FL Review (AAMC Stuff + BP FL 1 + BP FL2 + BP FL 3+ BP FL 4)

Which of the following is most likely to be a statement listed in a questionnaire measuring racial centrality?

"Being African American is an important reflection of who I am." Racial centrality is the extent to which one's race is an important part of the person's overall self-concept, which is reflected in this statement.

criterion validity

Criterion validity refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome.

Informal negative sanction

An informal sanction is an action by a peer or group of peers that is meant to make behavior more normative. It usually involves shaming or ridicule, which is considered a punishment. When the media shames people who engage in non-normative behavior (acting like a jerk while shopping), they are trying to enforce norms in an informal way.

What is the approximate pH of a saturated aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid whose concentration is 10.2 M?

-1 Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and completely dissociates in aqueous solution. In the solution given, the hydronium ion concentration is 10.2 M, which can be approximated as 10 M. The pH is the -log of the hydronium ion concentration: -log[10] = -log[101] = -1. While the typical pH range is normally thought of as ranging from 0 to 14, if the hydronium ion concentration is greater than 1 M negative pH values are possible. It is also possible to have pH values greater than 14 if the hydroxide concentration is greater than 1 M.

an oligarchy

An oligarchy is a system in which a small number of individuals hold the majority of the power. This does not align with the description in the question stem.

When 0.2 moles of hydrofluoric acid are added to 100 mL of water, the resulting solution has a pH equal to 4. What is the percent dissociation of HF?

0.005% Remember that HF is a weak acid, so it does not fully dissociate in water. In many weak acid problems you must use an ICE table and the Ka of the acid to calculate the pH of an acidic solution. However, this question gives us the pH. Recall that pH = -log[H+], so [H+] = 10-pH. Here, pH = 4 so [H+] = 10-4 M. The percent dissociation of HF is the percent of the original acid that has dissociated into H+ and F- ions. This value is equal to [H+]/[HF] x 100%. Original [HF] = 0.2 moles / 0.100 L = 2.0 M [H+] / [HF] = (10-4 M H+) / (2.0 M HF) = 0.5 x 10-4 % dissociation = 5 x 10-5 x 100% = 5 x 10-3% = 0.005%

What is the normality of a 0.015 M solution of phosphoric acid assuming complete dissociation?

0.045 N The chemical formula of phosphoric acid is H3PO4. Normality, in the context of acids, refers to the number of moles of protons per liter of solution (in other words, to the "molarity of protons"). Normality can be calculated by multiplying the molarity of the solution by the number of protons per molecule of acid (here, 3). (0.015 M solution) x (3 protons per molecule) = 0.045 N

What is the standard cell potential for the starch battery that was created? Given: Biostarch batteries work to convert the chemical energy stored in starch to electrical energy. They function by way of a series of redox process that involve the transformation of starch into glucose 6-phosphate (MW = 260 g/mol), followed by oxidation to 6-phosphogluconate and reduction of NAD+ (E°red = -0.32 V) to NADH. Electrons are then transferred in a further series of redox reactions, first to the electron carrier AQDS (E°red = -0.10 V), and then to the electrodes. Ultimately, oxygen (E°red = 0.816 V) is reduced to O2-, which is protonated forming H2O as shown in Figure 1.

0.916 V The cell described is galvanic, so ΔG is negative. The relationship between ΔG and Ecell (ΔGo = -nFEocell) requires that galvanic (spontaneous) cells have positive potentials, so we can eliminate any negative options (choices A and B). To decide between C and D, we need the reduction potentials of the species involved. Paragraph 1 gives E°reduction of O2 as 0.816 V and E°reduction of AQDS as -0.10 V, so using the equation Eocell = Eocathode - Eoanode = Eo (substance reduced) - Eo (substance oxidized) gives 0.816 V - (-0.10 V) = 0.916 V

According to the passage, which of the following relationships must be true?

100 kPa is equivalent to 100 J/L. This is a unit conversion problem: 100 kPa = 100,000 Pa = 100,000 N/m2 = 10^5 N/m2 (100 J/L) (1000 L/m3) = 10^5 J/m3 = 105 Nm/m3 = 105 N/m2

The Omilteme Cottontail is a particularly large breed of rabbit with an average weight of 3 kg. If its leg muscles act as imperfectly elastic springs, how much energy is stored if the rabbit lands from a height of 0.5 m and its legs are compressed by 0.2 m?

13 J The muscles are not perfectly elastic, so some energy is lost. The potential energy stored in the muscle at the peak of the rabbit's height is PE = (3 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(0.5 m) ≅ 15 J. Since some energy is lost, 13 J is a reasonable answer.

If the bicep exercises last 5 minutes, what is the total work performed by the patient's muscle? Given: To properly visualize the circulatory system, images are obtained at rest and while the patient performs isotonic exercises of the bicep against a 50-W load.

15 kJ Power = work / time. Thus, work = power x time. Here, work = (50 J/s) (5 min) (60 s/min) = 15,000 J, or 15 kJ.

A 60-kg runner raises her center of mass approximately 0.25 m with each step. Although her leg muscles act as a spring, recapturing the energy each time her feet touch down, there's an average 10% loss with each compression. What must the runner's additional power output be to account for only this loss, if she averages 0.8 s per stride?

19 W This is a multi-step question, though each step is relatively straightforward. The gravitational potential energy at the runner's height is: PE = mgh PE =(60 kg)(10 m/s2)(0.25 m) = 150 J Most of this energy is conserved as the runner hits the ground and her muscles capture the energy as spring potential energy, so the question only asks about the lost energy, amounting to 10%, or 15 J. Don't worry about the mechanics of which foot lands first and how much of the kinetic energy each one absorbs. The question stem doesn't give that kind of information. An additional 15 J is needed per stride, and a stride occurs every 0.8 s. Thus: P =(15 J) / (0.8 s) ≅ 18 W The closest answer is B.

n-Pentane is a straight-chain hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C5H12. How many additional structural isomers can be constructed using this molecular formula?

2 Since the molecular formula follows the formula CnH2n+2, we can only build alkanes that are not cyclic. Those have the formula CnH2n. We can make a tertiary carbon, 2-methylbutane, and we can make a quaternary carbon, 2,2-dimethylpropane. ***I got this answer wrong because I used the STEREOISOMER FORMULA - which is 2^n (n is number of stereocenters) which i say in n Pentane there is none --> 2^0 =1. BUT THIS IS ASKING ABOUT STRUCTURAL ISOMERS. Be careful****

Question 56 How many grams of hydrogen gas are required to completely react with 32 g of oxygen gas to form hydrogen peroxide?

2.0 g The formation reaction for hydrogen peroxide is: H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O2 (l) Moving on to the stoichiometry calculation: 32 g O2 x (1 mol/32 g) x (1 H2/1 O2) x 2 g/mol = 2 g H2

What is the pH of a 0.10 M aqueous solution of aspirin? GIVEN: Acetylsalicylic acid is a weak acid, with a pKa of 3.5

2.3 REMINDER- Ka = 10 ^-pka Acetylsalicylic acid is a weak acid, with a pKa of 3.5. The pH can be determined from the equilibrium expression: Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] 10^-3.5 = x^2/(0.1-x) Since x will be small, we can approximate 0.1 - x ≈ 0.1, giving: 10^-3.5(0.1) = x^2 10^-4.5 = x^2 10^-2.25 = x Since x equals the hydrogen ion concentration, taking the -log(10-2.25) = pH = 2.25.

Based on Figure 2, what is the approximate pKa of the carboxylic acid group in glycine?

2.4 In the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, pH = pKa + log[B]/[A], where B is the conjugate base of the weak acid (represented by A). If [B] = [A], the pH will equal the pKa. This occurs at the first plateau in the titration curve for glycine shown in Figure 2. Estimating the pH at the middle of the first plateau gives a value closest to 2.4, as shown below. A faster way to respond to this question, though, is to recognize that all amino acids have a pKa1 that is approximately 2.5, so among the choices only A can be correct.

It was discovered that in those whose stress levels are significantly elevated by traumatic events, the incidence of bedwetting was increased. During which stage of sleep is bedwetting most likely to occur?

3 Typically, sleepers pass through 4 stages: 1, 2, 3, and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Stage 3 is referred to as Delta sleep because of the delta waves that occur during this stage. Stage 3 is a deep sleep that typically lasts about 30 minutes. Sleepwalking and bed-wetting typically occur at the end of Stage 3. During this "deep sleep," there is no eye movement or muscle activity. This is when some children may also experience sleepwalking or night terrors. The typical sleep cycle for adults lasts 90 minutes.

informational influence

Informational influence is an influence to accept information from others as evidence about reality, and can come into play when we are uncertain about information or what might be correct.

In 250 mL of the MH solution with the most favorable solubility profile, how many moles of nicotinamide (MW = 122 g/mol) are present? GIVEN: nicotinamide in the most favorable solution is 15 mg/ml --> this was given in form of a table

3.1 x 10^-2 Table 1 indicates that there are 40 mg/mL of total hydrotrope in each MH solution. The solution with the most favorable solubility is that with an N:B:C ratio of 15:20:5. In this solution, the concentration of nicotinamide (N) is 15 mg/mL. Since the question states there are 250 mL of solution, the amount of nicotinamide must be 250 x 15 mg, or 3750 mg. We can estimate this value as 4000 mg, which is equal to 4 g. 4 g nicotinamide x (1 mol nicotinamide / 122 g) = approximately 4 g x 1 mol / 120 g = 3.33 x 10^-2 mol This value is closest to answer choice A.

What is the wavelength of the photons emitted by the 145Pm-m isotope? ( 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J, Planck's constant = 6.62 x 10-34 J•s) Also Given: The 145Pm-m isotope is taken up by blood, decays, and emits a 300-keV gamma ray, which can be visualized with a lead-lens camera that takes images of the target tissue.

4.1 x 10-12 m The energy of the photon is given as 300 keV. This will need to be converted to joules using the equation 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J. The energy of a photon is related to its wavelength by the equation E = hc/λ, where h is Planck's constant (6.62 x 10-34 J•s) and c is the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s). Thus, λ = hc/E Solving for λ, we get: λ = [(6.62 x 10-34 J•s)(3 x 108 m/s)] / [(300 x 103 eV)(1.6 x 10-19 J / eV)] λ ≅ (6.5 x 3) / (300 x 1.5) x 10-10 λ ≅ (6.5 / 1.5) x 10-12 = [2(6.5) / 3] x 10-12 ≅ (12 / 3) x 10-12 = 4 x 10-12 m

The pKa values for cysteine are shown below. At what pH will a solution of 2.2 M cysteine be isoelectric? (BP FL 2 B/B Q 46)

5.07 We need to determine the pH at which Cys will be isoelectric, which means having no net electric charge. There are two ways to solve this question. First, we can use the given pKa values to determine the charge that Cys will carry in each solution. Alternatively, we can recall that an amino acid will be in its zwitterion (i.e. isoelectric) form when the pH of the environment is equal to the pKa of the amino acid. This means we need to take the average of the two most relevant pKa values on cysteine. While Cys is not commonly listed as an acidic amino acid, its side chain includes a thiol (-SH) group, which can be deprotonated/made negative. A way to figure this out is to note that the structure of cysteine at pH = 7 shows that the side group is protonated. So it must be that even though the pKa is 8.33, the thiol is able to act as an acid (reminder, a pKa > 7 does NOT necessarily mean the group is basic). For amino acids with acidic side chains, the isoelectric point is the average of the two most acidic (lowest) pKa values. Alternatively, we can evaluate each choice and calculate the overall charge on the Cys residue. At the pH of choice B (the correct answer), the COOH group will be deprotonated (-1 charge), the amino group will be protonated (+1 charge), and the side chain will be protonated (neutral charge). As such, the overall net charge on the molecule will be 0.

Assuming a 95% yield for each coupling step, what would be the final yield for synthesizing a 10 amino-acid length peptide?

60% Each time we add an amino acid to the chain, we get a 95% pure yield for that step. Here, imagine that each coupling step has a 95% yield and that we are running the cycle 9 times (since no coupling step is needed for the first of the 10 amino acids), with each cycle being independent from the preceding cycle. Thus, a 10-amino acid peptide would be synthesized in a (0.95)9 = 0.63 ≈ 60% final yield, assuming a 100% yield in each unprotection step. A crude estimate of the yield would be that after 9 steps, with 5% lost at each step (corresponding to a 95% yield), 45% is lost overall. However, the actual yield will be somewhat higher, because each step does not involve exactly a 5% reduction from the starting percentage. Thus, 60% is the best approximation.

A student determined that her yield of aspirin was 1.6 g. Given that the limiting reagent is salicylic acid in the reaction shown in the passage, what was her percent yield? Given: you use 2 grams of salicylic acid in the Salicylic acid and aspirin = 1:1 ratio Aspirin (180 g/mol; pKa = 3.5) is easily prepared by reacting salicylic acid (138 g/mol; pKa = 2.97) with acetic anhydride (102 g/mol) as shown in Reaction 1.

60% We can calculate the moles of salicylic acid from the number of grams used in step 1 and the molecular weight given in the passage. 2.0 g x 1mol/138 g ≈ (3/2) x 10-2 ≈ 1.5 x 10-2 mol The question statement says that the limiting reagent is salicylic acid, so the amount of product is based on the moles of salicylic acid. The stoichiometric ratio between salicylic acid and acetylsalicylic acid is 1:1; therefore, the theoretical yield can be calculated using the molecular weight of acetylsalicylic acid given in the passage. 1.5 x 10-2 mol x 180 g/mol ≈ 3/2 x 180 x 10-2 ≈ 2.7 g Since the question indicates that the actual yield was 1.6 g, the percent yield is 1.5/2.7 x 100 ≈ 60%.

Given the data discussed in the passage, if a hospital requires at least 250g of 145Nd to complete a standard cardiac image, how long will it be before it must replace a 2000g sample? Given: In experimental assays, approximately 93% of the 145Pm decay product is produced in the first 100 minutes.

75 minutes The decay of a substance can be calculated by knowing its half-life, the time it takes for half of the original amount to decay. The final paragraph states that about 93% of the decay occurs in the first 100 minutes, so 7% remains. We'll use a 100-g sample in our calculations to represent a percent. The number of half lives that have been expended corresponds to 100-g → 50-g → 25-g → 12-g → 6-g, or 4 half lives in 100 min, so there are 100 min/4 half lives = 25 min/half life. We need 250 g/2000 g = ⅛ remaining. Using the equation (½)n = ⅛, where n is the number of half lives, here we have n = 3. Therefore, we have three half lives remaining before replacement is necessary, which is (3 half lives) (25 min/half life) = 75 min.

Which of the following most likely approximates the pKa of phenolphthalein? Given: The acidity of each broth sample was evaluated by acid-base titration with a standardized solution of 0.1 M sodium hydroxide, using phenolphthalein as an indicator.

9.3 Indicators function in acid-base titrations to identify an endpoint. When effectively chosen, an indicator undergoes a color change near the desired pH. The pKa of a chosen indicator should be within ±1 unit of the target pH. For the titrations performed in the study of acetic acid, a weak acid, and sodium hydroxide, a strong base, the endpoint of the titration will occur at a pH greater than 7. Of the possible pKa values given as answer choices, the pKa of phenolphthalein must be near 9.3 to function well as an indicator for a solution pH greater than 7. At equivalence points during the titration, the number of acid or base groups added to the solution is equivalent to the number of base/acid groups in the original unknown solution. We can calculate our unknown concentration or volume using the formula NaVa = NbVb, where N and V are the normality (mol/L) and volume of the acidic and basic solutions, respectively. It is important to convert from molarity (M) to normality (N) for polyprotic acids and polyvalent bases.

What is a quality of an ideal buffer?

A buffer should ideally be +/- 1 from the desired pH. So if the pH is 4 the buffer pka should only be 3 or 5

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied.

prisoner's dilemma

A common application of game theory is in the "prisoner's dilemma," where two prisoners have the option of staying silent or betraying each other by confessing. If both stay silent, they both have shorter prison sentences.

Formal negative sanction

A formal negative sanction is an official punishment for an action or behavior; for example, a customer who was violent with others may be banned from a store for life - this is a consequence enforced by a group or an organization.

stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

A stereotype is a prevalent but oversimplified idea or set of ideas about a certain group. This stereotyped group typically consists of people with similar characteristics (gender, race, sexual orientation, etc.). Stereotypes may sometimes be accurate, but since they are generalizations, even the most "harmless" stereotypes tend to obscure the nuances between individuals in the stereotyped group. In contrast, a prejudice is a preconceived notion about a person, group, or thing. Unlike stereotypes, prejudices specifically target people, groups, or things that the holder of the prejudice encounters. For example, if I believe that all people who wear red are loud and annoying, this constitutes a stereotype. If I actually see or hear about a person who is wearing red and form a negative opinion about that person, that is a prejudice. Importantly, prejudices are typically made with little to no experience with the prejudiced person or group, and they may be irrationally positive or negative. stigma, which refers to strong social disapproval and even outright rejection of a stigmatized group. Typically, stigma is reserved for people or groups who break important social norms. Unlike stereotype and prejudice, stigma is always a highly negative perception. Finally, discrimination involves action - the irrational, often negative treatment of a person or group as a result of prejudice. When this action is undertaken by an individual independent of larger organizations, it is termed individual discrimination. Often, though, discrimination is written into the laws, policies, and unwritten procedures of society. This is termed institutional discrimination. One example would be a mortgage policy that, due to its requirements, makes it particularly difficult for ethnic minorities to obtain loans.

A person often observes individuals engage in violent actions that yield positive social results. If this person develops the belief that violence effectively solves problems and also becomes prone to violent behaviors, it would best support which personality theory perspective? A. Humanistic B. Social cognitive C. Behaviorist D. Biological

A. Humanistic The humanistic perspective is centered on the use of free will and achieving self-fulfillment, which would not apply in this case where a person adopts violent behaviors. B. Social cognitive The social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the role of both thinking and social learning in personality development. In this case, the person observes behaviors and their consequences, which shapes the person's subsequent beliefs and behaviors. C. Behaviorist The behaviorist perspective is related to external stimuli and their effects on observable behaviors. Because this scenario describes the development of a person's beliefs, which are not observable, the behaviorist perspective is not the best choice. D. Biological The biological perspective is based on biological inheritance, which does not describe this scenario that involves social learning.

Researchers would like to predict survey respondents' perceptions of the developments' impact on crime, using several characteristics of the respondents (e.g., age, ethnicity, gender). Which type of analysis should researchers use to identify the unique effect of each respondent characteristic, while controlling for other characteristics?

A. Paired samples t-test This test would be used if respondents had provided multiple measurements, for example, responding to the same survey at different points in time; however, in this study, participants responded to the question about crime only once. B. Independent samples t-test An independent samples t-test is conducted when researchers wish to compare mean values of two unrelated groups, and there are not two distinct groups in this study. C. Regression Regression is used to predict scores from independent variables. It allows researchers to identify the unique effects of independent variables while controlling for other independent variables. D. Pearson correlation coefficient A Pearson correlation coefficient is calculated to compare the association between two variables. It would not identify the unique effect of each characteristic.

Zoologists discover a new species of lizard with a low degree of sexual dimorphism. Which of the following behaviors would the researchers most expect to find exhibited by members of this species? A. Repetitive mating between monogamous pairs of lizards B. Helping by juvenile relatives of lizards with young offspring C. More complex courtship rituals than other, similar species D. Males building large, ornate nests to attract females

A. Repetitive mating between monogamous pairs of lizards Sexual dimorphism refers to the degree to which males and females resemble each other. A species with low sexual dimorphism contains males and females that look mostly identical. High sexual dimorphism signals intense competition for mates, while animals from species with low sexual dimorphism typically form pair bonds and mate for life.

Just a few decades ago, symptoms that characterize dysthymia were seen as a somewhat normal expression of negative emotions, especially under certain circumstances. Today, dysthymia is considered a medical condition that warrants specific treatments. Which concept describes this phenomenon? A. Sick role B. Paternalism C. Medicalization D. Epidemiology

A. Sick role A sick role is played by a person with an illness and includes certain expectations about how the person should behave. This example describes the identification of a medical condition rather than a role. B. Paternalism Paternalism describes a case in which a physician makes medical decisions on a patient's behalf, which is not described in this example. C. Medicalization Medicalization describes how society determines whether something is a medical condition, including how this may change over time. In this example, dysthymia symptoms were previously not considered to be a medical condition but are today, which reflects medicalization. D. Epidemiology The field of epidemiology includes the study of how often and why illnesses occur in certain populations. It does not include the identification of medical conditions, which is described in this example.

Parallel Play

An example of parallel play may be your child imitating what a playmate is doing while not seeming to interact with him directly. If the playmate is playing with blocks, your toddler may decide to play with blocks, too. Parallel play - 2-3 years

Which of the following results is LEAST likely to occur through substitution mutation to the DNA sequence AGTCATA via methylation or deamination? A. AATCATA B. AGTCGTA C. AGTAATA D. AGTTATA

AGTAATA This question is asking us to determine the least likely mutation. Methylation and deamination cannot convert a purine to a pyrimidine or vice versa, because purines and pyrimidines differ based on whether they have a 1-ring structure (pyrimidines) or a 2-ring structure (purines), and the loss or addition of a single functional group (as in (de)methylation or (de)amination) is insufficient to convert between these very different structures. Furthermore, in addition to being able to predict this through general knowledge, the passage confirms this intuition by stating that purines are likely to mutate into other purines. Thus, this choice is correct as it depicts a mutation from cytosine (a pyrimidine) to adenine (a purine). For reference, the purines and pyrimidines are shown below.

Misconception about delta G and ATP

ATP is not necessarily produced by all spontaneous reactions (ΔG < 0).

Activation-synthesis theory

Activation-synthesis theory states that dreams don't actually mean anything. Instead, dreams are merely electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories. The theory posits that humans construct dream stories after they wake up, in an attempt to make sense of it all.

actor-observer bias

Actor-observer bias is the tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal causes, while attributing our own behavior to external causes. In other words, actors explain their own behavior differently than how an observer would explain the same behavior

While the composition of oxygen and nitrogen in air does not change with altitude, the decreasing temperature at high altitude does change the percent H2O. Assuming constant relative humidity, which of the following can be asserted about the total grams of H2O in a given volume of air at 3000 m above sea level versus at sea level?

Air has significantly less mass of H2O per unit volume at 3000 m above sea level. In most cases, the solubility of ionic substances in water increases with temperature, while the opposite pattern is observed for gases. This is because higher temperatures provide gases with more kinetic energy that they can use to escape the solution. Additionally, pressure favors the solubility of gases.

Peptide bond (Q 39 Bio)

Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, which involve the formation of an amide via the condensation of the -COOH group of one amino acid with the -NH2 group of another. This is technically a condensation reaction, as it results in the production of a water molecule. Peptide bonds are quite stable under intercellular conditions, due in part to resonance stabilization; in addition to the form with a C=O double bond and a C-NH2 single bond, a resonance structure with a C-O− single bond and a C=N+H2 double bond exists. An important consequence of this resonance structure is that peptide bonds are planar and do not rotate freely, which helps contribute to the structural stability of three-dimensional polypeptide structures. Peptide bonds are broken through hydrolysis, which is simply the reverse of the condensation reaction through which a peptide bond is formed. The hydrolysis of peptide bonds is energetically favorable but is extremely slow under physiological conditions. For this reason, the breaking of peptide bonds (i.e., the destruction of the primary structure of a protein) is generally accomplished by specific enzymes in living cells.

analogous structures vs homologous structures

Analogous body parts share a common function, but not structure (results from convergent evolution). Homologous structures occur in organisms with the same shared ancestor, and the structures may have different functions. Analogous structures serve similar functions but arise in organisms that are not closely related and do not share the same ancestor. Homologous structures share a similar embryonic origin; analogous organs have a similar function. For example, the bones in the front flipper of a whale are homologous to the bones in the human arm. These structures are not analogous. The wings of a butterfly and the wings of a bird are analogous but not homologous

Anomie theory

Anomie is when the norms break down. All of a sudden, the rules start to become less rigid, with some shades of gray. For example, during WWII, there were norms that women had to stay at home while men work.

When calculating the amount of product formed during alcohol fermentation, one mole of ethanol is equivalent to what volume of CO2(g) measured at STP? C6H12O6 → 2CO2 + 2CH3CH2OH Reaction 1

Ans: 22.4 L I chose 11.4 because I was thinking that in question one glucose forms 2 ethanol to 2 CO2, so we would divide 22.4 in half. BUT THAT IS WRONG. You have to look at the ratios- it's a 2:2 ratio aka 1:1. If it was (2:1) (ethanol:CO2) then it would be 11.4.

The hemoglobin-oxygen (Hb-O2) dissociation curve at high altitude (red) has a distinct shape from that at atmospheric pressure (black). Which of the following best explains the sigmoidal shape of the curves? (BP FL 2 C/P Q3)

Answer: Homotropic regulation by oxygen occurs. Homotropic regulation means the things binding to the enzyme are identical and each molecule binding to one subunit affects the binding affinity of another of the SAME molecule to another subunit of the enzyme. Hemoglobin has 4 subunits and O2 binds to them and cooperates in a way that helps binding to other subunits. When you see a S shaped curve this is indicative of multiple sites of binding of a molecule to an enzyme (allosteric regulation). Think of like acid base chem when you have a titration curve and it is sigmoidal shaped for polyprotic titrations. Just like how that means multiple hydrogens involved, in enzymes this means multiple molecules binding to an enzyme affect the subsequent binding of other molecules. Multiple of the SAME molecule binding (i.e 4 O2s for each Hb subunit) is allosteric homotropic regulation, and multiple DIFFERENT molecules binding is allosteric heterotropic regulation

What do you need in order to reduce a sugar?

Any reducible sugar will have an hemiacetal group (which is a carbon attached to an -OR and an -OH) A hemiacetal form is thus a reducing sugar. In contrast, acetal forms (glycosides) are not reducing sugars, since with base present, the acetal linkage is stable and is not converted to the aldehyde or hemiacetal. Glucose is a reducing sugar. Sucrose is not!

When does nondisjunction occur in meiosis?

Anywhere there is anaphase

Adjusting to a new culture is challenging. Berry's 4 acculturation strategies are assimilation, separation, marginalization and integration

Assimilation People who consider their culture of origin to not be important and who want to identify and interact mainly with the new culture are said to be using an assimilation strategy. (upper right quadrant of the table) Separation People who value their heritage culture and do not want to learn about the new culture fall in the lower left quadrant of the table. These people are adopting a separation strategy to acculturation. Marginalization People who neither identify with their heritage culture nor with the new culture are pursuing a marginalization acculturation strategy. (lower right quadrant) Integration (Biculturalism) People who seek to maintain their heritage culture and learn from and interact with the new culture are considered to be using the acculturation strategy of integration, or bicultural strategy. (upper left quadrant)

Assimilation

Assimilation is the cognitive process of making new information fit in with your existing understanding of the world. Essentially, when you encounter something new, you process and make sense of it by relating it to things that you already know.

Attrition bias

Attrition bias can happen when participants drop out of a study over time, which systematically affects the results.

Primary groups and secondary groups

Primary groups have long-lasting, deep connections among members, and secondary groups are more superficial and short-lived.

During the anterior drawer test, the joint translation occurs in 0.20 s. What is the average velocity of the talus during translation? Given that the mean anterior-drawer translation was 5.7 mm.

This is a straight forward application of v= d/t v = 5.7 mm / 0.2 s which is approximately 2.9 * 10 ^-2

Harry Harlow

Baby monkeys prefer attachment over food/nutrition!!! They operationalized attachment using a "cloth" mother that was warm and fuzzy. bred monkeys for experiments; monkeys prefer cloth mother over wire mother even if wire mother had food. When monkeys from these experiments matured they demonstrated aggressive behavior as adults

Belief perseverance

Belief perseverance is the tendency for us to hold on to our pre-existing beliefs, despite being presented with evidence that contradicts our beliefs.

Question 28 In an adult, which of the following cell types is LEAST likely to enter a programmed G0 phase of the cell cycle? A. Liver cells B. Kidney cells C. Epithelial cells D. Neurons

C. Epithelial cells For this question, we need to know what the G0 phase (shown below along with the rest of the cell cycle) entails. This is the state that a cell will enter if it does not need to divide. Epithelial cells comprise the skin and the linings of the organs, so they undergo rapid cell divisions in order to replace the damaged cells.

Determining orbital hybridization

Count the number of atoms connected to it (atoms - not bonds!) Count the number of lone pairs attached to it. Add these two numbers together. If it's 4, your atom is sp3. If it's 3, your atom is sp2. If it's 2, your atom is sp. (If it's 1, it's probably hydrogen!) 6 electrons produce a sp3d2 hybridization

In which of the following molecules does the carboxylic acid functional group have the highest Ka?

CH3CF2COOH A higher Ka is associated with stronger acidity. Adding electron-withdrawing functional groups (like fluorine atoms) provides inductive stabilization of the conjugate base. This occurs through the σ-framework and pulls electron density away from the acidic functional group, as shown below. The increased stabilization of the conjugate base increases the acidity of the compound. Inductive effects increase if the electron-withdrawing groups are closer to the acidic functional group and if more of them are present. Therefore, choice A is the most acidic.

Causation bias

Causation bias reflects a tendency to infer cause-and-effect relationships that do not exist. This question does not include asking participants to explain a relationship, so it cannot describe causation bias.

cohort study vs case control vs cross sectional

Cohort Study: you recruit your sample size BASED ON THEIR EXPOSURE, and then you follow up to see if they develop an outcome (ex: recruit individuals based on their exposure to physical activity and follow up on their outcome of cardiovascular disease) Case Control: you recruit your sample size BASED ON THEIR OUTCOME, and then you go back and see what they were exposed to (ex: you recruit 100 lung cancer patients bc lung cancer is the outcome. Then you interview them to ask how often they were exposed to some exposure, such as second hand smoke) Cross-Sectional: you recruit your sample sized based on BOTH exposure and outcome, simultaneously. Less of an analytical study and more of an observational study. This is why cross sectional studies are referee to as "A SNAPSHOT OF THE POPULATION". (ex: you do a survey to see the percentage of people in a community who have lung cancer and were exposed to second hand smoke. It gives you a brief understanding of the population)

Content validity

Content validity refers to whether a measure assesses what researchers intend for it to assess. Face validity and content validity are similar in that they both evaluate how suitable the content of a test is. The difference is that face validity is subjective, and assesses content at the surface level.

Cultural relativism

Cultural relativism: the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture. Judge and understand another culture from within their culture it's the principle that a person's beliefs and health behaviors should be understood in the context of their own culture.

(Q 50 C/P) Delta H of a reaction can be found using the Hess' law:

Delta H rxn = Delta H of products - reactants. Any negative delta H rxn will be exothermic, and vice versa.

Based on Figure 1, adding salt to water causes the boiling point of the water to:

Dissolved salts reduce water's vapor pressure (Figure 1b) and melting point as well as the solubility of aqueous gases. Decrease in vapor pressure = more heat is needed for pressure (vapor) to equal atmospheric pressure for boiling to occur

distress vs eustress vs neustress

Distress is a negative type of stress that is detrimental to your health. It happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you in some way (physically or emotionally) and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat (I). Eustress is a positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging but motivating. Eustress is usually enjoyable (II)! Neustress is a neutral type of stress. Neustress happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you. For example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful, but your body doesn't perceive that stress as good or bad for you, so you aren't affected (III).

Catecholamines

Epinephrine and norepinephrine (also called adrenaline and noradrenaline) are tyrosine derivatives categorized as catecholamines and are synthesized in the adrenal medulla. Epinephrine is considered a hormone, while norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter. Both are released in response to stress.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism: the belief that one's group is of central importance and includes the tendency to judge the practices of other groups by one's cultural standards. Your own culture is better than someone elses

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence -Developed by Robert Sternberg, 3 components

Experiential intelligence- (also known as creative intelligence) the ability to familiarize oneself with new circumstances and form new concepts. For example: If you move to a foreign country and you are able to learn the new language, you are exhibiting experiential intelligence. Componential intelligence- (also known as analytical intelligence) the traditional idea of intelligence. Includes ability to logically reason and think abstractly. Also includes the ability to communicate and think mathematically. This type of intelligence can be evaluated by standard tests of intelligence (e.g. IQ tests). Contextual intelligence- (also known as practical intelligence, or "street smarts") this is the ability to apply one's knowledge base to the world around them. Example: You have learned that UV rays from the sun can give you skin cancer, so when the sunlight becomes intense, you move to sit in the shade.

External validity

External validity describes the degree to which the findings of a study are generalizable to a population as a whole. Typically, this involves issues regarding the size and representativeness of the sample.

Face validity

Face validity describes the extent to which a measure appears to assess what it is intended to assess—that is, more or less, the degree to which it "seems right" to participants and researchers. Facet validity, on the other hand, is not a type of validity (at least not one on the MCAT.)

At very low CTP concentrations, kinetic data fitted to the Michaelis-Menten equation predicts that the initial rate of the CCT-catalyzed reaction is most nearly what order with respect to CTP?

First order For an enzyme-catalyzed reaction with a very low initial substrate concentration, and where Km >> [S], the Michaelis-Menten equation may be approximated as V = Vmax [S] / Km, where Vmax / Km is a constant of the reaction. Under these conditions, the reaction is approximately first order with respect to S. This can be seen graphically in Figure 1, where at low initial CTP concentrations, the enzyme activity (and the reaction velocity to which it is proportional) increases in a roughly linear fashion with CTP concentration. A generic Michaelis-Menten curve is shown below. Note that at low substrate concentrations, the reaction approximates first-order kinetics, as described above. In contrast, at very high substrate concentrations (where the enzyme is nearly or entirely saturated), the reaction approximates zero-order kinetics, since reaction rate ceases to depend on substrate concentration.

folkway vs mores vs taboos

Folkway is like what normal people should do. If somebody always shook hands with their left hand, it would be weird. It wouldn't be immoral. It's just odd and not normal. A possible good strategy to remember here is when you say "folkway", it's like driveways or parkways and people use them all the time. It's a norm in society to use those things. So a folkway is something that's normal. Mores are a little bit more severe. It's something based on morals. Mores are norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated. Taboos are like a whole other level. It's really serious. These are things you can't even talk about or things you're not supposed to touch on. Racism can be more of a more. Taboo can be things like cannibalism, incest, or necrophilia. These are things you can't really talk about without not having people judging you for talking about them. It's a whole other class of scenarios there. Folkways are norms that govern everyday behavior. Health behaviors such as diet, exercise, and visiting doctors are examples of everyday behaviors. Folkways don't necessarily represent moral views, and are less strict than mores. Differences in individual health behaviors are unlikely to have moral significance in a society.

If the strong base solution used in the titration curve shown in Figure 2 was 0.10 M sodium hydroxide and the volume of the glycine solution titrated was 20.0 mL, what was the molarity of the glycine solution?A.0.075 MB.0.10 MC.0.13 MD.0.15 M

From Figure 2, the sharp increase in pH that occurs at 15 mL of added NaOH solution represents the equivalence point, at which the carboxylic acid group is fully neutralized. This can be used to calculate the concentration of the glycine solution, assuming a stoichiometric ratio of 1:1 with the sodium hydroxide. Strictly speaking, you should convert the volumes to liters, but as long as you keep both volumes in milliliters, the units will cancel out in the dimensional analysis (factor-label) calculation. 15 mL NaOH x [0.10 mole/L] x [1 glycine/1 NaOH] x [1/20 mL]This simplifies to:[15/20] x 0.10 = (3/4) x 0.10 = 0.075 moles/LT he second equivalence point occurs at a total volume of 30 mL of NaOH solution and represents the deprotonation of the amino group. This could also be used to calculate the molarity of the glycine solution, assuming a stoichiometric ratio of 1:2 with the sodium hydroxide.

general adaptation syndrome

General adaptation syndrome (GAS) describes the process your body goes through when you are exposed to any kind of stress, positive or negative. It has three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. If you do not resolve the stress that has triggered GAS, it can lead to physical and mental health problems.

General strain theory

General strain theory (GST) argues that strains or stressors increase the likelihood of negative emotions like anger and frustration. These emotions create pressure for corrective action, and crime is one possible response

In a follow-up experiment, two identical gurneys are placed side-by-side on a ramp with their wheels locked to eliminate spinning. Gurney 1 has a dummy placed on it to give it a total mass of 240 kg, while Gurney 2 is loaded with a dummy that makes its mass 200 kg overall. If the ramp has a coefficient of friction of μs, which gurney is more likely to slide down the ramp?

Gurney 1 and Gurney 2 are equally likely to slide. In order for the loaded gurney to slide down the ramp, the force pulling it to slide downward (mgsinƟ) must be greater than the static frictional force (μsFN = μsmgcosƟ). The net force on each loaded gurney is thus Fnet = (mgsinƟ) - (μsmgcosƟ). Since net force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration, we can rewrite this equation as ma = (mgsinƟ) - (μsmgcosƟ), where an acceleration greater than 0 means the loaded gurney will slide down the ramp. Mass is present in all terms and can be canceled, meaning that it is not a factor in whether the loaded gurney slides. Thus, both loaded gurneys have an equal likelihood of slipping down the ramp, regardless of the fact that they have different total masses.

Phosphorous acid, a common ingredient used for potable water treatment, has a molecular formula of:

H3PO3.

Write out the vessel pathway starting with the heart

Heart --> arteries --> arterioles --> capillaries --> venules --> veins ---> back to the heart

Huckel rule for aromaticity

His rule states that if a cyclic, planar molecule has 4n+2 π electrons, it is considered aromatic.

Which of the following is LEAST likely to be observed in a patient experiencing hyperventilation?

Hypoxia This question asks us to determine the effects of hyperventilation. During hyperventilation, there is a loss of CO2 and an increase in O2 in the blood. Hypoxia is another term for oxygen deprivation, which is the opposite of what would occur here. What I got wrong- I chose Increased hemoglobin O2 affinity. Loss of CO2 corresponds with increased hemoglobin affinity for O2. This is the same as saying the hemoglobin binding curve shifts left.

Based on passage information, which of the following are post-transcriptional modifications likely involved in the IAV life cycle? I. Splicing II. Polyadenylation III. Glycosylation

I and II only Paragraph 2 states that splicing is part of the IAV life cycle, and also states that IAV uses host machinery for other post-transcriptional modifications (I). Since IAV genomic material is synthesized in the nucleus, this most likely includes polyadenylation, which is needed to export mRNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm (II). III - WRONG Glycosylation is described in the passage, but it is a post-translational modification (III).

For the reaction below, which solvent will best promote an SN2 mechanism of reaction? A. H2O B. Methanol C. Acetone D. Toluene

I chose D, but it's not because SN2 like polar aprotic. D is non polar and H20 can hydrogen bond so this leaves us with B and C. The SN2 mechanism is favored by polar aprotic solvents, such as acetone or DMSO. The structure of acetone is shown below; note that it has a dipole moment ("polar"), but does not contain O-H or N-H bonds ("aprotic").

Which of the following objections to this study would NOT likely be raised by an ethics committee? I. Potentially harmful medication should not be given to otherwise healthy subjects. II. Necessary medication should not be denied to patients for the sake of research. III. All patients suffering from schizophrenia were unable to provide informed consent for this experimental protocol.

I, II, and III Administering potentially harmful medication to healthy volunteers is a common practice in research, and is only unacceptable if the patient does not give informed consent, or if the danger of the medicine clearly outweighs the potential benefits of the study (I). Likewise, the necessary medication is often denied to sick patients during clinical trials, and is only unacceptable if the patient has not given informed consent, or if the danger of withholding the medication outweighs the potential benefits of the study (II). Roman numeral III may seem like a more tempting objection, but we cannot necessarily assume that all, or even most patients, suffering from schizophrenia are unable to give informed consent. Based on paragraph 1, we know that the participants had "the right to make autonomous decisions based on free and informed consent" (III).

For researchers conducting a multi-year study, which of the following are advantages of measuring relative poverty rather than absolute poverty? I. Relative poverty is easier to measure than absolute poverty. II. Measuring relative poverty smooths out differences in data caused by historical events, such as recessions and natural disasters. III. Relative poverty is more likely to correspond to the needs of families.

II and III only Absolute poverty is simply an income cutoff; therefore, it is easier to measure than relative poverty, which requires researchers to calculate the income distribution for each year of their study (I). In a situation in which mean income is negatively impacted, such as a recession, measures of absolute poverty would indicate that there are more people below the poverty line than is typical. Absolute poverty is defined as the standard under which individuals are unable to satisfy their basic needs for survival, including water, clothing, food, shelter, and basic medicine. In contrast, relative poverty is a level of poverty relative to the rest of the population or one's social group. With a relative approach, the poverty line shifts with the income distribution, so a recession year can still be fairly compared in a time series with all other years. Because absolute poverty is an arbitrary measure, it doesn't necessarily correspond to changes in the cost of living. In fact, the US federal poverty line is much lower relative to present income today than it was 50 years ago (II). Due to variation in the standard of living across communities, relative poverty is also more likely to correspond to the overall needs of families beyond basic necessities (III).

Researchers compare a DNA sequence and an identical sequence of RNA where all thymines are replaced with uracil. Which of the following describes changes that they can expect? I. The uracil base will be heavier than the thymine base because of an extra methyl group. II. The thymine base will be heavier than the uracil base because of an extra methyl group. III. The carbohydrate ring in RNA is heavier than the carbohydrate ring in DNA. IV. The carbohydrate ring in DNA is heavier than the carbohydrate ring in RNA.

II and III only This question is asking us to determine the weight of a strand of genetic material that contains uracil instead of thymine. We are told in the passage that uracil can be formed from the direct deamination of cytosine, while thymine is formed from a deamination and a methylation. Therefore, thymine weighs more than uracil by one methyl group (II). The ribose ring of RNA will also be heavier than the deoxyribose ring of DNA because the DNA is "de-oxy," meaning it lacks the 2' hydroxyl group that is present on the ribose of RNA (III).

A principal of a high school seeks to establish rules and systems in the school that reflect a meritocracy. Which of the following goals must these systems achieve if the principal is to successfully establish a meritocracy? I. Outcome equality II. Skill equality III. Opportunity equality

III only A meritocracy is a society of people whose progress within the society is based on ability and talent rather than on class privilege or wealth. This requires that everyone be afforded the same opportunities to advance, yet only be rewarded based upon individual outcomes due to their individual talents and/or abilities, which can vary between persons (III).

implicit memory

Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory because it involves the storage of unconscious feelings and behaviors. Procedural memory, one type of implicit memory, is long-term storage that aids in the performance of routine tasks, for example, tying your shoes or riding a bike.

Darwin theory of emotion

In 1872, Darwin published The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, in which he argued that all humans, and even other animals, show emotion through remarkably similar behaviors. For Darwin, emotion had an evolutionary history that could be traced across cultures and species—an unpopular view at the time.

A student finishes an experiment involving several types of highly pathogenic bacteria. She wishes to dispose of the agar plates and micropipette tips she used. Which of the following procedures should she carry out? (Q 30 Bio BP FL)

In many clinical and research contexts, it is important to minimize the presence of unwanted bacteria and viruses. Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis are ways to do so. Sterilization refers to completely removing all living microorganisms and viruses from the surface of an inanimate object. One of the most common methods of sterilization is autoclaving, which involves subjecting a surface to saturated steam under high pressure at a temperature well over the boiling point of water. When correctly done, autoclaving will inactivate all bacteria, spores, fungi, and viruses, although prions (infectious misshaped proteins) may remain present. Other sterilization techniques include UV radiation, heat, extremely noxious chemicals, and filtration. In contrast, disinfection refers to the removal of most microorganisms, especially pathogenic microorganisms. Many disinfecting agents interfere with the cell walls of bacteria, although there are many different disinfecting agents with a wide range of mechanisms, so some disinfecting agents will be more effective against specific types of microorganisms than others. Bleach is one of the most common disinfectants, and 70% ethanol is another common option. Interestingly, 70% ethanol is more effective than 90+% ethanol because the presence of water in the more dilute ethanol mixture promotes entrance of the ethanol into the cell, meaning that its effects will be more widely distributed.

A student has just begun medical school and is seeing a patient with two third-year students. When the attending physician asks for the student's opinion on the diagnosis, the student states that he agrees with what the more advanced students already said. Which of the following best describes the most likely reason for his response? A. Informative pressure B. Normative pressure C. Conformity pressure D. Groupthink

Informative pressure Informative pressure is a subtype of conformity pressure. It occurs when an individual conforms his or her behavior to match that of the rest of a group out of the belief that the group is better informed and knows more than the individual. The medical student most likely believes that because he has only been in medical school a few weeks, the third-year students know more than he does. Normative pressure is a subtype of conformity pressure in which the individual knows that the others are incorrect, but still feels pressure to not dissent from the rest of the group. Since this pressure does not arise out of a belief that others know more, it is less likely than choice A based on this situation.

Ingratiation

Ingratiation is an attempt to get someone to like you in order to get them to comply with your requests.

internal vs external locus of control

Internal locus of control is the idea that you are in control of the situation. I will do well on this exam because I have the knowledge and the ability to succeed. An external locus of control would be that I do not know if I will do well because it depends on how the test takers write the exam.

Internal validity

Internal validity refers to the degree to which causal conclusions can be drawn from a study, which can include accounting for potential confounding variables. Adding the additional measurement of pre-intervention condom use and controlling for that variable statistically would considerably improve the degree to which one could make conclusions about how Truvada use affected participants' behavior.

What's the frequency of a gamma photon?

It is 10^19. Remember that. This came up in question 52, where you were asked to find the frequency of the photon. Mistake I did was just using E=hf , which wasn't even an answer choice. You had to multiply it by the ev which was given in the passage---> so it was actually 1.6*10^-19 J times 140,000 ev/ 6.6*10^-34

kinship of affinity

Kinship of affinity refers to? When individuals are related by choice, such as marriage, rather than through blood, such as the other choices.

LiAlH4

Lithium aluminum hydride is a very strong reducing agent. It will reduce aldehydes, ketones, esters, and carboxylic acids to alcohols, and amides and nitriles to amines. It will also open epoxides.

C/P Q 51 If sodium sulfate was added to the mixture containing silver ions and the yellow precipitate, what might be observed after a significant amount of time elapsed?

Little to no silver sulfate formation, because the Ksp of silver sulfate is very large compared to the Ksp of the yellow precipitate. This question is asking us to find a possible outcome and explanation for the outcome when adding sodium sulfate to the silver/yellow precipitate mix. This means we need to choose the answer that has a valid outcome and a proper explanation for that outcome. The Ksp, or solubility product, of a substance is defined as the product of each of the substance's dissolved ion concentration raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient. For silver sulfate, the dissolution reaction is: Ag2SO4(s) → 2 Ag+(aq) + SO42- (aq) which means that the Ksp equation is: Ksp =[Ag+]2[SO42-] A large Ksp suggests that a substance is more soluble than a substance with a lower Ksp. It is not certain, given that the coefficients might be different and might affect the power to which the ion concentrations are raised. However, it provides a better possible explanation than the other answer choice options (and the phrasing of the question prompt, using the words "might explain," notes that there is some uncertainty involved).

Conn's syndrome, also known as primary hyperaldosteronism, is most likely to cause which symptom?

Low blood potassium This question is asking you to recall the effects of aldosterone and how it achieves those effects. Aldosterone increases H2O and Na+ reabsorption from the kidney while exchanging K+ ions for Na+ ions. The triggers for and results of aldosterone secretion are shown below. I chose hypotension- it's hypertension u dumb nut

How would you convert m^3 to cm^3?

Mistake I've made before- I saw that centi means 10^-2 and converted that way...but it's cubed. so the conversion from cm to m might be 10^-2 BUT cm^3 to m^3 would be 10^-6. Like (10^-2)^3

Motion parallax

Motion parallax refers to the fact that objects moving at a constant speed across the frame will appear to move a greater amount if they are closer to an observer (or camera) than they would if they were at a greater distance.

Which of the following statements regarding different types of neurons is most accurate?

Motor neurons are efferent neurons, sensory neurons are afferent neurons, and interneurons are neither. This question is asking us to determine the accuracy of statements about different types of neurons. You should know that motor neurons carry signals outward, so they are efferent neurons. You should also know that sensory neurons carry signals inward, so they are afferent neurons. Interneurons are neurons that connect afferent and efferent neurons, so they fall into neither of the two categories. If this is still unclear, take a look at the diagram below, which depicts a standard reflex arc. Note that the motor neuron synapses on the effector muscle, which tells us that it must carry signals away from the spinal cord (efferent) and toward the muscle. In contrast, the sensory neuron in this diagram extends from the spinal cord to the peripheral receptors. Sensory neurons must transmit sensory information, and the most logical direction to transmit this information is from the periphery of the body to the central nervous system. Thus, these neurons must bring sensory information toward the spinal cord, so they are afferent. The interneuron in this diagram is found entirely within the spinal cord, so it travels neither away (efferent) nor toward (afferent) the spinal cord.

Myopia uses _____ lens while hyperopia uses ______ lens:

Myopia aka nearsightedness uses a diverging lens for correction. While for hyperopia, aka farsightedness, uses converging lenses

When an odorant molecule binds to olfactory receptors, the cell transduces the information into an electrical signal that travels to the brain for processing. Which of the following accurately describes the state of the voltage-gated channels on this cell during the relative refractory period?

Na+ channels are activated, and K+ channels are activated. ***Sodium channels are only INACTIVATED during the absolute refractory period****

Newton's Laws

Newton's first law is a statement about inertia. It states that within a reference frame, an object remains at rest or at a constant velocity unless an external force acts upon it. Essentially, this law captures the insight that forces of resistance and friction make moving objects slow down and stop. It can be summarized as Fnet = 0 at equilibrium. Newton's second law defines force. It states that the total sum of forces acting on an object is equivalent to its mass times its acceleration. This is the familiar equation Fnet = ma. Newton's third law is about how forces come in pairs. It states that when body A exerts a force on body B, body B exerts an equal and opposite force on body A: FAB = −FBA. For example, the earth exerts a gravitational force on your body, which is responsible for your weight, but your body also exerts a gravitational force on the earth. In contrast to a common misconception, weight (caused by a gravitational force) and the normal force do not form a Newton's third law pair, because they are caused by different underlying forces and do not always have to be equal.

Can affinity be altered by changing the concentration of the reactants?

No. This is from Q24. Even if we add more transport protein, the affinity will not change. If the affinity is 0.5 meaning it will bind half the time, just because we add more of the substrate.

Do enzymes make reactions happen more often?

No. This is from Q48 from Bio section of the exam. Enzymes will speed up reactions by lowering the activation energies BUT it can never change it's thermodynamics, via enzyme alone (like if a reaction is thermodynamically unfavorable- an enzyme alone can not change its fate. ONLY if it's coupled with a favorable reaction (like ATP) can we change that) A reaction can have 2 possible products: kinetic vs thermodynamic product. Kinetic product = lower activation energy, formed preferentially at lower temperature. Thermodynamic product = lower (more favorable/negative) ΔG, formed preferentially at higher temperature. Thermodynamics tells you whether a reaction will occur. In other words, whether it is spontaneous or not. Kinetics tells you how fast a reaction will occur. Catalysts/enzymes alter kinetics, not thermodynamics. Catalysts/enzymes increase k (rate constant, kinetics), but does not alter Keq (equilibrium).

Normative influence

Normative influence is an influence to conform with the expectations of others to gain social approval.

Spreading activation

Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory

In the first trial of the PCR procedure, only one primer was added to the mixture. What was the most likely outcome during this trial? A. Both of the DNA strands were linearly amplified. B. Only one strand of the DNA was exponentially amplified. C. Only one strand of the DNA was linearly amplified. D. PCR amplification was unable to proceed.

Only one strand of the DNA was linearly amplified. When performing PCR, if only one primer is added to the mixture, then that primer will bind to one of the strands and initiate replication of that strand to produce the complementary strand. For one double-stranded template DNA molecule, after one cycle, we are left with two of the complementary strand while still having only one of the strands where the primer binds. In the next cycle, the primer again binds to the strand to which it is complementary. Therefore, only the complementary strand will be replicated again; this time we have three of the complementary strand. As you can see here, one of the strands is being replicated linearly (1 → 2 → 3 →...n), while the other strand is not replicated at all. After 30 cycles, for example, assuming that we began with one copy of each strand, we would have 30 copies of one strand and only one copy of the other. This differs from PCR that includes two primers (which is typical), where we would expect exponential amplification (2^30 copies of each strand).

blood-brain barrier

Only water, certain gases (e.g. oxygen), and lipid-soluble substances can easily diffuse across the barrier (other necessary substances like glucose can be actively transported across the blood-brain barrier with some effort). amino acids can also pass

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is a theory of learning that focuses on changes in an individual's observable behaviors. In operant conditioning, new or continued behaviors are impacted by new or continued consequences. Operant conditioning owes a lot of its foundations to the experiments of B.F Skinner. There are five basic processes in operant conditioning: positive and negative reinforcement strengthen behavior; punishment, response cost, and extinction weaken behavior.

optimal arousal theory

Optimal arousal theory posits that there is an ideal level of anxiety or stress that leads to peak performance. This level is different for every individual, and can change depending on the task at hand. Too much or too little arousal will lead to suboptimal performance

PPP

Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) plays a critical role in regulating cancer cell growth by supplying cells with not only ribose-5-phosphate but also NADPH for detoxification of intracellular ROS, reductive biosynthesis, and ribose biogenesis. PPP parallels glycolysis

KMnO4

Potassium permanganate is a very strong oxidizing agent. It will oxidize primary alcohols and aldehydes to carboxylic acids, secondary alcohols to ketones, form diols from alkenes, and oxidatively cleave carbon-carbon multiple bonds.

According to research conducted on classical conditioning, what is the most effective method of creating an association between a CS and US?

Present the CS and then the US. Classical conditioning is most successful when the CS acts as a cue for the US, which happens when the CS is presented first.

primary aging vs secondary aging

Primary aging is the inevitable loss of function that occurs no matter what we do. * Secondary aging is the loss of function accelerated by lifestyle and other factors.

Which of the following processes would NOT be a likely target for anti-IAV therapy?

Proton influx via ion channels in the cell membrane Paragraph 2 describes proton influx through ion channels in the endosomal membrane, and gives no indication that proton influx via ion channels in the cell membrane is involved in the IAV life cycle. Viruses don't use mitochondria for replication... so stopping ur mitochondria would kill u first

Selenocysteine is a non-standard amino acid that is present in all domains of life. It has the structure of cysteine, but the sulfur atom is replaced with selenium. The structure of selenocysteine is shown below: What is the absolute configuration of the alpha carbon in selenocysteine?

R When assigning an absolute configuration, the lowest-priority group is facing into the plane of the page. In this case it is hydrogen, which is already into the plane of the page. Priorities are then assigned based on the atomic number of the neighbor atoms attached to the central carbon atom, proceeding outward in the case of a tie. Here, the atomic numbers for N > C = C, so N is the highest priority. Then, Se > O to break the tie on the two carbons, so the Se-bearing carbon is second in priority. Since there is a hydrogen (not shown) facing back into the page, the carbonyl carbon is third priority. Finally, the rotational path drawn from 1st to 3rd priority is clockwise. Since the lowest priority neighbor, H, is directed into the plane of the page, this is the R configuration, as shown. If the H had been oriented out of the plane of the page (i.e. if the Se-bearing carbon was facing back into the page with a dashed line instead of a wedge), the answer would have been reversed to S.

Which of the following types of electromagnetic radiation would have the shortest wavelength?

Radiation that ejects an electron from an sp orbital This question asks us about the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) that ejects an electron from an atom. Shorter-wavelength EMR (such as γ rays) carries much more energy than longer-wavelength EMR (such as radio waves). Therefore, we must look for the answer choice that involves the highest-energy EMR. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the harder it is to eject. Because sp-hybridized orbitals have the most s character of all of the answer choices, they contain the electrons that are the most difficult to eject

reciprocal determinism

Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment. In this scenario, the skeptic does not believe in the supernatural power of a medium, but attends multiple séances where they may see evidence that could soften their views. The behavior of attending séances, in conjunction with the social environment of others who attend the séances, could cause the skeptic's views on supernatural phenomena to shift.

Reconstructive bias

Reconstructive bias is a type of bias related to memory. Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress. The physicians may not have accurately remembered what they witnessed during medical school.

What's a magnetic field of a neuron?

Remember that the inside of cells are negative while the outside is positive. And magnetic fields go from positive to negatives, so in other word, the arrows should be from outside of the cell to in.

Researcher bias

Researcher bias occurs when the researcher's beliefs or expectations influence the research design or data collection process. Researcher bias occurs when a researcher has a systematic influence on the results of a study. This concern can be mitigated using strategies such as blinding (e.g., an assessor is unaware of the study's hypotheses and treatment conditions).

Response bias

Response bias is inaccurate responding by participants who provide self-reports in a study. The physicians in this study were reporting on what they observed, which could be affected by response bias.

Role strain vs role conflict

Role strain refers to the stress caused by the demands of a single role, while role conflict occurs when the demands of multiple roles clash. Both can lead to stress and anxiety, and it is important to understand how they might arise.

Self-actualization

Self-actualization is the final stage in the linear growth of an individual. Maslow believed that in order to achieve this state of personal fulfilment, the person must first satisfy the preceding needs (i.e. physiological, safety, love/belonging, and esteem, in that order).Mar

Assuming the salt is sodium chloride, what is the approximate molar concentration of salt in ocean water if the density of ocean water is 1.028 kg/L? (the salt levels in hypersaline environments exceed those found in ocean water (which contains 3.5% dissolved salts, by mass))

So the density of water is 1,028 g/ L. Then we know 3.5% of it is from salt. 1,028 * 0.035 = about 35 g. NaCL's molar mass is 58.5 grams. Thus the moles is 35/58.5 around 0.6. 0.6 moles / L = 0.6 molar concentration. Answer was 0.62

Social cognitive theory

Social cognitive theory asserts that people learn by watching others, and if they see that someone is rewarded for a behavior, they are more likely to behave that way, too.

Social desirability bias

Social desirability bias refers to our tendency to respond in ways that we feel are more appropriate or socially acceptable to others. Even if untruthful. Social desirability bias is most likely to affect research on cultural relativism and ethnocentrism because there are social norms about interacting with and accepting people from other cultures, so participants may feel pressure to respond in socially acceptable ways.

Socialization

Socialization is the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need as productive citizens. The agents of socialization are comprised of the groups and people who influence personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours.

Which of the following compounds is an amphiprotic species? A. Acetic acid, HC2H3O2 B. Sodium acetate, NaC2H3O2 C. Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 D. Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3

Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 An amphiprotic species is one that can act as an acid or a base. Sodium bicarbonate dissolves in aqueous solution to produce a strong base (NaOH), which completely dissociates, and carbonic acid, a weak acid. The solution is therefore basic. The bicarbonate ion, HCO3-, has an acidic proton, so it can act as a Bronsted-Lowry acid by loss of a hydrogen ion forming carbonate, or it can act as a B-L base by accepting a hydrogen ion to form carbonic acid, H2CO3.

Researchers are planning to conduct a study, using a broader sample of American college students, to explore cultural differences in the expression of emotion by assessing participants' facial expressions. What result are researchers likely to NOT observe?

Some cultures display fear and happiness differently from others. Since fear and happiness are part of universal emotions, it would be expected for different cultures to show them using the same facial expressions. As such, it is very unlikely that the researchers would have seen different facial expressions for these emotions.

How do you determine the maximum number of stereoisomers a molecule has?

Stereoisomers = 2^n, where n is the number of chiral centers. Remember that chiral means that it has 4 different groups attached to it. Double bonds can never be chiral!

What is squalene a precursor for?

Steroids

stimulus motives are

Stimulus motives are innate and not necessary for survival. For example, imagine a cat who lives inside an apartment. One of the cat's stimulus motives is the desire to explore his environment (for example, walk around the apartment, jump inside cupboards or cabinets, etc.). This is not necessary for survival — the cat could easily survive simply by sitting in one place and moving only to acquire food or water. Instead, this motive can be thought of as primarily for the cat's stimulation or entertainment.

Subjective norms

Subjective norms refer to the belief that an important person or group of people will approve and support a particular behaviour. Subjective norms are determined by the perceived social pressure from others for an individual to behave in a certain manner and their motivation to comply with those people's views.

Test-retest bias

Test-retest bias can happen when individuals complete the same assessment more than once, which affects their responses on subsequent assessments. Bias is a known problem with this type of reliability test, due to: Feedback between tests, Participants gaining knowledge about the purpose of the test, so they are more prepared the second time around.

The Cannon-Bard theory

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion states that stimulating events trigger feelings and physical reactions that occur at the same time. For example, seeing a snake might prompt both the feeling of fear (an emotional response) and a racing heartbeat (a physical reaction). According to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, the experience of an emotion is accompanied by physiological arousal. According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, our experience of an emotion is the result of the arousal that we experience.

Affect heuristic

The affect heuristic is the process of making a judgment based on emotions that are evoked.

Availability heuristic

The availability heuristic describes our tendency to use information that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions about the future. You start spending more money than you should each week on lottery tickets. After seeing news reports about people losing their jobs, you might start to believe that you are in danger of being laid off. Or judging an event to not be risky because friends have not suffered consequences

Availability heuristic vs Representativeness heuristic

The availability heuristic involves reasoning about the probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. A classic example is when specific events are over-represented in the media and then influence perceptions of how common those events truly are. The representativeness heuristic involves reasoning about the probability of an event based on what is viewed as a prototypical example of a category. It often corresponds to stereotypes and expected profiles of people in certain groups. In this question, participants judged individuals based on their perceptions of groups of people; they associated a particular social class with a particular race, which influenced their evaluations of individuals. This describes how stereotypes can impact judgments through the representativeness heuristic.

gambler's fallacy

The classic example of the gambler's fallacy occurs when someone flips a coin. If the head lands face up, say, four or five times, most people will believe that the coin will land on the tails side next time, occasionally even arguing that the repeated "heads" coin increases the likelihood of a future "tails" coin.

cognitive appraisal theory of emotion

The cognitive appraisal theory asserts that your brain first appraises a situation, and the resulting response is an emotion. According to this theory, the sequence of events first involves a stimulus, followed by thought, which then leads to the simultaneous experience of a physiological response and the emotion.

The functional theory of stratification

The functional theory of stratification provided by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore suggests that social inequalities are functional for society because they provide an incentive for the most talented individuals to occupy jobs that are essential to the orderly maintenance of a society. Functionalism: argues that social stratification is needed to sort individuals into different professions and to maintain a meritocratic system of rewards. Conflict theory: argues that stratification benefits certain groups more than others through rigid systems of mobility and change.

fundamental attribution error

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency people have to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior. Because of the fundamental attribution error, we tend to believe that others do bad things because they are bad people. For example, if a person is late to a meeting or likely to think this person must be irresponsible, they're disrespectful, they don't care about other people's time.

house money effect

The house money effect, which Thaler and Johnson (1990) first propose and document based on experimental evidence, refers to a pattern whereby people tend to take on increased risk subsequent to a successful investment experience. That is, prior gains lead to greater risk taking in subsequent periods.

classical conditioning vs operant conditioning

The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning associates involuntary behavior with a stimulus while operant conditioning associates voluntary action with a consequence.

Parietal lobe

The parietal lobe integrates multiple inputs of sensory information, from spatial sense and navigation (proprioception) to temperature (thermoreceptors) and touch (mechanoreceptors).

A certain metabolic process in the liver produces NADH as a part of the process. If this process is upregulated, which of the following effects associated with gluconeogenesis is most likely to follow?

The rate of gluconeogenesis in the liver will decrease. The key to this question is that we do not know which process the question stem refers to; we only know that it produces NADH. We are given no reason to assume that this process is the same as that described in the question stem, in which "the conversion of lactate to pyruvate is coupled with the reduction of NAD+ to NADH." Since we cannot assume that this is the process being discussed, the only information available for our use is that this process is producing larger-than-usual amounts of NADH. On the MCAT, it is very important to think about the most direct effect of the situation at hand (here, increased NADH levels), instead of thinking about potential factors that could have caused this situation. In other words, assume that the situation in the question stem has already occurred, and we now need to think about what will happen next. If NADH levels have already been increased, then by Le Chatelier's Principle, further conversion of NAD+ to NADH will be suppressed. Therefore, the production of OAA and pyruvate (two important gluconeogenic substrates) will be decreased, since pyruvate production is coupled with the conversion of NAD+ to NADH, and since OAA is produced from pyruvate. Thus, the rate of glucose production via gluconeogenesis is expected to decrease.

theory of relative deprivation

The theory of relative deprivation (RD) is based on the concept that persons may feel deprived of some desirable thing relative to their own past, other persons or groups, or some other social category.

Fluid pressure changes with depth are assumed to be linear. Which statement best explains why this does not hold true for changes in atmospheric pressure?

The volume of a mass of air is not constant. Gases lack a fixed shape and volume. The lack of a fixed volume—or compressibility—is especially important because it means that the density of a given gas is not constant. Rather, if the gas is forced into a smaller container, its density will increase as its particles pack more closely together. Generally, a gas behaves more like an ideal gas at higher temperature and lower pressure, as the potential energy due to intermolecular forces becomes less significant compared with the particles' kinetic energy, and the size of the molecules becomes less significant compared to the empty space between them.

3 Core components of emotions

There are three core components of emotion - physiological arousal (how your body reacts to emotions, emotional information or stimuli), expressive displays (how you express your emotions), and subjective experiences (how you feel and interpret your emotions, which is extremely personal and subjective).

What is a quality of an ideal primer

There should be a good amount of G-C at either end of the primer. G-C have triple bonds, so it's more stable during PCR

Meiosis and mitosis

Think of Meiosis 2 is the same as mitosis. In meiosis 1 the diploid becomes haploid- meiosis 2 is like mitosis where haploid becomes more haploids

Which of the following cellular features is a structural component of the blood-brain barrier? A. Tight junctions B. Synapses C. Dendrites D. More than one of the above

Tight junctions The blood-brain barrier is primarily composed of endothelial cells with tight junctions (shown below) that prevent the movement of most solutes. Astrocytes also contribute to the function of the blood-brain barrier; however, these glial cells do not have dendrites or synapses, which are characteristic of neurons and their interconnections, respectively.

During the study discussed in the passage, different-sized circles were displayed before a shock was delivered to the participants. In the initial trials, the shock and the resulting fear are examples of which aspects of classical conditioning, respectively?

Unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response The shock is an unconditioned stimulus because it triggers a naturally-occurring response, and the fear is an unconditioned response that naturally occurs when presented with a shock.

Casinos maximize the amount of money that people are willing to put into slot machines by making sure that the slot machines pay out jackpots on a reinforcement schedule that is the most resistant to behavior extinction. These machines most likely use which reinforcement schedule?

Variable-ratio reinforcement schedules tend to produce the highest response rates that are the most resistant to extinction, which is exactly why casinos use them.

reliability vs validity

What is the difference between reliability and validity in psychology? Reliability is an examination of how consistent and stable the results of an assessment are. Validity refers to how well a test actually measures what it was created to measure.

cognitive dissonance

When attitudes don't align with behaviors, a person must change either attitude or behavior to get out of their state of cognitive dissonance. According to AAMC explanations, the person is more likely to change their attitude than their behavior. Example: Smoker smokes even though he believes it is very bad for your health. So he is experiencing a state of cognitive dissonance. To avoid cognitive dissonance, rather than change his behavior (stop smoking), he changes his attitude by downplaying the effects of smoking by saying "its bad for your health but not THAT bad" or even drastically change his attitude by saying "it can actually cause health benefits according to buzzfeed!"

How many moles of captopril were present in the original analyte solution tested? (Q 23 of C/P)

You find the equivalence point which was 7.5 mL. The M is already given to you (2*10^-2). You simply multiple the two to find the moles. which should be 0.15 mmoles.

flashbulb memory

a vivid, enduring memory associated with a personally significant and emotional event, often including such details as where the individual was or what he or she was doing at the time of the event.

foot-in-the-door technique

asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment In the foot-in-the-door (FITD) technique smaller requests are asked in order to gain compliance with larger requests, while door-in-the-face (DITF) works in the opposite direction, where larger requests are asked, with the expectation that it will be rejected, in order to gain compliance for smaller requests.

Conversion of pyruvate into glucose requires PEPCK, an enzyme present in:

both the mitochondria and the cytosol. This question requires that you have knowledge of PEPCK. Conversion of pyruvate to glucose requires its initial conversion into oxaloacetate, in a reaction catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase in the mitochondria. Oxaloacetate (OAA) is then decarboxylated and phosphorylated by cytosolic or mitochondrial forms of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK). After transport of either OAA in the form of malate or PEP directly from the mitochondria, the remainder of gluconeogenesis takes place in the cytosol.

ph group means

phenyl group (aka a benzene substituent)

The serial position effect vs primary effect vs recency effect

explains that we are least likely to remember the information in the middle of a list, and most likely to remember what was listed first and last. The primacy effect is a phenomenon in which we are more likely to recall information that was listed in the beginning (as opposed to the information mentioned in the middle of a list. The recency effect explains that we are also more likely to recall information that was listed last.

The most appropriate way to explain the impact of the short-term stress exposure used in the experiment on risky decision-making would be to cite:

general adaptation syndrome. This is a classic MCAT question where we need to match the general activity/details of the passage to some psychological or sociological concept. We need to find the answer that encompasses the effects of short-term stress on the psychological state of the individual (because the question asks about the impact on decision making). General adaptation syndrome was introduced by Hans Selye to describe the body's short-term and long-term reactions to stress. Selye thought that the general adaptation syndrome involved two major systems of the body, the nervous system and the endocrine system. He then went on to outline what he considered as three distinctive stages in the syndrome's evolution. He called these stages the alarm reaction (AR), the stage of resistance (SR), and the stage of exhaustion (SE).

myeloid stem cells

give rise to red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and platelets

id, ego, superego

id: the fundamental and innate desires and drives a person is born with. An entirely unconscious system which values only the satisfaction of its urges. Completely unorganized and largely impenetrable to conscious thought. Ego: The largely conscious part of a mind which recognizes that immediate satisfaction now is not always best in the longterm. Develops after id and is largely conscious and organized, interfacing with the id below the point of unconsciousness. Supergo: The internalized rules and norms of society which affect the other two parts of the mind. Both conscious and unconscious. Taught by parents, teachers, and society at large. I think of it like this: The id is yourself in a vacuum with only your own wants. The ego is those desires in contact with the physical world, its limitations, and its opportunities. The superego is both those concepts in contact with the rules and norms which bind society. Each area informs and interacts with each other, though only the interactions between ego and superego can take place in a conscious mind. I know the ego can be described as the mediator between the id and superego, wanting to satisfy the id's impulses in a way that is acceptable under the constraints of the superego.

Self-serving bias

interpreting that one's positive experiences with substances are due to positive personality traits and dismissing negative experiences with substances as due to external factors

More complete fractionation of proteins using an SEC column could be achieved by using a:

longer column. As with other forms of chromatography, increasing the column length will enhance the resolution of the column, leading to more completion fractionation by SEC. This is because the matrix material provides the physical means of separating the proteins. If the proteins come in contact with a longer length of matrix, the differences in retention forces experienced by the proteins will have a greater cumulative influence on the migration of the proteins, improving the differences in their retention times.

Malthusian theory

population grows exponentially and will eventually outgrow its resources. War, famine, disease bring the population back down to a sustainable level (positive checks). Population control (preventive checks) such as later marriage also keeps the population from outgrowing its resources.

total internal reflection

the complete reflection that takes place within a substance when the angle of incidence of light striking the surface boundary is less than the critical angle

angle of incidence (Q 44 of C/P) + index of refraction

the lowest index of refraction can be in 1, n = speed in vacuum/ speed in the medium. It can not be faster than speed in a vacuum... when light enters a denser medium it bends towards the normal line

Q48 (C/P BP FL1) - the more energy required the ____ the rate

the more energy required, the slower the rate of formation. In terms of enthalpy, the lower the Delta H of formation, the faster it forms

primacy effect

the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence.

negativity bias

the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to see objects as serving only the purpose they were designed for.

A mass of 10 kg is dropped from a height of 20 m. Ignoring air resistance, what is the maximum speed it achieves?

vf^2 = v0 ^2 + 2ad v0 = 0 a = 10 m^2/s d = 20 m vf^2 = 2 (10* 20) vf^2 = 400 vf = 20 m/s

operant conditioning thinning vs fading

• THINNING: (operant) changing the schedule of reinforcement from continuous to intermittent after acquisition to prevent satiation;• FADING: (operant) gradual reduction in prompting when teaching a new behavior In operant conditioning, thinning refers to reducing the frequency of rewards for a given action. Changing the reinforcement schedule from variable to continuous is the opposite of thinning, as it reflects increasing the frequency of rewards (from variable to continuous) rather than decreasing the frequency of rewards.