaki fragments.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of the dynamic processes of erosion, deposition, and transport, including evidence for connections between these processes and the formation of Earth's materials. c. erosion vs weathering ? what occurs duing coastal processes? the direct impact of waves on coastal lands are know as what ? what occurs in coastal erosion? THe process of rock particles being picked up and removed form their orignal rock formation is knwo as what ? weathering often causes what ? Deposition isthe setting of rock particles in .... Typcial order of events from weathering to deposition ? what are the 3 main types of rock on earth? igneous rocks form from what, give an example ? what are sedimentary rocks, what are some exaMPLES ? How are metamorphic rocks fromd, what is an example ? explain the process of how you start from a extrusive igneous rock and end up with an intrusive igneous rock formed ? draw the cycle ? What is the dominant agent of erosion ? Erosion is the process of ... Piles of rocks created by glaciers are know as ____. why is there no hurricanes in california? Why is barrier island unstable ?

Weathering and Deposition On the surface of Hawai'i, two other processes are really evident. These processes are known as weathering and deposition. Weathering is the wearing away of rock by wind, water, or any other natural agent. This could include repeated heating by the sun or cracking of rocks by water that expands when frozen. This can be seen in this image, which shows drainage channels on either side of the main valley. These are formed from water running off from heavy rainfall. Deposition is where sediment and other broken-down parts of rocks accumulate to create landforms. Weathering and deposition are opposites of each other and are part of a process that changes the Earth's landscape due to climactic factors. Evidence of weathering can be seen in these pictures. As the volcanic rocks of Hawai'i are eroded and washed into the ocean, they often get deposited on the beaches by waves. This is what causes the famous black sand beaches found there. Lesson Summary There are many processes and events that shape the Earth's surface and also give us clues about the Earth. Earthquakes show us the power that can be released through pieces of the Earth's crust moving, which creates faults, cracks in the Earth's crust that show movement. Scientists can monitor the arrival of earthquake waves at different points on the Earth, allowing them to build a model of the Earth's interior and deduce how earthquakes are caused. Tsunamis are rapidly moving, destructive tidal waves that are most commonly caused by underwater earthquakes. The water piles up as it reaches the shore and acts like a flash flood, causing massive destruction. Oftentimes, volcanoes are the result of pieces of the Earth's crust moving around, but hot spots, formed by mantle plumes in the Earth's interior, push through the crust creating a volcanic zone. The lava and detritus that volcanoes emit during an eruption give us a glimpse of the interior of the Earth. The surface processes that change the Earth include weathering - the wearing away of rock by natural processes, erosion - the movement of broken down rock, and deposition - where the pieces of broken rock end up being placed. a. connections between these processes and the formation of Earth's materials. c. Online : Erosion: First of all, let's just clarify the difference between weathering and erosion. Weathering is the actual act of breaking down rocks into smaller sediments through chemical or physical means. Erosion is the actual movement of the sediments away from the rocks that are being weathered. This may occur as a result of wind, running water, ice, gravity, and/or ocean wave action. Erosion may take place very slowly, such as the movement of an ice sheet. Or, it may be very rapid, such as in a flood, such as the one that took place at the Camas Prairie Basin in Montana when an ice dam broke.Transport: Transport is the movement of the sediments from one location to another. Wind, running water, ice, ocean waves are all methods of transporting sediments. Just like erosion, transport can occur quickly (running water) or slowly (glacial ice). Deposition: Eventually, the sediments that are being transported are deposited. Sediments are deposited when the transporting agent's energy level drops. Sediments that are deposited forms land forms overtime. Different transporting agent creates different types of land forms. For example, wind may transport sediments that may eventually form dunes. Glacial ice transports sediments that forms hills called moraines. On my last geology trip to Cape Disappointment, I learned just how powerful the effects of waves can be on transforming and changing the coastal region. Coastal processes: Coastal processes includes waves, currents, incoming rivers, wind. Waves play a major role in changing the coastal system. Wind-generated waves are created by wind blowing over the ocean water. As the wind moves over the water, it creates friction and pressure, dragging and moving the water forward, creating waves. Winds deposit sediments forming dunes. Hydraulic action is the direct impact of waves on the coastal land. As a turbulent layer of water approaches the shore after the wave has been broken, it carries sediments to the beach in a process called swash. As the waves retreats, it carries some of the sediments back called backwash. On beaches where wave action is very high, you'll find larger particles. And vice versa, where wave action is low, you'll find finer grained particles. Longshore drift carries sediments parallel along the shoreline, forming sand spits. A sand spit is the linear accumulation of sediments that is attached to the land at one end. Spits may extend across the bay, but waves usually moving across picks up the sediments and carries it away. However, if a spit does extend across the Bay and connects to the other side, then you have a baymouth bar. When the bay becomes closed off, then you have a lagoon. Coastal Erosion: wave erosion can undercut shorelines to produce coastal cliffs. Sea caves may form when waves erode and attacks a weak zone in the rock. When the sea cave is broken all the way through, then you have a sea arch. And when sea arches collapses, then its remains are referred to as sea stack. Natural Hazards: One of the hazards of coastal erosion is coastal landslide as a result of waves undercutting the shorelines. Human activity may also trigger a coastal landslide. Another coastal hazard are hurricanes. Hurricanes can result in flooding and bring heavy rain and wind. Teacher prep: Erosion, deposition, and transport o Types of erosion § Land masses are not a constant size . they experience very small amount of change every yer due to erosion § Each erosion is a specific type of erosion caused by the oceans and tides along the coasts § Erosion is a process in which rock particles are picked up and removed from their original rock formation · Weather often causes erosion § Notes : smoothers areas have undergone more erosion then rought landscape. Wind, water, can break rocks apart, as water flows thorught or wind blows thourhgt. Those are all agents of erosion break rock apart , pulls it into new positon, driven by weather or flow of wind or water. o Deposition and transport § Transport is the movement of rock particles by agents such as wind and water flow. This transport can causes chages to a land mass § Deposition is the setting of rock particles in a different location after transport § Typical order of events :weather -àerosionètransport èdeposition o Notes : deposition is where the substance end up.to recape weathering the weather is acting breaks the rock down that's erosion, the particels get carried that's transportiaotn, and then gest placed somewhere new that is deposition. That is why landmasses are not static they are dynamic they change over long periods of time · The rock cycle o 3 main types of rocks § Igneous rock forms from solified magma. Magma is molten rock. · Example granite, pumince and obsidian . ( magna on surface is lave and that is also igneous rock) § Sedimentary rock is consolidated sediment. Sediment is debris procudes from weathering and erosion that is eventually depostited · Example gypsum, coal, limestone, and sandstone § Metamorphic rocks is crystallized sedimentary rock that has been exposed to high temperature or pressure. Any type of rock can become metamorphic rock · Example slate and marble. Most common deep inderground.heat and presuse deep underground. Metamorphic so hot becomes igneous, then cools down , not is metamorphic. Metamorphic also gets exposed with erosion.so all of these rocks can turn into other types of rocks hence rock cycle. · In this image, you can seemagma can harden underground that is granite extrusive. Above that you see pumice that is extrusive igneous so unlike intrunsive granite which hardend underground from magman,this magma came to the surface as lava and hardend and cooled quickly formed bubble that is pumice stone, so both ignouse just one extrusive and one intrunsive. Then see weather take place , breaks it down and see sedimentary rock later getting laid down, like coal, . if you look at the layers, the pressure creates metamorphic rock. The newest sedimendtary layers are ontop. So on the test the deeper the sedimentary rock the older. If down, it can have metmorphisis like marble. Marble starts as limestone sedimentary, but later pressure turns it into metamorphic marble. So rock types can become other rock types . for test they might give you layers of rock and ask you when did erosion occur for a particular layer, it has to be during the time it was exposed to the surface.so if its berried under a a new sedimentary layer that new sedimatyar layer had to be deposted after the erosion of this layer in questions. Erosion requires some surface exposure. So those some tips to keep in mind for test. Other study gude : Erosion, Deposition, and Trasport - Dominant agent of erosion = water running downhill - Erosion = process of tearing down land forms - Moraine: piles of rocks created by glaciers Coastal Processes - California is not prone to hurricanes because the water offshore is too cold (heat from water give the storm energy) - Barrier islands = extremely unstable, with sand moving continuously (Do not exist off of CA) - Lack of barrier islands suggests that erosion from ocean waves dominates over deposition by rivers in CA

a capacitor acts like a ...

- Capacitor acts like a break in the circuit

what happens when a battery is connected to an electrical circuit ?

- When a battery is connected to an electrical circuit (closed bath for electrons to travel) the 2 chemicals inside the cell undergo a chemical reaction that produces electrons

in celllular respiration, what is the equation of the overall reaction? is cellular respuration a catabolicor anabolic process? is cellular respiration aerobic or anaroebic? what happens to energy as you go from ADP to ATP? WHAT happens to energy if you go from ATP to ADP? in cellular respiration, is energy release or absorbed, what does it form? describe how cellular respriation helps convert our food into energy?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O+ Energy ( stored ATP and heat) cellular respiration is catabolic reaction Aerobic, oxygen is needed to break down molecules. o . If go from ADP to ATP you store energy. From ATP to ADP release energy. enzymes split a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, which releases energy that is transferred to ATP, some energy si lost as heat. Through the process of cellular respiration, the energy in food is converted into energy that can be used by the body's cells. During cellular respiration, glucose and oxygen are converted into carbon dioxide and water, and the energy is transferred to ATP.

For energy flow in an ecoyssmte, how much energy is loast at each level or burned or wasted ? Food pyramids illustrate how much energy is .... Food chains show what for energy ? The lithosphere is made of the earths ? The largest pool of carbon is in the ..... Most carbon above ground is found where ? Plants and ___ can convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and food. For photosynnthesis and ceullaur respriation, when is energy stored as ATP , when is energy used ? Photosynthesis is split into two pases, whathappnes in the light phase ? what happens in the light independen reaction , what is formed from what products ?

Energy flow in an Ecosystem - Roughly 90% of energy at each level is burned or wasted - Food pyramids illustrate how much energy is lost between trophic levels and how much energy is available at each trophic level - Food chains show the direction of energy flow - Primary consumers: get energy by eating producers - Carnivores: eat primary consumers Biogeochemical Cycles - lithosphere = earth's crust and mantle - largest pool of carbon is in the oceans - most carbon above ground is stored in forests and forest soils - both plants and bacteria can convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and food Photosynthesis and Respiration - Respiration : C6H12O6 +6O2 à 6CO2 +6H20 +ATP - The equations for photosynthesis and respiration are opposites - Photosynthesis: o Step 1: light phase: solar energy converted and stored as ATP o Step 2: CO2 and energy from ATP are used to form glucose

what are 7 steps in dna replication, invovled DNA gyrase topoisomerase, helicanse, DNA polymeraise, DNA ligase , ? Why do cells replication? Which enzyme proffreads ? WHAT IS THE CENTRAL DOGMA, EXPLAIN HOW YOU GO FROM DNA TO PROTEIN?

How Does DNA Replicate? DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) carries all the genetic information needed to re-create itself and to pass on the characteristics of the organism. When a cell reproduces, it needs to pass all of this genetic information on to the new cells. Before reproduction can take place, a cell must replicate, or copy, its DNA. The structure of the DNA molecule makes replication easy. Each side of the double helix run in opposite directions - one up, one down. This gives the structure the ability to unzip down the middle, and each side serves as a template for the other side. During actual replication, the helix doesn't unzip completely. A smaller area, called a replication fork, is unzipped instead. What are the steps of replication? 1. An enzyme, DNA gyrase (topoisomerase) , separates each side of the double helix. 2. Another enzyme, helicase, unwinds the double helix. 3. Several small proteins temporarily bind to each side and keep the sides separated. 4. An enzyme complex, DNA polymerase, walks down the DNA strands and adds new nucleotides to each strand. The nucleotides pair up: adenine (A) with thymine (T) and guanine (G) with cytosine (C). 5. A subunit of the DNA polymerase proofreads the new DNA. 6. An enzyme, DNA ligase, seals up the fragments into long continuous strands. 7. The new copies automatically wind up again. Rates of Replication Different types of cells replicate at different rates. Some, like those in hair, fingernails, and bone marrow, divide constantly. Others, like those in the heart, muscles, and brain, go through several rounds of replication and cell division and then stop. Some others, such as skin and liver cells, stop replicating and dividing but will start again to repair injuries. For cells that do not constantly divide, the cues to tell them to divide come in the form of chemicals, such as hormones, or from the environment. Proofreading The replication of DNA needs to be perfect to preserve genetic information. Occasional mistakes do happen and then a DNA polymerase enzyme proofreads the paired nucleotides. When a mismatch is found - for example, adenine is paired with cytosine - the incorrect nucleotide is removed and replaced. Some mistakes will remain. If the cell has a lot of mistakes, and the DNA is too damaged for the enzymes to fix it, the cell either stops dividing or it self-destructs. Still other mistakes in replication will remain and cause changes in the genetic information carried by the DNA. Lesson Summary Let's sum up. Before reproduction can take place, a cell must replicate its DNA. The double helix separates, unwinds, adds new nucleotides, seals up into two new long strands, and the new copies wind themselves up into a new double helix. Some cells replicate and divide constantly, like hair, fingernails, and bone marrow. The cells in the heart, muscles, and brain go through several rounds of replication and division, then stop. Others stop replicating and dividing but will start up again to repair injuries. Mistakes in replication do occur. Some can be repaired, others cause the cell to self-destruct, while still others cause changes in the genetic information carried by the DNA. So, that was the basic story of how DNA becomes protein. I'm sure you don't need to hear my French toast story again. But, let's review the steps involved in the story of the central dogma. The central dogma is a framework to describe the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. The process of transferring genetic information from DNA to RNA is called transcription. Then, the RNA code is used as the instructions for building a chain of amino acids, and that process is called translation. When amino acids are joined together to make a protein molecule, it's called protein synthesis. Each protein has its own set of instructions, which are encoded in sections of DNA, called genes. So, the overall story of the central dogma is this: Inside the nucleus of a cell, the genes in DNA are transcribed into RNA. Once RNA leaves the nucleus, it's translated in the cytoplasm, and the process of protein synthesis begins. The end result is a fully-formed protein, just like the end result of my recipe is a plate full of yummy French toast.

male vs female reproductive system? ovaries held in place by what ? follicles secrete hormones such as ?

Male Reproductive System- the testes contain tube-like canals (seminiferous tuble) where sperm (gametes, sex cells) are produced after puberty. The testes lie in a sac (scrotum) which hangs below the abdomen because sperm production needs a slightly lower temperature than the body temperature. Sperm is ejected through the organ, penis. Female Reproductive System- the ovaries are held in place by ligaments and are attached to the wall of the pelvis. The female gametes is called ova and are produced after puberty. The vulva is a collective term for the outside parts: labia, clitoris (erective tissue and has receptors). Ovarian follicles are area of tissue in the ovaries after puberty. The follicles get larger and secrete hormones (estrogen). The uterus is the hollow organ where a fetus may be held or from which the ova is discharged. It has a mucous membrane covering the muscular wall with many blood vessels. Vagina is the muscular canal leading from the uterus out of the body. It came away the ova and endometrium during menstruation.

9 E. Interpret simple series and parallel circuits. wHAT IS A SIMPLE series circuit?

Online-Simple series circuit: A simple series circuit is a circuit that involves only one path for the electrons to travel.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of major events that affected the evolution of life on Earth (e.g., climate changes, asteroid impacts). d. study online website what percentage of speices on earth hav died ? how many exticntion has earth have ? what happned 65 million years agon on earth? The most severe extinction was during what period, during this time all species of trilobites occured, this was know as what extinction ? what caused mass extinction at the end of the triassic period ? the largest mass extinction was the permian period, 250 mya, what caused extinctiob here ?

Past Extinctions Scientists believe that over 99% of all species that have ever existed on Earth have gone extinct, meaning all members of a species have died and the species ceases to exist. Yep, from dinosaurs to saber tooth cats, Earth has seen many species come and go. So far on Earth, there have been five mass extinctions, meaning a large percentage of the species on earth go extinct. The most recent occurred 65 million years ago, where 85% of species died off. You may know this as the dinosaur extinction, but other species went extinct too. However, that wasn't the most severe extinction - that belongs to the Permian extinction, which occurred 250 million years ago and some estimates suggest 96% of organisms died. Pictured here are fossils of trilobites. All species of trilobites went extinct during the Permian extinction. Some of these mass extinctions are believed to be caused by a catastrophic event, like an asteroid or increased volcanic activity. But extinctions are occurring all of the time, even if they are not part of a mass extinction. And catastrophic events are not the only culprits. Disease, competition, new predators and climate change can also cause species to go extinct. Let's examine each of these causes of species extinction. Catastrophe Events When you hear 'extinction,' a major catastrophic event probably pops into your mind, so let's start there. An asteroid likely caused the extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. Of course there's debate among the scientific community, but many believe the asteroid impact caused dust to block out the sun, which reduced Earth's temperature. But is it just asteroids that cause mass extinctions? Again, there's debate within the scientific community, but the mass extinction that occurred at the end of the Triassic period has been attributed to lowering sea levels, which were caused by the volcanic rift that formed in the present day Atlantic Ocean. The lowering sea level killed off many marine species. volcanic acitivyt caused ocean lifeto due, led to globar warning resulting marine life to die. The largest mass extinction that occurred at the end of the Permian period is believed to be caused by increased global temperatures coupled with volcanic eruptions, which caused the temperature to increase even more. It's important to remember that, even in catastrophic events, extinctions don't happen over night, but over a period of a few hundred years to thousands of years. Disease & Predators Okay, enough about catastrophic events, let's look at some examples of species that have gone extinct from disease and predators. Of course diseases can kill off some members within a species, but can disease really kill off an entire species? Yes, believe it or not, it can! Yikes! Case in point: the rat species Rattus nativitatis inhabited Australia but went extinct in 1908. Scientists believe the black rat, which was an invasive species, or a species that is nonnative to a region, was to blame. The black rat reached Australia via a ship and transmitted disease through fleas to Rattus nativitatis, which may have caused them to go extinct. Island populations, like Rattus nativictatis, are especially susceptible because they are not exposed to the same diseases as mainland critters. Another cause of extinction is the introduction of predators. The dodo was a flightless bird that once thrived on the island of Mauritius, which is located in the Indian Ocean. Prior to human inhabitation of the island in 1505, the dodo had no predators. But once humans inhabited the region, they became the dodo's first predator, killing the flightless bird for food. Later, invasive species that were introduced by humans came to the island. Between humans and the introduced rats, pigs, and monkeys, the once predator-free dodo bird became a popular food source for several species, and by 1681, the dodo was extinct. Competition & Climate Change You're probably gathering that humans may be having an adverse effect on some of Earth's species. Yep, humans are to blame for many of the extinctions currently occurring. In fact, scientists believe we are entering the sixth mass extinction, and the changes to Earth due to humans are to blame. Scientists believe species are going extinct at 114 times the normal rate of extinction. Not only do humans introduce invasive species, but we also compete with other species for habitat and food. Habitat loss due to deforestation has caused numerous extinctions. For example, the passenger pigeon once inhabited much of the United States, but as forests were cleared in the Eastern United States, populations moved to farming fields where they damaged crops, so they were hunted and became extinct. And it's not just humans competing; it's also the invasive species humans have introduced. For example, the Asian carp has been introduced to North America from Asia and they out-compete native fish populations and put them at risk for extinction. Not only do humans act as predators, competitors and introducers of invasive species, but most scientists agree that humans are changing the climate of Earth. Some scientists predict one in four of Earth's species could go extinct by 2050 due to climate change. Although a temperature increase of a few degrees doesn't sound like it would impact species, it actually can. Let's take a look at some examples. Rising temperatures reduces sea ice, which polar bears need to hunt: a slight increase in ocean temperature can kill coral, and rising temperatures allow diseases and pests to flourish where they once couldn't, as is currently being observed in the Rocky Mountains where the mountain pine beetle is currently destroying forests. Lesson Summary Extinctions, or when one species ceases to exist, have been part of Earth's history, as over 99% of Earth's species have gone extinct at some point in time. Over Earth's history there have been mass extinctions, where a large percentage of species goes extinct, but it's important to remember extinctions are (and have) been occurring all of the time, even between the mass extinctions. What has caused all of these extinctions? There have been catastrophic events that have made it difficult for animals to survive, such as asteroids and volcanoes that create dust that blocks sunlight, thus changing the temperature on land and in the seas. Diseases, predators, competition and climate change have also caused species to go extinct. In Earth's recent history, humans are to blame for many of these extinctions. F or example, humans can introduce invasive species, which bring diseases thus putting native species at risk. Invasive species also can out-compete and act as predators to native species, causing extinctions. Finally, many scientists agree that humans are causing a warming of the Earth, which is adversely affecting some species and will likely cause even more extinctions within the next hundred years.

hwo is photosynthese and cellularrespiration related ? When does photosythesis and celluar respiration reach the compesation points ? When is photosynthesis the strongest? when is respiration the strongers ?

Photosynthesis- this is a series of chemical reactions that involves the production of glucose from CO2 and water (transported through the xylem vessels) and energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis only takes place in some plants and deep sea bacteria. The chemical equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6H2O + solar energy => C6H12O6 + 6O2 Cellular Respiration- this is the breakdown of food molecules, like glucose, for energy. Waste products Co2 and water are formed.The chemical formular for cellular respiration is: C6H1206 + 6O2 => 6CO2 + H2O + ATP Energy Photosynthesis produces oxygen and carbohydrates (needed for internal respiration) while respiration produces CO2 and water (needed for photosynthesis).At times, one of the two is occurring at a faster rate than the other, which means that excess amounts of its products are produced, and not enough of the substances it needs are being made in the plant. Compensation Points- there are two points in a 24 hour period where the process of photosynthesis and respiration are exactly balanced. Dawn- compensation point midday- bright light, faster photosynthesis dusk- compensation point midnight, no light, respiration.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of the energy transfer processes of convection, conduction, and radiation in relation to the atmosphere/ocean and Earth's interior structure. e.

Radiation is the transfer of heat energy without using a physical substance in this transmission. Energy from the Sun moves through electromagnetic waves. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the energy.Conduction is the process where heat energy is transmitted through contact. Air is a poor conductor. Most of the energy transfer by conduction occurs at nighttime near the Earth's surface. During the day, solar radiation heats the ground up, which causes the air near it to also heat up through conduction. At night time, the ground cools down. The cool ground conducts heat away from the adjacent air. Convection is a process where heat is transferred by transporting molecules from one place to another within a substance. In the atmosphere, as the air becomes warmer, it becomes less dense and begins to rise. As it reaches higher elevations, it becomes cooler and becomes more dense and sinks back down to Earth. The sinking cool air pushes the warm air away. This process produces a cycle of winds and moves energy through the atmosphere. The slow west to east rotation of the Earth causes the air to be deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere, left in the southern hemisphere. This deflection is known as the Coriolis Effect. The ocean holds a large amount of heat that it absorbed from the Sun's solar radiation. Thus, because it holds such a large amount of heat, it has a big effect on our climate. Surrounding air is able to absorb the heat from the ocean through conduction. Inside the Earth, solid rock is slowly moving. Earth heats up the rock within the mantel, which is also under high pressure. The rock moves within the mantle similar to the movements of the air in the atmosphere. Warm, less dense rock slowly moves upwards towards the crust. Cooler, more dense rock slowly sinks back down. Heat inside the earth moves towards the cooler crust. This movement is a convection current. Other : Energy Transfer Processes - Radiation = transfer of E through space, no need for direct contact - Conduction = transfer of E through direct contact - Convection = transfer of heat by movement of liquid - Heat is primarily transferred through convection in the mantle - Convection is the driving force behind the movement of tectonic plates on earth

A. Demonstrate knowledge of the factors that contribute to star's color, size, and luminosity and how a stars light spectrum and brightness can be used to identify compositional elements, movements, and distance from earth how does star brightness and light spectrum identiy element, movement nad distance from earth? how do sceintice determine chemical composition ? blue light is away or towards us ? what about red light ? / what is doppler shift are brighter more luminous star closer to furhter away from us ? Why can we determine the chemical compostion of elements ? explain how the doppler shift works and what does it tells u? WHAT does it mean when a star has a greated doppler shift ? how can radial motion be determined ? how can proper motion which is transvere, across our line of sight, seen with our naked eye , measured in arcseconds tells us about a star ? What happens to wavelenght if a star rotated tworads us ? Once we measure radian velocities, we can relate to gravitation pull using what equations ? A stars color spectrum is a good indication of ________. star brightness depend on what ? star brightness is defined as ? Dintance can be determined by knwoint what ? how do you calculate distnce of a star equation?

Stars brightness, light spectrum identify elements, movements, distance from earth : stars light spectrum by reading the absorption lines(brighther=hotter), so scientis can determine chemical composition by spectroscopy.once elements are identified, we can look to see if emission lines from elements has shifted from where we might expect ot find them, via wavelengths. When moving towards use, bluesift, away red shifted . this is doppler shift. If the spectrum of a star is red or blue shifted, you can infer veloctity along with light of signt, radial velocity. A stars light spectrum and brightness can be sued to identify compositional elements, movements, and distance from earth.the brighther the star ( greater luminosity) the closers it is to earth. Light is spread out via different wavelents, from red to blue, this is spectrum. The spectra of the sun and star exhibit bright and dark lines. Elements emit or absorb light at specific wavelengths. Each element emits or absorbed light only at specific wavelength therefore the chemical compositons of the lights can be determined. (spectroscopy). Once elements of spectrum are determined, we can see if emission lines from the elements have been shifted , The Doppler Shift. if moving towards earth, light waves are squeezed, due to shortnened wavelength (blue end spectrum). If they move away , longer wavelength show shift of stars spectral lines toward the red end of the spectrum. The greated the shift, the greater the movement of the star ( radial velocity). So radial motion can be determined by our line of sight (towards or away from earth). On the other hand proper motion, is transvers, that is across our line of sight, seen with our naked eye, measured in arcseconds, this tells us how much an angle of star has changed. Doppler effect lets use measure how star rotabtes, weather light is approaching or ceceding edge of nearby objects and measure the doppler shift that arise from rotation. If they rotate towards use, shorter wavelengths. If a star rotates rapidly, there is a greater doppler shift, so the spectral lines are broader, this tells us the speed at which the star roates. We can also apply "radian velocity" to the study of binary systems . once we measure radial velocityes, we can relate to gravitational pull using newtons equations of motion (keplers law) . if we study eclipse, we can measure masees. Eclipsing binaries and the observation of spectral lines , we can determine mass and raddi of the different stars. · On another note, stars color spectrum is good indication of actual brightness. Star brightness depends on its composition and how far it is from the planet. Star brightness is defined as apparent magnitude ( how bright the star appears from earth) and absolute magnitude ( how bright the star appears at a standards distance of 3.26 light years or 10 parsecs).Distance can be determined by knowing apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude. The luminosities are compared on a magnitude scae. distance = 10(apparent magnitude - absolute magnitude + 5)/5 ·

what are the two types ofnatural resources ? what are renewable natural resources ? what are non-renewable natural resources ? how do fossiles fules contribute to pollution?

The Natural Environment Take a weekend camping trip, and you will notice that nature has a way of taking care of itself. Plants, trees and animals use the natural resources of their surroundings to meet their needs, yet never take more than what is required for their survival. You will also notice that wastes, such as fallen leaves, decaying plants and even animal droppings, are all recycled back into the environment to enhance and perpetuate future life. Nature does pretty well when it's left alone. Unfortunately, we see that humans have a way of meddling in the affairs of the natural environment. In this lesson, we will look at specific human behaviors that threaten environmental sustainability, including rapid population growth, depletion of natural resources and pollution. Environmental Sustainability In order for natural resources to be available for future generations, humans need to practice some degree of environmental sustainability, which is defined as the responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion or degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term environmental quality. In other words, if humans exploit natural resources or leave a path of destruction and pollution as they strive for more prosperity, without allowing the environment an opportunity to replenish itself, future generations will be unable to meet their needs. Population Though you might be reluctant to call the birth of children one of the human behaviors that threaten environmental sustainability, we see that the rapidly growing human population puts many demands on the natural environment. The world population has exploded over the past century. In the year 1900, the total world population was less than two billion people. By the year 2000, that number had increased to nearly seven billion, and this is only the beginning. According to reports from the United Nations, the world population is expected to reach a peak at about 9.2 billion people later in the 21st century. The consequences for the natural environment are easy to see when you consider the simple fact that more people equals a higher demand for food, water and energy. If we look more deeply at the threat that a growing population holds over the environment, we see that there will be an increased need for housing, which could result in the clearing of more land for living space. Also, more people could very easily contribute to the depletion of natural resources and increased pollution. We will explore these threats more closely as we move through our lesson. I think it's a fair assumption to say that man does not intentionally set out to destroy the natural environment. Sometimes the destructive behavior develops without conscious awareness until the impact is felt. This can be said for the depletion of natural resources, which is another human behavior that threatens environmental sustainability. There are two types of natural resources: those that are renewable and those that are not. Renewable natural resources include water, forests and even food sources, such as fish. While these resources can be replenished over time, if man consumes them too quickly, they could be depleted to a point where nature could not keep up with the demand. A specific threat to natural resources, such as water and forests, is agricultural practices. Industrial agriculture used in many developed countries relies heavily on irrigation. This overuse of water can drain stores of groundwater faster than they can be replenished. In undeveloped countries, many people rely on subsistence farming, which is farming that provides only for the farmer and his family. These types of subsistence activities in overpopulated and less-developed countries are one of the leading causes of deforestation. Deforestation, which is the clearing of woodlands, is carried out to make room for the farmland. The loss of trees worldwide carries with it many environmental threats, including soil erosion. Deforestation can also lead to drier climates because trees draw water out of the ground and transfer it to the atmosphere. The destruction of trees also increases carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere because live trees absorb and store this gas. Non-renewable natural resources, such as the fossil fuels coal, oil and natural gas, are abundantly used by man to provide heat and electricity. At the time these resources were first discovered, the world population was low, and the sources were plentiful. Therefore, little concern was raised about the potential to deplete these resources. However, as we move into the 21st century, we see that fossil fuels are indeed non-renewable, and if not used responsibly, these fuels will not be available for future generations. Pollution Another concern that comes with the burning of fossil fuels is pollution. Pollution is another way humans threaten environmental sustainability. When fossil fuels are burned, they release pollutants into the air, such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and hydrocarbons. When these air pollutants are mixed with suspended particles in the air, the result is smog. Smog not only endangers the health of humans, but also the health of living things within the natural environment. Another concern with the burning of fossil fuels is the release of the gas, carbon dioxide. This gas is thought to trap heat in the earth's atmosphere and contribute to climate change. Climate change happens relatively slowly and is a source of debate within the scientific community. However, if climate change does occur, it could present future generations with challenges in growing crops. Fossil fuel use is not the only contributing human behavior that leads to pollution. Modern day agricultural practices use chemical pesticides and fertilizers to enhance crop growth. These chemicals can run off of farmers' fields and enter bodies of water, leading to water pollution. Other human activities, such as the leaking of chemicals from mines, industrial plants, vehicles and landfills, can also introduce pollutants into the air and water and even contaminate soil. Lesson Summary Let's review... Environmental sustainability is defined as the responsible interaction with the environment to avoid depletion and degradation of natural resources and allow for long-term environmental quality. Human behaviors that threaten environmental sustainability include the rapidly growing human population and the depletion of natural resources, such as water, forests, fish and fossil fuels. If resources are used too rapidly by man, nature will not be able to keep up with the demand. A specific threat to natural resources, such as water and forests, is agricultural practices. Industrial agriculture may overuse groundwater and subsistence farming, which is farming that provides only for the farmer and his family, and can lead to deforestation. Deforestation carries with it many environmental threats, including soil erosion, drier climates and increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Pollution is another way humans threaten environmental sustainability. When fossil fuels are burned, they release pollutants into the air. When these air pollutants are mixed with suspended particles in the air, the result is smog. The burning of fossil fuels also leads to the emission of carbon dioxide, which may contribute to climate change. Other ways human behaviors contribute to pollution are the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers as well as the leaking of chemicals from mines, industrial plants, vehicles and landfills.

Best question for DNA replication what are stpes Topoisomerase, helicase, single strand binding portines, leading starnd is syntheized in what direction, why what ? In the lagging strand what happnes initialiy? In lagging strand,what happens when the RNA primer leaves ?

Topoisomerase binds that relexes the doubel helix helicase unwinds the parental double helix single stranded binding proteins stabilie the unwould dna the leading strand is synthesized continuousing in the 5 to 3 direction by DNA polymerase III. lAGGING synthesizeed discontinous ,. Primase synthesizes a short RNA prime, which is extended by DNA polymerase I to form an okasaki fragment. After RNA primer is replaced by RNA polymerase, DNA ligase joins the okazaki fragmetns to the growin chain. THeleading strand is synthesize continuous towards th replication form from the 5 to 3 end.. The laggng strand is synthesize discountinou away from the replicaton form from 5 to 3.

a. Demonstrate knowledge of surficial processes that form geographic features of Earth's surface (e.g., mechanical, chemical, and biological weathering). physical vs chemical vs biological weathering ?

What Is Weathering? Chances are you're pretty familiar with the idea of erosion, when water and air slowly strip away layers of soil and rock. However, how could air and water cause such dramatic landscapes, like canyons and fjords, from seemingly solid rock? The answer is relatively simple. Weathering wears down these otherwise solid structures, making it much easier for other processes to change a landform. In this lesson, we're going to look at the three types of weathering and their causes. Finally, we will examine how rates of weathering can change and how their impact on landforms is of great interest to humanity. But first, the three types of weathering - physical, chemical, and biological. Physical Weathering Physical weathering occurs when there are physical changes to the landform's rocks or soil. While we may think of rock as pretty solid, it is actually full of tiny cracks and crevices. Water fills up these cracks and crevices and expands and contracts with changes in temperature. When water freezes, it forms ice crystals that are actually pretty hard. On a molecular level, these ice crystals weaken the bonds of the rocks. Also, erosion can cause a slippery slope when it comes to weathering. Let's say that there is a solid rock surface, where the force of the rock pressing down is equal at any point under the landform. Then erosion comes along. As anyone who has seen the effects of erosion at places like the Grand Canyon can attest, erosion is not an even process. It leaves ridges and valleys on the landform itself. Since there is less mass of material pressing down, these ridges and valleys are pushed up by geological forces far underground. In turn, these ridges and valleys provide new opportunities for water to freeze and thaw, as well as for other forms of weathering. Chemical Weathering Chemical weathering occurs when a chemical reaction causes a change in the landform's geological profile. Take a hill that has considerable amounts of iron ore. If other factors expose that iron ore, a chemical reaction can occur between the iron and air, creating rust. Iron may be a very solid material, but rust can be brushed away with a firm brush. As a result, rust is easily pushed away by water and air, leaving space where there was once solid iron ore rock. Many types of chemical weathering are increased in strength when rainwater is more acidic. This has become increasingly common due to elevated levels of pollution. The more acidic water leaches into landforms and reacts with the minerals that make up a given area. The reaction is especially dramatic when acidic rain affects limestone, a common layer for many landforms. Biological Weathering Finally, there is biological weathering, which is weathering caused by a living organism. Remember, weathering does not remove the material in question, so humans mining and quarrying materials is not an example of biological weathering. Instead, think of moss growing on a rock. These creatures produce chemicals that help to break down the rocks that they grow on. Likewise, a plant growing through cracks in a rock will eventually cause more splits to develop in the solid material. Changing Rates of Weathering Since weathering can fundamentally change the nature of a given landform, it is, therefore, of great interest to humans. Likewise, the ability to measure changes in weathering rates is also of vital importance. As you may have gathered, the presence of rain and varied temperatures can have a major effect on weathering. However, there are other factors as well. The composition of the rain in question also has an impact; less acidic rain from places with strict environmental guidelines is less likely to cause weathering than rain from places with higher instances of pollution. Further, the type of rock plays a significant part. Iron will not break down as quickly as limestone due to acid rain, while limestone will not rust. Lesson Summary In this lesson, we learned about weathering, which wears down otherwise solid structures, making it much easier for other processes to change a landform. We explored the three types of weathering, as well as what causes them and how weathering rates can change. Physical weathering occurs when there are physical changes to the underlying geological structure of a landform. Chemical weathering occurs when chemical reactions cause changes to the geology of a given location. Finally, biological weathering is when an organism accelerates the process of weathering. Numerous factors influence rates of weathering, from the type of rock being weathered to the environmental regulations of nearby communities. Lesson at a Glance There are three types of weathering: physical, chemical, and biological. Each type of weathering has its own way of shaping nature's landscape, but it's not always a consistent process. The composition of rain, type of rock, and pollution are some factors that can affect weathering. Tiny cracks in rock allow water to seep in and expand and contract the composition. Learning Outcomes After completing this lesson, you should be able to do these tasks: Describe the different types of weathering Explain how different factors can impact the rate of change Breaking Down Earth's Surface The earth's surface is constantly being broken down and reshaped. This can be accomplished by many factors, most notably the elements. This includes all factors of the climate, like wind, ice, rain, and snow. The earth also can be shaped by the action of waves, floods, and storms. Humans also can affect the rate of weathering by contributing to the pollution that may cause landforms to break down, like acid rain. Over time, these changes can vastly change the landscape of the earth. This topic became a field trip for a boy and his father, and, inadvertently, his mother. Weathering and Landforms Pollution that leads to acid rain can affect the rate of weathering. At home, the boy, named Jonah, heard his dad talking about how he was upset at how the recent freeze had broken part of their cement driveway. His dad said that this was something they called weathering. Dad said that weathering was where rocks and minerals are broken down by the elements of nature into smaller pieces. Jonah thought that his dad was mistaken and he was talking about erosion, since he had been learning about landforms at school. His dad asked him to come outside and see for himself. His dad asked him to share what he was learning in science class at school, and Jonah stated that a landform is a term that refers to any natural surface feature of the earth. Landforms include things like mountains and hills or valleys and canyons. 'That's right,' said his dad, and he told him that, like anything in nature, they are formed and change over time. Jonah wondered how things changed over time. Since he was such a young boy, he wondered if he had lived long enough to see changes in the earth. Types of Weathering As they went outside to look at the driveway, they talked about what kinds of things could weather rocks. They found that things like heat, cold, rain, climate, pollution, acid rain, water, ice, and waves all were elements that could break down rocks over time. Over time, water can get into a rock and, as it freezes, it can break the rock into pieces. 'Did you know that there are two kinds of weathering?' stated Dad as he picked up the piece of cement from the driveway, 'mechanical weathering and chemical weathering?' Mechanical weathering is when rocks are broken down by physical agents like ice, wind, or water, and chemical weathering is when rocks are broken down by chemical reactions. Jonah asked, 'So let me get this straight: I understand that other things in nature can break down rocks, but how do chemicals cause rocks to break down, too?' His dad told him about pollution and the production of acid rain. He said that outer layers of rocks can get worn away by acids, and statues sometimes even are destroyed, too. The youngest rock layers are deposited on the top of the Grand Canyon. As time passes, mechanical and chemical forces can begin to break down landforms and cause them to change. Take the Grand Canyon, for example. All the layers that form the rock formations were deposited over many years, with the oldest layers near the bottom and the younger layers deposited on top of them. If viewed long ago, no one could see the different layers because they were all underground. Through the years, forces of nature, like water and wind, broke down and then wore a channel through the rock, exposing the layers underneath. Over time, more and more area was weathered by these physical agents, enlarging the canyon into what we see today. Another one is Devils Tower, which is thought to be the plug of an ancient volcano. It is all that is remaining of the volcano that weathered from around it.

Which of the following is true about DNA polymerase?a) It can synthesize DNA in the 5' to 3' directionb) It can synthesize DNA in the 3' to 5' directionc) It can synthesize mRNA in the 3' to 5' directiond) It can synthesize mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction

Which of the following is true about DNA polymerase? a) It can synthesize DNA in the 5' to 3' direction

Vascular plants are made of what three things in tehir systme ? function root? site of photosynthesis on plant? nonvascular palnts include ? funciton xylem? phloem transports what ? what is the function of phloem?

o Classification of systems § Vascular plants have complex vascular tissue system that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant. There are 3 main systems § The root anther the plant, absorb mineral and water, and store organic nutrients § The stem is the location where the leves attach § The leaves are the site of photosynthesis § Nonvascular plants do not have this tissue and are considered to have earlier evolutionary orgigin · Mosses , hornworts, and liverworts § Vascular tissue · The vascular tissue system carriers out long distance transportation of materials between roots and leaves o Xylem takes water and dissolved minerals from the roots to be stem. Remaining water is release from the plant throught transpiration. o Phloem transports the sugars made in leaves during photosynthesis to the roots and sites of growth o Notes :glucose made via photosynthese, goes from leves to roots to feed the roots. So that is two driections of flow and xylem and pholoem are two vacualr system take thing in 2 different directionsq

function of muscular system , what system does it work with ? Function of tendons and ligaments ? Why is calcium important for muscle and skeletal system ?

o Muscular system works closely with skeletal system to provide motion. The muscle fibers include tendons and ligament which connect to the bones. ( notes : ligament connects bone to bone, tendon muscle to bone) · Calcium is used for the bone structure of the skeletal system as well as for signaling in the muscular system. · Notes : fast twitch muscle fiber used for anaerobic so activities use blood supply quickly that respiration does not keep up and there is fermination to keep cell working, like lifting heavy weights, sprinting. For long period of time use low twich muscle fiber, row a boat, those do not use up all the energy.

what is population density? Population density depend on two factors, what are they? What is population dispersion?population dipsersion is affected by what ? Give examples and distuiguish between uniform, clumbed, and random dispersion?

o Population density is the number of individual per unit of area. the density Is affected by two factors § Additions, including birth and immigration § Subtractions including deaths and emigration o Notes : animals migrate in and out of regions. o Population dispersion is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of a population. It is affected by mating patterns, resource acquisition, and habitat. § Uniform means evenly spaced · Penguin nesting § Clumped is the most common dispersion patter with individuals aggregated in groups · Wolf packs travel in a group, § Random dispersion occurs when there are very evenly spread resources and no strong attraction / repulsion interactions · Ex plants, not trying to get to prey or away from. Plants are not competing, plant randomly dispered.

Function of respiratory Systyems This system works with what othersystem to ensure cells get oxygen? IN lungs, what holds gases, what is the function of alveoli, why does has exchange occure? Dyouknowhow to ID trachea, lunghs, bronhi,bronchioles, alveoli?

o Respiratory system § Responsible for gas exchange oxygen to CO2 out. This system works alongside the circulatory system to ensure cells have oxygen for respiratrion. § Withing lungs, the alveoli are small structures that hold gases · They provide more surface area · The gas exchange occurs due to the difference in gas concentrations § Notes :respiration important lets cell get energy necessary for growth , movement, ect. Alveoli provide more surface area, so more places for gas exchange, gas exchange occurs due to difference of gas concnetariotn or diffusion across membrances so oxygen absorbed and CO2 expelled thoruht diffusion.

11 e. Demonstrate knowledge of feedback mechanisms responsible for maintaining homeostasis in animals, including humans, and plants, including the anatomical structures and systems involved in regulating internal conditions. Function of the following : function of endrocine systme ? function of hypothalamus, why is this one imporant? descrbine how the hypothalamus helps regulate temperationr ? pineal galnd function? pituitary gland function? what does the pituitary gland control ? thyroid gland thymus gland adrenal gland. pancrease ovary testes digestive system salivary gandl pancrease small intstine large intestive rectum Draw diagram of how you go from stimulues to effector ? Diagram how you go from hypothalamoous to ovary release estradiol? Diagram how you go from postivie and feed back loops of blood glucose level and pancrease? Immune system is brken down into what two parts ? humoral vs cellular immune response ?

§ The endocrine system allows our body to respond to our environment. Unlike the nervous system that is very fast and specific, the endocrine system sends messages more slowly and produces prolonged responses. It includes all the glands that regulation the body's temperature, salt content, growth and sex. The hypothalamus links the nervous system and the endocrine system and controls many of the pituitary gland functions.•The hypothalamus, an endocrine gland located in the brain, is actually part of both the nervous and the endocrine systems.Nerve signals from the hypothalamus control body temperature and feelings of sleep and hunger.•Hormones from the hypothalamus control the body's water levels.. · Pineal gland: responsible melatonin (sleep response) · Pituitary gland : maintenance of homeostasis ( how body regulates internal conditions necessary for metabolism).The pituitary gland controls other endocrine glands and regulates growth rate, reproduction, and metabolism.•"Releasing hormones" from the hypothalamus signal the release of hormones from a pea-sized endocrine gland in the brain, called the pituitary gland.Pituitiary gland congrl fuction like grwoth, reproudction, and metabolism · Thyroid gland: regulates body how cells use energy.Thyroid GlandThe thyroid gland regulates the body's overall metabolic rate and controls calcium levels in the bloodstream. Thymus: immune response Parathyroid GlandsFour tiny parathyroid glands regulate levels of calcium and phosphorus--minerals that are necessary for proper bone and tooth formation and for muscle and nerve activity. · · Adrenal gland: stress response hormones, fight or flight response, epinephrine, or adrenaline for that, once body calms down norepinephrine calms body down.These glands release several hormones. Adrenaline triggers the body's response to sudden stress. Other hormones affect salt and water balance in the kidneys and general metabolism. · Pancreas: insulin and digestive enzymes, insulin absorb nutrient in blood stream · Ovary: hormones for secondary sex characteristics, estrogen produces secondary sex characterizes.The female reproductive glands release sex hormones that regulate egg maturation and control changes in a female's body at puberty. · Testes: produces sex cell sperm cell. Also endocrine function testestoremone for secondary sex characteris. All of these contribute to control of body . o Digestive system § Process food to be used as energy and absorbs water 1. Salivary glands : saliva breaks down carbohydrtes . then swallow 2. Esophagus 3. Stomach: sphincter , mucus lining, digestive acids made 4. Pancreas: digestive acids to break down foo 5. Small intestine- absorbs of nutrients 6. Large intestine- absorption of water 7. Rectum-waste excreted o Immune system can be broken down into two parts § Non-specific responses such as fever and swelling § Specific responses targeted as a specific pathogen. The body has antibodies ( proteins with unique shapes that can connect to pathogens ) to any disease you have been exposed to flowing in the blood. When a pathogen is "remember," the body can stage an attack. There are two parts of the specific response, the cellular and humoral immunity. These two systems fight returning disease and also produce memory cells as precaution ( body can develop antibody for specific pathogen. Cellular are like T cell , attack pathogens in cellular level. Humoral like general like antibodies. ) When a change occurs in an animal's environment, an adjustment must be made. The receptor senses the change in the environment, then sends a signal to the control center (in most cases, the brain) which in turn generates a response that is signaled to an effector. The effector is a muscle (that contracts or relaxes) or a gland that secretes. Homeostatsis is maintained by negative feedback loops. Positive feedback loops actually push the organism further out of homeostasis, but may be necessary for life to occur. Homeostasis is controlled by the nervous and endocrine system of mammals.

12.a) Apply knowledge of energy flow, nutrient cycling, and matter transfer in ecosystems (e.g., food webs, biogeochemical cycles), including recognizing the roles played by photosynthesis and aerobic and anaerobic respiration. What does the trophic structure show ? What are produces? what are primary consumers? what are secondray ortertieryconsumers ? what are decomposers? why are decomposers importnat for primary produces? What does a food chain and webs show? Explain how energy enters the food web, how it flows throught, and how does it exit the ecosystem? Explain how nutrients start fromproduce and enentually move up to consumers, and how nutrient go from decomposes to primary produces? Exaplin how toxins move throught and cycle throught the systme , like pesticies. Would you find a higher concentration of toxins in the lower trophi level in plants or tertiery consumers expalin? In what trophic levels would you find higher concnetration of nutrients and toxins? lower or high trophic levels ?

· Energy flow and nutrient cycling through ecosystem o Trophic levels § A trophic structure shows the feeding relationship between organism that influence the structure and dynamic of the ecosystem · Produces = photosynthetic organism=autotrophs create their own energy · Primary consumers = herbivores, insects squirls, · Secondary /tertiary consumers= carnivores, feed on primary consumers. · Decomposes= detritivores, ect. These eat decomposed dead matter. · note : ( bacteria and funji warm are decomposer but not detritovores , don't eat but absorb dead matter) . all of decomposers make nutrients for primary producers. So all interdependent. o Food chains and web § Food chain show energy traveling up the trophic level from produces to primary consumers to secondary consumers to tertiary consumers and eventually to decomposers § A food web shows the interlinked set of food chains § Note : fish eat planktaon, eagle eat fish, egle eat other small birds. So this diagram shows complex interrelatship between these createures o Energy flow § Energy enters ,flows through, and exits ecosystem · Energy typically enters a solar radiation, moves a chemical energy transferred through the food web ( stored as carbs by plants) ingested by other consumers, and exits as heat radiated into space ( energy released by animals a heat ) § Nutrients cycle within an ecosystem · Nutrients enter through the producers and move through the various consumers. Eventually the consumers will become detritus which then provides nutrients for producers ( nutreitns in soila absorbed by plants, and then plants eaten by consumers and consumer get nutrient, nutrient die and decompose and nutrients go back to the soil cycle continues. Note for test that toxins also cycle through the system, like DDT pesticide gets absorbed by platns, and animal eat that plant, most primary consumers ok, but secondary consumer get more concnetation dose so as toxin moved up it becamse more concentrate until tertiary consumers eat a big dose . nutreitn and toxins get more concentrated as they move UP the trophic levels !!! )

a) Apply knowledge of genotypes and phenotypes and the inheritance of traits that are determined by one or more genes (e.g., dominant, recessive, and sex-linked alleles; incomplete dominance). Gens are located on? Huymans have how manychromosome ? how many code for sex, all other chromosomes are ......? What are allisomes, how many are there ? What is evolution? What is a character, what is a variant , can you give an example ? What does heterozioyg and homozygous mena? A gene that is on a sex chromosome is said to be _____? Why is color blindness more common in males than females ? What is genotypye, what is phenotyme ? what is incomplete dominace? what is codominace? What is dominace of genes ? what is recessive gene? what are linked genes ? what is sex linked genes ? Are most sex linnked genes x linked or y? What is purebreed?

· Role of dominant and recessive traits in genetics and evolution o Genetics is study of genes , heredity and variation in living organism § A gene is nucleotide ( basic unite of DNA ) sequence that represents a unit of hereditary information § Genes are located on chromosomes. Humans have 46 chromosomes ( 23 from each parent ) two of the chromosome code for sex, the others are autosomes.Allisomes are the 2 chromosomes that code for sex, the other chromosomes are autosomes . o Evolution is the change in heritable traits in a population after a succession of generation § A character is heritable feature. · Ex eye color, , hari color, or wing patter § A trait is a variant for character. · Ex blue eyes or purple petals § An allele is a different version of a gene that codes for a trait § Notes :so if a character is eye color , blue eye is the trait. The allele is what has the xpression of the variantions. o Homozygous versus heterozygous § In sexual reproduction, an organism will inherit two alleles for each character, one from each parent § The individual can be homozygous or heterozygous · Homozygous means both alleles are the same AA (dominant ) or aa (dominant recessive) · Heterozygous means the alleles are different -Aa · Notes : homozygous dominat, or homozygous recessive, or heterozygous § Dominant and recessive · If two alleles at a locus differ, the dominantallele will be expressed over the recessive allele. The trait represented by the recessive allele wont show at all. o Ex brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes o Notes : locus point in chromosome where coding for trait or character is coded for . o Sex linkage § The two chrosmosomes that determine sex are X and Y § A gene on either sex chromosome is said to be sex-linked. In humans, it is more common for the sex-linked gene to be on the X chromosome ( because of the size difference ). § Sex linked traits are more common in males § Notes : females have 2 X alleles, so that means that if one of them have bad trait it can be hidden. But XY there is no other info to hide that info so it gets expressed. So in this image, the trait is color blindness sex linked issue, the fater and mom is not color blind but mother is carrying recerssive allele forcolor blind. You could have son and daughter be ok. You can have a son who gets from the mom the X that has allele for color blindless that is not hidden so it expressed. You could laso have a daughter that got color blinddles recessive from momand X from dad , so the trait hides so she is just a carrier. So there are diffent scenario for how traits are passed throught generations this explains why traits manifest more in males then females. So colorblindmess more in males then femals. · Phenotypes, genotypes, and incomplete dominates o Phenotype and genotype notes :AA homo dominat.Aa heterozygous. aa homozygous recessive. Phenotype is the trait of what we actually see . So AA or Aa is wewill see , on the right is what we see when aa. Understand difference in these two terms o Incomplete dominace § Incomplete dominances means the dominant allele is not completely dominant . instead, the two traits will blend. · Red petals and white pets --à pink petals § Homozygous individuals will still show normal dominance. Only the heterozygous individuals are affected. o Codominace § Occurs when an organism expresses both of the traits in the case of heterozygotes. Normally ,both alleles are written as capital letters. · Ex : blood typing. Some with blood type AB shows both A and B antigens ( proteins ) § Notes : flowe has some red petals and some white petals., codominace. With incomplete dominance you got pink . anotherexample is AB antigens ( takes donation of a, b, or AB ). Group O is recessive both recessive O so it can donate to any but can only receive blood from O, O is universal donor. AB is universal recipient. Online: There are sets of coded instruction which make up the DNA molecules of a chromosome. Each gene is connected to a series of 250 "rungs" on the DNA "ladder". Since the order of the rungs vary, each gene has a different code relating to one specific trait. The paired genes control the same characteristics and may give identical or different instructions. Dominance- instructions given from one gene that overrides the recessive gene's. Example: a person with both genes for brown and green eyes will have brown eyes since the brown eye gene is dominant. If the dominant gene, D, for dark hair, then a person is heterozygous, Dd, for hair color (instructions from two genes are different). Recessive Gene- failure of one gene (allele) to express itself in an observable manner. Even though the gene is present in the genotype, it is not observable in it's phenotype (organisms physical physical or biochemical characteristic). Example: Curly hair (dominant-C) and straight hair (recessive-c) both are present in a person's genotype. However, the person has straight hair. Recessive genes are always written in lower case. Incomplete Dominance- one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant of the other allele. The result is a combined phenotype. Example: Camelia flowers that have both red (dominant-A) and white (recessive-a) genes will produce a flower with pink petals.(heterozygot-Aa) Codominance- pair of genes controlling the same characteristics give different instructions. Neither genes are dominant and both are represented in the result. Example: Human blood AB Linked Genes- alleles inherited together. Genes physically close to one another on the same chromosome. Stay together during meiosis= genetically linked. Sex-linked Genes- Genes located on one of the sex chromosomes. Since the x chromosome is longer, it contains genes not found on the Y chromosome. Therefore, most sex-linked genes are x-linked genes. Sex-linked genes do not have an allelic counterpart on the Y chromosome. Purebred- produces offsprings with the same traits. The alleles are homozygous. .

13. e. Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction. Teacher prep: What is sexual reproduction, how many chromoomes in sexual reporduction in sex cells ? Fertilization results in what type of organims ? After fertiliztaion, the zygoe grows throught meiosis or mitosis? What kind of organims can undergo asexual reproudction ? what is asexual reporudction ? T/F Meiosis occurs prior to asexual reproduction? The primary means of reproduction for single sex organis is by what method ? Can multicellular organims like hydra undergo asexual reproduction ? Prokaytoes includes what organims ? Eukarytoe that undergo sexual and asexula reproduction such as what organims ? What are adv and disadva of aseuxal and sexual reproduction ? Describe the process of sexual r eporudction? What process do germ cells undergo for sexual reproduction , prior to fertilization? waht are the stesps ?

· Sexual reproduction o Sexual reproduction combines genetic material form two parents and results in an offspring that has a unique set of inherited genes o Genetic variation is an important consequence of sexual reproduction so that is advanate o Sex cell are also called gametes § Example egg and sperm o The number of chromosomes vary in different cell types § Sex cells are haploid, meaning there is only one set of chromosomes § Other body cells are diploid , meaning there are two sets of chromosomes o Fertilization is the fusion of nuclei of an egg and a sperm cell resulting in a diploid cell called a zygote o Notes : so if you get a question of where a haploid sex is created you are looking for testes or ovaries. Everywhere else in body is diploid complete genetic information and can duplicate itself. A haploid sex cell cannont duplicate itself it has to join another. Zygote grows into embryo into a fetus, then mitosis, normal division, so these some basics to understand · Asexual reproduction o In asexual reproduction, one parent independently produces offspring without fertilization form another parent § It is the primary means of reproduction for single-cell organism, but also occurs in some but also occurs in some multicelled organism ( hydra) § Clones are groups of genetically identical individuals that are created by asexual reproduction o Notes : there is no meiosis, meiosis is haploid gamete one set of chromosome and joins another haploid, and joins then mitosis. So in asexual there is no meiosis, a clone of apparent. All prokaryotic single-cell reproduce via asexual reproduction, such as archae, protist, bacteria, those all single-cell asexual producing. There are eukaryotis that some plants or ferns that are multicellular that produce asexually like fern plants. They can reproduce asexually and sexually ,the swtich cycles. There are advangatge and disadvangates. With sexual you get better variations that can fit to new ninch , but bad is that you have to wait for fertilization. For asexual, it can reproduce whenever. its ready so the hydra for example through mitosis creates clones on its body, then hatch, out into the environment, when food is plentiful they can produce many clones when there are good conditions, when conditions are not good for reproduction, then it will reproduce sexually for genetic variation so it will produce ovary and testes so It can reproduce sexually. so good it gets genetic variation throught sexual and large scale when conditions are right through asexual.so know advantages and disadvanate for exam. Online : Sexual Reproduction- this is the type of reproduction that we see in flowering plants and animals. The process involves the union of two gametes (sex cells), one female (ova) and one male (spermatozoa), that join together called fertilization to produce a fertilized egg called a zygote. The zygote undergoes cell division, called cleavage. It produces a ball of cells called morula, which continues to divide forming a blastocyst, which implants onto the wall of the uterus. As it grows, the cells become differentiated into one kind of cell (nerve, muscle, skin, etc).Gametes only have half the number of chromosomes called the haploid number. Gametes are achieved through special cell division called meiosis. There are two separate divisions called the first and second meiotic division. The first meiotic division ensures that each daughter cell receives half the number of chromosomes.FIRST:Prophase (early phase): threads of chromatin in the nucleus coil up to form chromosomes. Paired chromosomes line up side by side forming pairs called bivalents. Duplicates becomes a pair of chromatids (group of four called tetrad). Centrioles move to opposite sides of poles. Chromatids of each tetrads cross over each other (at the chiasma). A piece of chromatid centrioles pieces breaks off and trade. This mixes genes to ensure that it will not be identical to parents.Prophase (late stage): homologous chromosomes move to equator of cell.Metaphase: nuclear membrane disappear, two centrioles form spindle. Chromosomes become attached to spindle by centromeres.Anaphase: the homologous chromosomes (still pairs of chromatids) separate, dragged apart by fibers of spindle, towards opposite poles of the cellTelephase: spindle disappears, centrioles duplicate, cytokineses occurs (division of cytoplasm). Two new cells formed with half the original number of chromosomes (each two chromatids). Interphase follows where the nuclear membranes form and chromosomes uncoil again to form chromatin.SECOND: The cells from the first meiotic cell division divides with the same phases as mitosis, just with haploid number of chromosomes. Process differs whether male or female, plant or animal.Prophase 2: DNA does not duplicatesMetaphase 2: Chromosomes align at the equatorial plateAnaphase 2: Centromeres divide and sister chromatids migrate separately toward opposite polesTelephase 2: Cell division is completedFour halploid daughters are obtained.

what is a refracted wave ? In refraction , when does light refract toward normal? what occurs when it hits less dense material? what happens to the speed when it is in denser materials ? what are some examples of refraction ? can you draw these examples for earthqave and wave of ocean?

- A refracted wave is a wave (like light) that has changed direction (bent) by moving from one material to another material of different density. If the new material is denser, it will refract towards the normal. If the new material is less dense, it will refract away from the normal. This happens because the speed of light is slower in denser materials, just like the lawnmower edge swinging around. - Two examples of refraction are earthquake P-waves bending as they reach the inner core, and ocean waves refracting when the depth of water changes suddenly.- One example of refraction is the way earthquake waves refract when they reach different layers under the Earth. The first earthquake wave that hits, called a primary wave (or P-wave) is one of the few waves that refracts through the Earth's outer core. - Another example is ocean waves. Although the density of the ocean might not change significantly, ocean waves will refract when they move from deeper water into shallower water or vice versa. This happens because the speed of a water wave changes with water depth. - Understanding refraction helps us understand all kinds of things we see every day in the world around us. From the spoon optical illusion, to the places around the world where an earthquake can be felt, we are surrounded by waves, and by understanding them we can better shape our world. Light, microwaves, X-rays, and cell phone transmissions are all examples of electromagnetic radiation. Read more about this fascinating, mostly invisible phenomenon that has been harnessed by humans for so many purposes

what is a load, an example?

- Load = a device that dissipates energy such as a light bulb or an appliance

What happens in anaerobic respiration? aka? what are the two types of fermentation or anaerobic respiration? what are example of the two types of anaerobic rsepiration? diagram alcoholic fermentation and lactaicacidfermenation, draw wtih glucose to the end product ? Anaerobic respriation does not require free ____. Glycolysis takes place in what part of the organles? what is the goal of fermenation to covert what,,,, for NADH,NAD? The end product of gluycolysis in anaerobic respriation is ...?

Anaerobic respiration is respiration without using oxygen as a final electron acceptor. This is also know as fermentation. In anaerobic respiration glycolysis does not require oxygen There are 2 types of fermentation Alcoholic fermentation occurs when pyruvate is broken down to CO2 and ethanol. This happens while making bread. The CO2 produces the bubbles.end products for alcohol fermentation is 2 ATP, NADH,AND PYRUVATE. Lactic acid fermentation occurs when pyruvate is broken down to lactate. This happens in our muscles when we exercise a lot at one time without breathing enough ( lift weights, spring, process of respiration cant keep up with energy loss, to make more ATP so the fermentation takes in , makes energy without oxygen making lactic acid making muscle sore, produces store energy without oxygen, anaerobic respiration). END PRODUCT 2 ATP, NADHA, AND PYRUVATE Anaerobic Respiration-this is a type of internal respiration which does not use free oxygen. Anaerobic respiration takes place in the cells of organisms and releases a small amount of energy. In most organisms, a chemical reaction called glycolysis (glyco=sugar, lysis= breaking) breaks down glucose into pyruvic acid. All life on earth undergoes glycolysis and this process takes place in the cytoplasm. Normally aerobic respiration then takes place to break down this poisonous acid in the presence of oxygen, which releases a bulk of energy. Sometimes, aerobic respiration does not follow and instead the acid undergoes further anaerobic reactions that coverts it to lactic acid. Lactic acid fermentation occurs in mammals, is toxic, and is the "burn" you feel after an intensive activity. The goal of this fermentation process is to covert NADH to NAD+ (which is used in glycolysis). As this builds up, an organism acquires an "oxygen debt" which is paid off" later by taking in much more oxygen than normal. The latter process occurs in microscopic creatures, providing enough energy without the use of oxygen. The end products of glycolysis is 2 (it produces 4, but uses 2, with a net of 2 ATP) ATP molecules, pyruvate, and NADH.

8f. Analyze how chemical energy in fuel is transformed to heat describe chemical energy reaction when fule is burned, what type of reaction is this? when is energy absored or release in chemical reactions ? explain for pothosysnte nad cellular respiration, what ocures ?drwa graph for eah? in terms of solid, liquid or gas , what happes if you increase the pressure, is it more solid liquid or gas? what happens if you increase the temp? is it more solid liquid or gas? what has higher KE, solid, liquid or gas?

Chemical energy is stored in fuel as potential energy and can be released when these compounds undergo chemical reactions. For example, when fuel is burned, the chemical energy is converted to heat energy (exothermic).The chemical energy in food is converted by the body into mechanical energy and heat. Teacher prep: How chemical energy in fule is tansfored into heat : understand these two concept.energy is required to break bonds, forming bonds release energy. When a fuel reacth, bonda in the reactant are broken ( absorb energy)m while bonds in the products are formed ( release energy). If forming the products release more energy than required to break the reactant bonds, the reaction will release heat. Reactions that release heat are exerdomic. In ths example, glucose and oxygen. And energy is taken in and release at the end to form these new bonds. The products are stronger bonds .so overall net reaction release energy , photosynthesis. This example of exergothic reaction, net release of energy. If you had a reaction in the both, that would be endergonic. Graph recognize which one is net loose or net gain of energy. More enrgey put in the system is endergonic. More energy leaving system is exergonic ( photo release of energy). Experiment induce physical change: by changing thempear and or pressure , a substance can be formed into a physical change. If the change is a phase change, it should be reversible with a difffern temperature and pressure. Melt ice is physical change. Dry ice is carbon dioxide in solid form, then you take that and put it in warmer and it goes directly from solid to gas, that is sublimation. That means vapor comes off, . Molecules move slowing with more pressure.more movement, more heat,. The more pressure more solid, the less, more gas. This is why diffren boiling points and freezing. Higher altitude is less atmosphereic pressure. How chemical substance are charaterizedb y physical propertie: every substance has unique physical proper. No two substance are identical in every propery although they are very similar. Chemise use physical prooert ( melting point to determine identity. Thinkg, a substance is shiny, malleable, and conduct electricy? Answer is metal.!

Demonstrate knowledge of Earth's materials as resources (e.g., rocks, minerals, soils, water) that have a global distribution affected by past and current geological processes. c.

Earth resources are broken up into different categories: biotic and abiotic. Biotic resources come from the biosphere and are living things. Resources from a biosphere include animals such as fish or plants such as leaves. Abiotic are resources that are from non-living origins. These include rocks, minerals, water, and air.Rocks- rocks can be used in power plants (coal), used to make glass (limestone), used to make bricks/cement (shale), used in construction (conglomerate, sandstone, quartzite), ornaments/monuments (granite), used as an abrasion (pumice), used as building stone (schist, gneiss), and for architectural and ornamental purposes (marble).Minerals- Minerals are extracted from earth crust and are used for building roads, abrasives, ceramics, and fertilizers. These are called industrial rocks and minerals. Minerals extracted from ores are minded at a profit. List of the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust: Oxygen at 47%Silicon at 28%Aluminium at 8%Iron at 5%Calcium at 3.5%Sodium at 3%Potassium at 2.5%Magnesium at 2%All other elements is at 1%Water- Water is a renewable energy and is used in a variety of ways to provide the resources that we need. Water may be used to provide energy, called hydroelectric. This method involves falling water to drive turbines, which then produces energy. Water is also used for human/animal consumption, either in it's pure liquid form or in foods and drinks. Farms require large amounts of water to grow food. Many industries require water such as power plants (used for cooling), oil refineries, and manufacturing plants.Dams can be used to collect surface runoff. Fresh water is a limited, renewable energy resource. Approximately 3% of water on our Earth is fresh. And of this very small percentage, 2/3 of it is frozen in the form of glaciers or polar ice caps. Fresh water is used to irrigating crops (approximately 40%), drink, bathing, etc. It comes from rivers, lakes, rain, snowmelt, or undergrown aquifers. Teacher prep: o Green energy sources § These energy sources are more environmentally friendly in that they pollute less and have very little use of non-renewable resources. The drawback is expensive implemtation, low electrical yield and occasional visual nuisance. · Solar power- converting sun power to electricity · Wind power- windmills or wind turbines turn in the wind which causes electrical generators to create electricity · Water power - water waves or currents are used to spin electrical generators to create electricity ( inside some dams ) · Notes Drawbacks : expensive, loss of power absorbed vs stored or converted to energy. · Earth materials and resources o Rocks and mineral § Rocks can be composed of various types of minearls. Approximately 90% of earth lithosphere is composed of silicate material. Examples of useful rock and mineral substance include · Fertilizers-phosphate, nitratne and potassium for agricultural purposes · Rock salt- used for deicing roads and as table salt · Gypsum-used for construction materials such as plaster and wallboard · Sulfur-used for fertilizer and to make fungicide and matches § Notes : mineral is something you can represent by unique chemical formaut, its single substance. Rock can be various different minerals. So granite rock made of many minearal l. silicate mineral made of oxygen and silicon. o Metals § Metals must be high enough concentration for the extranction to be profitable · Iron and aliminum are abundant · Copper, lead, and zing are less abundant · Gold,silver, and platinum are scare o Various other materials § There are many other materials on earth that are resources for humans and other organism. Example include · Soil provides a habitat for many organism · Air/atmosphere is an essential component in respiration and is a part of many organism habitats · Water is essential for survival. Though it is abundant on earth, most is too salty to be used or life sustaining consumption · Plants provide food source as well as energy for biomass fuel . they also produce the oxygen necessary for the survival of many organism · Notes : the air mostly nitrogen 77, 27 % oxygen that in atmosphere. corn can be turned to ethanol to run engines. Plants produce oxygen. These all different hings occur that helpful to us and other anima so are resources.

The endocrime system makes homres. What is the main function of the pituitary gland, adreanl, pancrease, ovaries, and testes, and thymus gland ?

Endocrine SystemThis system produces the hormones directly in the blood (ductless glands). The major organs involved: Pituitary gland- this gland releases tropic hormones which regulates the activity of the other endocrine glands. Adrenal glands- located close to the kidneys, this gland is responsible for releasing adrenaline. Pancreas- produces/releases insulin and glucagon Ovaries- produces progesterone, estrogen, and eggs Testes- produces testosterone and sperm Thymus Gland- this gland is essential in the development of the immune system

A. Demonstrate knowledge of nuclear fusion in stars, including the relationship between a star's mass and stage of its lifetime and the elements produced. How does a star begin to form, what is interstellular medium? What makes the intertellulr medium go into a center of the nebula, ? Hydorgen atoms combine to form ? As accretion continues, material becomes denser, the pressure nad themperatur rise or increase? How does nuclear fussion start? Gravity tries to collpase the stars core, but how does the star fitht this ? What happens once a stars stars to achieve nuclearfusion, what radiates ? When a star tem produce gas pressure balances gravity, the star attains a stable state and enters what phase of its life ? What happnes during main sequece phase of a stars life ? The initial mass of a star forms out of proto-stellar neublardetermines what ? The size of a star depend on mass of hwat ? Size and mass determines what ?what determines fussion rate ? What are the steps of how low mass stars are formed , how does a low mass star go form a beig born to a black dwarf star ? What color are high mass ars, the hgiher core temp enables them to produce what kind of elements ? What are the stesp of high mass stars being formed, starning from being born until death? What is diffrentce between main sequece star of high mass star vs low massstar ? After the main sequence phase, large massive stars become what ? the in massive stars that beomce red supergiants , the nuclaera reactions occur, forming diferent elemtni n shells around what kin of core multiiple hslelb urning means many elements fuse in the shells. Why do massive supergian giant tars dien? What happens when the iron core collapese, whatkind of explosion? What happnes if a red supergian star survives a supervnoa explosion, what does it become ? wHAT HAPPENS TO A MEDIUM size star, or after the redi gian state and after fusion stops and gravity collpases the star , after the material is blown away and the core beomces smaller and dneser. The core will become , whwat are the possible routes of life after the red giant state of a medium size star ? Primary source of energy in the sun is what ? what is sun cores K temp? Hydrogen does not have a neutron, but when it does, it is called what ? When fusion occurs, what is produces ? In a fusion, how does H convert to He? what equation helps us undertand how energy is releases in nuclear fusion? what happens in Fission ? Howdoes energy from the core of star reach the surface, by what process ? Nuclear fusion in the center or core of a star occurs under ewhat circumstances? What ways does energy go from the core to the outisde ? How much K to ignite fusion, how much K inside a star ? How do you go from 4 H to 1 helium nucleus ? Energy released uring the fusion steps in thecore release reneryg as gammarays , how does it reach surface ? what heavier elements can be formedfrom the sun? Nucleaur fusion vs nuclera fission in terms of stability of nucleus ? luminosty is a measure of what ? apparent magnitute of a star depend on what ? Asfusion slows down or runs out, gravity increaeses, so what happens to the star ? Larger stars live for how long is their cycle compared to smaller stars ? In smaller stars, they live longer why, what does gravity do the the fusion reaction rate ? Are planets larger or smaller than stars ? What is the largest planet in our system? Which planets havelarger apparent magnitute ? The color of planets is based on what ? Why is mars red ? Why do stars loose mass over time ? What are the 4 steps of a nuclear fusion ????***

For a star to form, gravity pulls gas and dust ( interstellular medium) into the center of the nebula. The gravitational attracting pulls the atoms into clumps.hydrogen atoms combine to form hydrogen molecules .As accretion contionues the material becomes denser, the pressure and the temperature increases. The protostar gets hotter and hotter. When the temperature of the center is really hot, nuclear fusion begins. 10 million k is the minimum pressure temperature to ingnite the fusion. Nuclear fussion is the nuclei of smaller lighter elements come together to form more massive stable nuclei , releasing energy in the process. Star is a very hot ball of gas that has hydrogen fusing into helium in the core. When hydrogen is used up, the star can fuse helium into heavier elements. Gravity tries to collapse the stars core and temperature produce gas pressure pushes the material in the star outward. There is a balance of gas pressure pushing out and gravity pushing in. once star achieves nuclear fusion , it radiate energy. Chemical composition of a stars mass at birth is about ¾ hydrogen and ¼ helium. While the temperature-produced gas pressure balances gravity, the star attains a stable state and enters the main sequence phase of its life. For the major part of its life span, a star stays in this main sequence phase, with hydrogen being fused into helium and a balance between force pushing out and force pushing in. Stars can live from many millions of years to many billions of years. The initial mass of a star as it forms out of a proto-stellar nebular determines its size, temperature, color, and luminosity. The size of the star depend on the mass that coalesced out of the proto-stellar nebula. Size and mass determines the temperature and pressure at the center of the forming star;therefore determines its fusion rate, and what kinds of elements it can make. · Low mass stars 1. Stars are born in a region of high density Nebula, and condenses into a huge globule of gas and dust and contracts under its own gravity. 2. A region of condensing matter will begin to heat up and start to glow forming Protostars. Ifa protostar contains enough matter the central temperature reaches 15 million degrees centigrade. 3. At this temperature, nuclear reactions in which hydrogen fuses to form helium can start. 4. The star begins to release energy, stopping it from contracting even more and causes it to shine. It is now a Main Sequence Star.In main sequence, H fuses to He in core! 5. A star of one solar mass remains in main sequence for about 10 billion years, until all of the hydrogen has fused to form helium. 6. The helium core now starts to contract further and reactions (H fusing to He in shell) begin to occur in a shell around the He core. 7. The core is hot enough for the helium to fuse to form carbon. The outer layers begin to expand, cool and shine less brightly. The expanding star is now called a Red Giant. 8. As the He core burns, He fuses to C in the core, while H fuses to He in the shell. 9. Double shell burning , H and He fuse in the shells. 10. The helium core runs out, and the outer layers drift of away from the core as a gaseous shell, this gas that surrounds the core is called a Planetary Nebula. 11. The remaining core (thats 80% of the original star) is now in its final stages. The core becomes a White Dwarf the star eventually cools and dims.Star dies by ejecting H and He in planetary nebula. When it stops shining, the now dead star is called a Black Dwarf. · High mass stars :white or blue color..very dense,large, hot in core, high fusion rate. higher mass stars produce higher core temperature, that enable fusion of heaviner elements. 1. Stars are born in a region of high density Nebula, and condenses into a huge globule of gas and dust and contracts under its own gravity. 2. A region of condensing matter will begin to heat up and start to glow forming Protostars. Ifa protostar contains enough matter the central temperature reaches 15 million degrees centigrade. 3. At this temperature, nuclear reactions in which hydrogen fuses to form helium can start. 4. The star begins to release energy, stopping it from contracting even more and causes it to shine. It is now a Main Sequence Star.In main sequence, H fuses to He in core at at much higher rate, using carbon , nitrogen, and oxygen as a catalys. 5. Massive star becomes a red supergiant and stars of with a helium core surrounded by a shlle of cooling , expanding gas. hydrogen shell burning ( supergiant, H fuses to He in shell around He core), and helium core fusion (supergiant He fuses to C in core while H fuses to H in shell). 6. Nuclear reactions, occur , forming different elements in shells around the iron core. Multiple shell bruning means many elements fuse in shells. . 7. Star dies because the iron builds up in core until pressure can not resist gravity. The iron core collapses in less than a second, causing an supernova explosion, in which outer layers of the star are blown away. If the core survives the explosion, it becomes a neutron star. If the core is large, it contracts for form a black hole. · Medium or intermediate mass :Medium sized stars live billions of years.As a star begins to run low on hydrogen, since the initial quantity has been fused into the denser helium gas, the core will contract due to gravity. The collapsing core increases temperature to the point that the star can begin to fuse helium into carbon. When that happens, the outer portion of the star expands greatly due to the higher temperature. The star can expand to 1000 times the diameter of the sun. At this point, the star is called a red giant. If our sun became a red giant, its surface would expand out past the orbit of Mars. Red giants are red because the surface of the star is cooler than white or blue stars, but remain highly visible because of their gigantic size. After a star becomes a red giant, it will take one of several different paths to end its life. Which path is followed by a star after the red giant phase depends on its mass. During the fusion life of a star, its size is the result of a competition between fusion heat pushing the material out and gravity pulling the material in. At the end, gravity always wins. After the star has lived through its red giant stage, the fusion essentially ends (the star runs out of fuel) allowing gravity to collapse the star. Some of the outer layers of material will be blown away and the core becomes smaller and denser. The core will become either a neutron star, a white dwarf, a black dwarf, or a black hole.Medium-mass stars (less than 3 times the mass of our sun) become a red giants and eventually become a supernova. A supernova is the massive explosion of a star accompanied by emission of light and matter so intense that it can outshine an entire galaxy. After a supernove, when all the accessible fuel in a medium-mass star is exhausted, the iron core collapses and proton-electron pairs are converted into neutrons. Such stars are called neutron stars. Neutron stars might spin rapidly giving off light and X-rays or they might emit pulses of energy regularly and be known as pulsars. · EXTRA NOTES: Fusion in Stars - Primary source of energy in Sun is from nuclear fusion - Temperature at sun's core = 15 million K - In the Sun, hydrogen is primarily converted to helium - Hydrogen doesn't have a neutron, when it does, it's called deuterium - Fusion: produces energy, visible light, and forms new elements, occurs in center/core of star (pressure and temp is the highest) a. Fusion reaction: 4 hydrogen nuclei form 1 helium nucleus plus neutrions and release energy: Two p (hydrogen nuclei) come together. One of the protons becomes a neutron. (A positron and a neutrion are also produced.) We now have the nucleus of a deuterium atom (one proton and one neutron). b. The deuterium nucleus joins with a proton to form a helium-3 nucleus (two protons and a neutron) and a gamma ray. c. Two helium-3 nuclei come together to form helium-4 (two protons and two neutrons), with the release of two protons. - E= mc2 helps us to understand how energy releases in nuclear fusion - Mass of helium nucleus is less than 4 pyrogens à mass released as neutrinos and gamma rays: neutrinos fly off into space and gamma rays heat the sun - Heavy elements come from birth and death of sun - Fission = star with a massive unstable nucleus (such as uranium) and collide it with a neutron à massive nucleus spits into more stable and smaller nuclei and releases energy (nuclear power plants) - Energy from the core of a star reaches the surface mainly by radiation and convection Fusion in Stars - Nuclear fusion occurs in the center/core of the star, where pressure and temperature are highest (CoreàRadiation ZoneàConvection ZoneàCorona Photosphere) o The high temperatures and pressure ensure nuclei collide and overcome the electric forces that typically repel them o 10 million K is the minimum temperature to ignite fusion (typically 15 million K inside a star) In the sun the fusion reaction is "burning" of hydrogen into helium o 4 H à 1 helium nucleus § the reaction proceeds in a proton-proton chain § 2 protons (hydrogen nuclei) àDeuterium Atom (one proton & one neutron) § Deuterium + proton (hydrogen)àHelium-3 nucleus + gamma ray § 2 Helium-3 nuclei à Hellium-4 (2 protons & 2 neutrons) release 2 protons o the reaction is carried out by energy from neutrinos(elementary product given off in the nuclear reaction) and gamma rays (photons of electromagnetic radiation from the highest energy of the spectrum) § energy released during the fusion steps in the core make up the surface by radiation and convection § from the surface energy is radiated as visible light - Heavier Elements o Such as iron and nickel, or trace amounts of other heavier elements in the Sun can be traced to the life and death of more massive stars § Massive stars able to generate the heaviest elements such as lead, gold and uranium - Nuclear Fusion o The nuclei of smaller/lighter elements come together to form more massive, stable nuclei, releasing energy during the process - Nuclear Fission o Massive nucleus, inherently unstable, collide and split apart into more stable, smaller nuclei, releasing energy in the process o smaller nuclei, releasing energy in the process Stellar Balance and Evolution - The initial mass of a star as it forms out of a proto-stellar nebular determines its size, temperature, color, and luminosity o Large, high mass à hot and bright blue or white o Small, low mass à cooler, fainter and redder - The size of a star generally depends on the mass that coalesced out of the proto-stellar nebula o Size/mass determines the temperature and pressure at the center of the forming star o Larger Mass Stars § Have larger coreàgenerate more energy from nuclear fusionàhigher temperature à whiter or bluer color o Smaller Mass Stars § Release less energy in coresà they are coolerà makes them appear redder - Equilibrium o Pressure from the nuclear fusion reactions, balances with the inward gravitational force that makes a star contract § If the pressure goes up the star expands , reducing pressure and reducing the nuclear fusion reactions à gravity is greater and star returns to original size § If the pressure goes down, then star contracts, increasing the pressure at core pushing the radius back out o Stellar Evolution § Larger stars burn nuclear fuel much faster than smaller stars, thus they are more luminous · Larger stars burn hydrogen much faster, so they run out of hydrogen much faster § Very low mass stars live a long time o Time, and age of the solar system, is the main factor to consider the theory behind the energy source of the Sun § Chemical reactions and gravitation contraction provide vast energy but for not enough time, as old as the solar system is TEACHER PREP: · Stars and planet characteristics o Stars characteristics § Size of stars form smallest to greatest · Dwarf, giants, superviant · Notes : star can go thorough all of these sizes through out its lifetime § Stars expand as they get older § Stars give off electromagnetic radiation which can be measured § Because of the Doppler Effect, stars that are moving away from Earth appear more red and stars that are moving towards us appear more blue violet. § Larger and hotter stars typically have more luminosity · Luminosity a measure of the amount of energy giving off § The color of a star is determined by its temperature · Blue stars are hotter , red stars are cooler § Notes : doppler effect is important to understand the movement of stars. Star immiting electromagnetic radiation, here is the wavelength , so wavelength is from one crest to the next. Lets say we have another star moving toward eart, as it emits waves, it is getting closer to the wavelght it immitted, so it looks shorter distance between crest making them appear blue blue is short wavelength blue, shorter, that tells us moving towards us. Another example another star moving away, so the wavelemght crest distance is longer, which red color, red shifted, so moving away from us. That is how we understsand universide is expanding. That is how we use doopler effect to understand movement of stars. Larger and hotter stars have more luminiosty (gamma rayx, xray, ect). § Apparent magnitude of a star is dependent on both distance and brightness ( luminosity) . this magnitude is also assuming a lack of an atmosphere for the viewer. § The values range form negative to positive. The objects with negative values closer to zero are brighter. o Life cycle of a star § Our sun is theorized to have 14 billion year life cycle § A protostar transforms into an adult star, and as the star converts is fule into more massive elements and compounds, ti becomes less dense. § eventually the star will collapse, and based on itss mass and other factor,s will become either a brown dwar , white dwar, neutron star, nova, or black hole § Larger stars will only have a few million year life cycle, smnaller stars will have a trillion yearcycle Notes : star start ad dust and particles pulled together by graivity, and hit eachother start fusion reaction so become more massive so Hydrogen nuclei fussed to form Helium , once that fussion reaction occurs, we have a protostar. Then adult star. As this happens, it becomes LESS dense, this reaction pushes outward on the star so it expands takes more space, so less matter / volum unit so less dense. Let me show why the star collapses as it gets bigger. The star has two major forces acting upon it ,the force of fusion makes it push outwards the thermal force heat force being generation from fusion reaton is pulling out. But we also have gravitin pulling in. there is balancing between these two, as fusion slows, gravity increases, gravity wins so star collapses. Some times collapse into small dwarf, or white dwarf. More massive stars tend to have nutrial emission so explode nova, sometimes pulls mass into tiny point ( black whole ) light is bent by gravity so we can see anythig behind it so dense light cant escape it. Good to know for test diffrence of life cycel between large and small star. Larger stars will only have a few million life cycle, smaller stars can have trillion year life cycle . why? The thing that acceleart fusion reaction is the presusre being put on the atoms by graivty and the more mass there is to that star the more gravity there is pushing in the more accelearion the fusion reaction, so it goes to cycle of converting elements quickly. A smaller star has less accleeleration because of less graivity pulling in to accelerate that fusion reaction. o planets characteristics § planets are generally smaller than stars · Jupiter , our largest planet, is only 1/10th the diameter of the sun § Planets of our solar system are illuminated by our sun · Larger planets and those closer to the sun have greater apparent magnitude § The color of the planet is based on its chemical composition · Earth is blue because of the oceans · Venus is yellow because of it sulfur clouds · Mars is red due to the iron in the rocks § Notes : larger planet higher apprante magnitude apper brighter. They light is the light reflected from the sun.composition of surface of planet absorbes some light and reflect other and that is how we see color. · Fusion in stars o Energy source in stars § Fusion is the process that creates all the energy and light that stars give off § Two lighter atoms fuse together to make a heavier atom and in doing so release an incredible amount of emergy § In our sun, hydrogen atoms are fusing together to create helium atoms § Altought the amount of energy given off as gamma rays is fairly small, there are enormous amount of these reactions happening in our sun, so aggragate energy is a lot. § The new atoms have LESS MASS than the sum of the original atoms and the extra mass is given off as energy ( part of the matter that existed got converted to energy and particles were given off as part of the fusion reacton) § Notes : 2 hydrogen nuclie combine, so now 2 protons, 2 neutrons, now helium atoms. As part of this process fusing, nutrinal particles are given off, and energy is given off gamma radiation. The fusion reaction release mass and energy. For test, fussion powers stars, and stars loose mass over time because the mass is given converted to energy that is given off ( light , heat, gamma radiation all forms of energy ), all that energy use to be mass, so over time stars loose mass and they give ouff energy. Online : Fusion that takes place in a star involves combining, or fusing, two or more small nuclei into a larger elements. Within the sun, temperatures reaches to around 15 million K and is under extreme pressure. The nuclei move at such a high speed pace, due to the high temperature. Electromagnetic forces repels the nuclei, preventing collisions. When two nuclei collide, it produces a heavier nucleus. The only force that overcomes this electromagnetic repulsive force that binds protons and neutrons is the strong force. The high temperature within the star allows the nuclei to travel at very high speeds, allowing them to come close enough to fuse. The higher the temperature, the harder they will collide, increasing the chance for fusion. The pressure keeps the hot plasma together, keeping the star from exploding into space. If heavier elements need to be created, higher temperatures are needed. It takes approximately hundreds of thousands of years for the photon energy to travel from the core to the photosphere! When four hydrogen nuclei combine to produce a helium nucleus, a little bit of mass is converted into energy. The sequence of steps that occurs in the sun is called the proton-proton chain. There are three steps:Step 1: Two protons fuse together to form a deuterium nucleus. A deuterium nucleus consists of 1 proton and 1 neutron. This step takes place twice to form two deuterium nuclei.Step 2: The deuterium nucleus and a proton fuse together to form the nucleus of helium-3. Helium-3 consists of 2 protons and 1 neutron. This step also takes place twice.Step 3: Two helium-3 nuclei fuses together to form helium-4. Helium-4 consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Two excess protons are released in this process. The solar energy that is formed as a result of fusion takes hundred of thousands of years to travel from the core of the sun to the photosphere. Even though photons travel at the speed of light, their route through the sun takes on a zigzag path, so much so that it takes them a very long time to make any progress. This is because the plasma in the sun is so dense, that photons can only travel a fraction of millimeter in any one direction before it "collides" with an electron, which causes it to

4e a. Demonstrate knowledge of the characteristics of the different states of matter.

Matter- a substance that has mass and occupies volume. Matter exists as either a liquid, solid, gas, or plasma. Solid : take shape , tend to be rigid and sturdy.cold temp and high pressure causes solids to form. If cold temp, molecules not moving , and with pressure, they are more solid. a substance in a solid state that has a fixed, definite volume. The particles in a solid are packed tightly together. This holds the substance in rigid position and cannot be compressed. Has fixed state. Liquids don't have shape, fluid.heat or a decrease in pressure can casuse a solid to become a liquid. Liquids tend to be less dense than solids (except water, water is more dense when liquid). Liquid- a substance in liquid state has particles that are loosely packed together. The substance has a variable shape and takes the shape of its container. Its volume is fixed and can be compressed slightly. Gases are found in ghih temp and or low pressure. They do not have a defined shape or volume and are less dense than liquid ( a lot of movement of molecules, high kinetic energy, most volume, least dense ,float around). Gas- a gaseous substance has particles that are widely spread apart thus it has no shape. Its volume is not fixed. As its volume increases, the gas expands and particles move farther away from each other. As its volume decreases, the gas compresses and move closer to each other. Can be compressed significantly. Plasma is a form of gas that is ionically charged. Plasma is a gas that has gotten so hot and has so much energy in it that negatively charged free electrons and positively charged ions exist together in it. These free electrons mean that plasma easily conducts energy. Plasma, like a gas, has neither a definite volume nor shape. Plasma- hot gas-like state composed of the ions and electrons that can carry out electrical current. Solids and liquids can not be compressed!

10 b. Recognize and differentiate the structure and function of molecules in living organisms, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. what are the subunits of nucleotides ? two types of acids ? where are they found ? what are the 5 nitrogenous bases ? What are the components of nuclei acids? nulcie acid dna vs RNA ? function of DNA and RNA, ? What is the backbone of nucleic acids ? what holds the nitrogenous basee ? DNA helsp for what ? RNA helps with what ?

Nucleic acids- subunits are nucleotides. Two different acids called DNA and RNA that are found in the cells' nuclei (RNA is also found in the cytoplasm). There are five nitrogenous basis: adenine, guanine, uracil (found only in the RNA), thymine (found only in the DNA), and cytosine. There are three components: a five carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous group . The nucleic acid is comprised of chains of 5-carbon sugars that is linked by phosphate bond, which an organic base protruding from each sugar. If the sugar is deoxyribose, then the polymer is a DNA, and if the sugar is a ribose, then the polymer is a RNA. Nucleic acids carry the genetic code in DNA and RNA. Their function is to encode genes and gene expression. the sugar and phosphate groups make up the backbone held together by covalent bonds. the nitrogen bases are held together by weak hydrogen bonds. dna coding for cell RNA helps translate transcription and commuiton that from DNA to proteins.

organells and their fuctnction ?

Nucleus- enclosed in double membrane and communicates with surrounding cytosol. Here DNA is responsible for providing cell with unique characteristics. Cell membrane- regulates tugor pressure in plants by collecting water and pressing outward against cell wall and provides rigidity in the plant. ER- spread throughout the cytoplasm and extends from the cell membrane to the nucleus' membrane through a network of membranes that form channels, tubes, and flat sacs. Function is to move materials out of the cytoplasm and to the plasma membrane. Ribosomes- some are attached to the membranes of the ER. These are involved in the synthesis of proteins. Ribosomes are also found free in the cytoplasm. These synthesize proteins to be used in the cell such as cellular respiration. Golgi Apparatus- consists of a series of membranes that is loosely applied to one another. The Golgi apparatus collects vesicles, wraps them in its membranes and then transports it to the cell membrane where it leaves the cell. Lysosomes- double membranes, contains hydrolytic enzymes that is capable of destroying the cell, special type of round vacuoles, takes in bacteria and foreign bodies to be destroyed by the enzymes. Outer skin does not allow enzymes out into the cell, but if the cell is damaged, then the skin disappears and the cell digests itself. Peroxisomes- These are membrane-bound sacs filled with oxidative enzymes. Resembles lysosomes, however, peroxisomes contain oxidizing enzymes. Glyoxysomes- membrane-bound, found in the cytoplasm, resembles peroxisomes, however these contain enzymes that allows it to convert fatty acids to carbohydrates. Usually found in plant seedlings, the carbohydrates are use to build cell walls Mitochondrion (plural Mitochondria)- surrounded by a double membrane, has a membrane of many folds which are covered with enzymes used for chemical reactions that releases energy, the degree of folding of the inner membrane is related to the energy requirements of the cell

9f a. Demonstrate knowledge of the definitions of power, voltage differences, current, and resistance and calculate their values in simple circuits. what is power ? how is it measured ? equation? what is current? what is resistnace, why is it importnat? what is amp, how is it measured ? how are voltmeters connected ? how are ammeters connected ? what is capacitance, how is it measured ? a open circuit will read as infinite resistnace on a?

Power is the force motivating electrons to flow, called voltage. It is the measurement of potential energy that is relative between two points. Voltage is measured in volts. To solve for the voltage (E), you multiply current (I) times resistance (R).E=I x R Current is the continuous movement of electrons in a circuit. resistance is the opposition to motion. Resistors are important otherwise too many electrons will move through the circuit. - Ampere = flow of electrons/charge per second/unit of time (unit of current) I=Q/T - Voltmeters are connected in parallel and ammeters (measures current) are connected in series - Capacitance = amount of electric charge that can be stored for a given potential difference or voltage drop across a device, units = Farads - An open circuit will read as infinite resistance on a ohmmeter

8d (Demonstrate knowledge of how the transfer of energy as heat is related to changes in temperature and interpret the direction of heat flow in a system.) Discuss movenet particle in high vs. low kinetic energy? how temp measured? why does water boil at higher elevation? freezing point?boiling point in C? what happens at 0 k? how convert C to kelvin? how convert farehein to C? heat is measured in what ? covert Cal to Joules? when heat flows out of system , the temp of the system _ while the temp of the surrounds ___.? what is low specific heat? if the specific heat of water is 4.18 J / gC. The specific heat of aluminum is 0.89 J/g C. which heats up faster? higher specific heat in order? on exam, which heats up slower or cools the slowest? which one has high specific heat? equation and units for heat transfer calculation? hwo much energy is required to heat up 10 grams of aluminum by 20 degree C if C(al) is .89. what is the direction of heat flow in a system discuss?what happens when hot molecules collide with slow ? draw example of snow man, ice cun, water on stovel, how relates to heat flow in system?

Teacher prep : Transfer of energy as heat : Temperature vs. heat Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance. The particles of a hot substance move quickly and have high kinetic energy. The particles of a cold substance move slowly and have low kinetic energy. Temperature is measured in degree Celsius, degree Fahrenheit and kelvin Notes: thermalenergy vs heat. They could ask which requires more thermal energy heating coffee 10 or heating a bath tub 5 degrees? more thermal energy in bath tub , the amount of thermal energy present is based on temperature and the quantity. 0 C is freezing point, 100 C is boiling point at sea level. At sea level, the more pressure , molecules less able to move. So when sea level ther is more pressure then when up at mountain. When mouting water boils at lower temperature because less pressure so molecues can move faster. 0 K is when all matter stops moving, no motion. 0 degrees Celsius is equal to 273.15 Kelvins. The basic formula is °C + 273.15 = K. The basic formula for converting Fahrenheit into Celsius is (°F − 32) × 5/9 = °C. To convert Fahrenheit degrees into Kelvins, (°F − 32) × 5/9 + 273.15 = K. Heat is the energy that flows into or out of a system because of a difference in temperature. ( open door, cold our goes out, warm air wats to come in, ) Heat is measured in Joules or calories. A calorie is the amount of heat needed to increase then temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C . 1 cal= 4.186 J. When heat flows out of a system, temperature of the system _____, while temperature of the surroundins _____. Note : decrease , increases So some substance can heat faster then others. Low specific heat requires less heat. They might give you calculations questions on exam. Q: if the specific heat of water is 4.18 J / gC. The specific heat of aluminum is 0.89 J/g C. which heats up faster? More heat requires for water, so It cools down slowly . it takes more energy to raise temepar or lower temperature. The aluminim gets hotter faster then cup of water. At night, aluminum gets colder faster then cup of water bceuase lower specific heat. Higher specific heat in order : water liquid, water ice, water steam, aluminum, iron, mercury, carbon , silver, gold. On exam, they will give you data, and you select which heats up slowers, or cools th slowes, or ask which one has highest specific heat ? Q=MCAT GOOD WAY REMMEMBER THIS EQUATION ! HEAT =MCAT FIRST QUESTIONS, FALSE,. SO JUST PLUG IN THE NUMEBERS INTO EQUATION, (10g)(.9j/(gC))(20C)=180 J of heat is required to heat 10 grams of aluminumc that has .8 capacity for 20 degree. This type question on test. Direction of heal flow in a system Heat will flow in the direction that causes an increase in entropy (energy dispersal or disorder). In other words, heat always flows from hot to cold. When fast ( hot ) molecules collide with slow (cold ) molecues , the fast molecules give some of their energy (heat) to the slower molecules Heat is molecule motion, bump into the cold ones and speed them up. You might be asked to draw flow diagram for the following to show how heat is flowing: A snowman melts on a sunny day. ( heat from sun or radiation is going to the snow man, An ice cub tray filled with water sits in a freezer. ( ice cube tray in freezer, heat is flowing out of water ) Water boils on a stove ( different ways for this one, heat is being produced and radiation up until it hits the base of the pot , and the pot base conducts that heat, and the heat at the bottom heats the water, the hot water flows up the cold water flows down, so there is lots of ways in this system, it is cycling. These are all examples of how heat flows in a system

Demonstrate knowledge of the water cycle and the interrelationships of surface and subsurface reservoirs.

The water cycle begins with the energy of the sun. The water cycle, also referred to as the hydrologic cycle, is a mental reference with what happens to water as it cycles through the earth. The large reservoir is the ocean because of the large solar radiation that is absorbed by the ocean, the water evaporates and gains energy. Because the ocean is so large, most of this water falls back into the ocean (short circuit). Very small amount of the water condenses into clouds and moves over land. So, you start with the transport from the ocean to the land. Some of it falls to earth in some form of precipitation, and then it splits off to different paths. A small amount infiltrates the ground (10 percent) and becomes groundwater. The crust consists of several layers, with some layers being porous and permeable while others are impermeable. As water moves through the permeable layer and reaches the impermeable layer, it begins to build up. We call this region the saturated zone. The region above this zone is called the unsaturated zone. The boundary between the two is called the water table. Water may also be absorbed by the plant and released (transpiration) back into the atmosphere. 30 percent falls into rivers and eventually makes its way back to the ocean. Because water has different sized reservoirs and moves at different speeds, it spends very long in some reservoir and little in others. The ocean is so vast that it has a lot of storage. It takes a long time to move from one region to the next. Once in the atmosphere it takes a few days to get back into the ocean. In a river (not lakes), it takes a couple of weeks to move from the top of the mountain back to the ocean. One good thing about rivers is that if it's polluted, then it will clear out into the ocean. Water that infiltrates moves very slowly. So, groundwater may take thousands, tens of thousands of years, to empty into river and then into the ocean or discharge directly into the ocean. Teacher prep: · The water cycle o Definitions § All the water on earth is part of a hydrosphere. The water cycle is also called the hydrologic cycle § Key parts of the cycle include evaporation, condenstiona, precipitiation, runoff, ground water and evaporatranspiration · Evapotranspiration is the combination of evaporation from land as well a sthe transpiration from the plant life · There are many different types of trsnpiration depending on amount of water and temperature § A large amount of water is stored as ground water § Note : a least one questions test. Ocean, river, water in atmosphere, water stored in ground, all places where there is water is hydrosphere. Transpiration is when water is absorbed from ground through roots of plant transported up through stem using xylem and phloem into the leaves and through pores of leaves water is release to atmosphere, so water release from ground out through plant, that is transpiration. o Diagram notes: here we see an illustraton of the water cycle, know the ones circled in yelloe for test. ocean, water stored there, then heats up, and goes from liquid to gas, and have gaseous particles that float up to atsmostphere. The particles start pull together forming larger and larger until they are too heavy to remain in air, no longer gas, now liquid, so fall back to earth as percipiation ( snow, rain, hail,ect), this particle stoo heavy . when hit earth surface , either the earth is porous enough to absorbe water or its not porous enough so it run off, ground cannot absorbed water, water runs off so now agent for transporation for sediment, carry salt, warth particles, back to ocean. So salt built up in ocean. The ocean does not have a way for water to leave only evaporation, so only water leaves and salt remains. Fresh water lake has source runoff, where the salts are taken with the water and therefore they don't build up in the lake. Not every lake has a source of run off though, so when you look at those that don't, they tend ot have a higher salinity just like the ocean. So keep these points in mide of salinity and water cycle. If earth can abosrbe water that is infiltration, ground water storage, stored under surface of ground, and the level is water table. o Water reservoir § Reservoir are natural or artificially created lakes used to hold water .a dam can be implemented to create a resevoire. § The water table is the level at which the atmosphere pressure is qual to the ground water pressure. This is a location where ground water can be seen. Other guide : The Water Cycle - Transpiration = water released from leaves of plants as water vapor into the air - Sun = energy that drives the water cycle - Most evaporation takes place over the ocean - about 10 days between evaporation and precipitation - water that infiltrates into the groundwater has a better chance of being purified than runoff water than can pick up contaminants along the way - condensation = water vapor changes to liquid water as the air holding the water vapor cools

4d a. Demonstrate knowledge of nuclear forces that hold nuclei together and are responsible for nuclear processes (e.g., fission, fusion) and radioactivity (e.g., alpha, beta, and gamma decay).

There are two types of nuclear reactions the release energy , fission and fusion. Nuclear fission is used to generate electricity in our nuclear power plants. Fission occurs when uranium nuclei are bombarded with neutrons. The neutrons hit and split the uranium nuclei into fragments. The fission releases a lot of energy and other neutrons as well. Those other neutrons, in turn, cause a chain reaction and cause other uranium nuclei to split, and additional energy is released. Nuclear power plants can generate a lot of electricity from a very small amount of uranium and no pollution released into the atmosphere. Nuclear fission, however, produces radioactive waste that is harmful to life and has to be properly stored. The first nuclear fission reaction discovered involved uranium-235. Nuclear power plants use uranium-235 nucleus to undergo fission by hitting them with neutrons, as shown by the model in the following diagram.The figure represents the process of nuclear fission when a neutron strikes a uranium-235 nucleus. Barium-141 and krypton-92 are just two of many possible products of this fission reaction..The elements barium and krypton are typical results of this fission. Nuclear fusion occurs in the center/core of the star, where pressure and temperature are highest The high temperatures and pressure ensure nuclei collide and overcome the electric forces that typically repel them.In fusion, small nuclei fuse to form a larger helium nucleus. That's what happens on our sun; a lot of energy is released when the smaller nuclei are fused together. Fusion generates more energy than fission.In the sun the fusion reaction is "burning" of hydrogen into helium. The major type of nuclear fusion happening in our sun is known as proton-proton fusion. In proton-proton fusion, hydrogen atoms are fused together through several steps to eventually become a helium-4 atom. Initially, two hydrogen atoms collide forming a single deuterium atom, a positron, and a neutrino.Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen. An isotope has the same number of protons in its nucleus as the standard form of its element but a different number of neutrons. A positron is a particle with the same mass and magnitude of charge as an electron but has a positive charge instead of a negative one. A neutrino is a charge-less particle with a mass of nearly zero.In the next step, the deuterium atom fuses with a proton to form a helium-3 atom and gives off a gamma ray as a result. Finally, the helium-3 atom fuses with another helium-3 atom that was created in the same process from another two hydrogen atoms. This creates an end result of a single helium-4 atom and two protons. Altogether, there are three major types of nuclear decay that radioactive particles can undergo: alpha, beta, or gamma decay. Alpha, beta and gamma decay are a result of the three fundamental forces working in the nucleus - the 'strong' force, the 'weak' force and the 'electromagnetic' force. In all three cases, the emission of radiation increases the nucleus stability, by adjusting its proton/neutron ratio Each type emits a particle from the nucleus. Alpha particles are high-energy helium nuclei containing 2 protons and 2 neutrons. They're heavy and can be stopped by as little as a piece of paper. In beta decay, involve the transformation of a a neutron in the nucleus transforms into a proton and releases an electron, the beta particle, which is much lighter but requires a minimum of aluminum to shield it. Finally, gamma rays are emitted when the nucleus has too much energy. They have no mass and require lead to stop them.gamma radiation Is loss of energy by the nucleus, much like an emission of light of x ray by energenic atoms. Alpha and beta decays almost always leave the nucleus in an excited state. Gamma emission brings the nucleus down to a more stable energetic state.Alpha and beta decays are often difficult to occur. They can be very slow processes..