FMSC332 FINAL EXAM
Creative intelligence
- Ability to generate ideas and to deal successfully with novelty (sometimes referred to as divergent thinking) - Ability to find as many possible solutions to a problem as possible rather than one "correct" solution
Musical intelligence
- Ability to make music - Careers: Composers and musicians
Classification
- Ability to organize objects into hierarchical conceptual categories - Ex: 20 questions, children will begin to work their way down from larger to smaller categories, making eliminations along the way "It is alive?", "Is it an animal?", "Is it a plant?", etc. - Ex 2: Asking children if there are more wooden beads or brown beads, they will understand that all the beads classify as wooden, just some of them are white and some of them are brown
Seriation
- Ability to put objects in order by height, weight, or some other quality - Ex: Arranging sticks by length
Logical-mathematical intelligence
- Ability to reason about abstract concepts - Careers: Mathematicians and scientists
Processing speed
- Efficiency with which one can perform cognitive tasks - Affects attention - Likely related to the increase in the efficiency of communication between neurons within the brain
What school transition is considered the most stressful?
- Elementary to middle school - Dealing with bodily changes, switching to new schools environment, multiple teachers in a day now, youngest in their school again, increase in workload and expectations, expected to be more independent
Emotional Intelligence
- Emotional Quotient (EQ) -Sensitivity to self and others, empathy, self-control, social skill -More difficult to measure than IQ
Earliest signs of puberty in males
- Enlargement of the testes - Thinning and reddening of the scrotum - Can occur as early as 9 years of age - On average occurs when boys are 11
T/F: The rate of childhood obesity in middle childhood has finally leveled off in the US
- TRUE - Controlling childhood obesity requires a multifaceted approach (TV watching reduction, exercise, counseling, etc.)
T/F: Intelligence as measured by IQ tests is determined by genetics for some groups of people and by environment for other groups
- TRUE - Genetics: higher SES - Environment: lower SES, schooling, test bias, definition of intelligence
T/F: 1/3 of US 4th graders are not reading at even a basic level
- TRUE - Partial mastery of prerequisite knowledge and skills
What is the most popular media outlet adolescents use?
- TV - Decreases as adolescents get older - However media use is constantly changing
Classroom factors that influence student learning
- Teachers - Classroom size: smaller is usually better but not guaranteed (expensive and teacher interactions are more important)
Spermarche
- Beginning of production of viable sperm
Individual differences in puberty timing
- Heredity - Nutrition and exercise - In US, racial differences - Family and other environmental experiences (SES)
Peak period of growth for girls
- 1 year after puberty begins
dating violence
- 10-20% of adolescents experience physical or sexual dating violence - Boys and girls equally likely to be victims - Violence is usually bidirectional - Associated with poor mental health
How many minutes of physical activity should children get each day?
- 60 - Ex: Aerobic activity, muscle-strengthening activity, and bone-strengthening activity
Text2BHealthy
- A text messaging program that compliments direct nutrition education provided in elementary school classrooms - Texts are targeted to the school/area and are behaviorally focused - Ex: "there is a FREE fresh produce give away tomorrow at 1pm at the Western MD Food Bank on Frederick Street. You will also get recipes to use with the produce!"
Identity Moratorium
- A time of exploration in search of identity, with no commitment made yet - Process of exploring - Ex: People with undeclared majors in college that try out different majors or even take time off to define their interests
Naturalist intelligence
- Ability to distinguish and categorize natural phenomena - Careers: Weather forecasters and park rangers
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
- Ability to form hypotheses about how the world works and to reason logically about these hypotheses - Type of thinking scientists use to test a hypothesis - Ex: Brown cows give chocolate milk, this is a brown cow, therefore this cow gives chocolate milk (although its a false premise leading to a false conclusion, the logical process itself is sound)
Reversibility
- Ability to reverse mental operations - Allows a child to overcome the pull toward perceptual bias when making judgments about conservation tasks - Ex: 1 + 1 = 2, therefore they will know that 2 - 1 = 1 - Children are paying attention to HOW something changes, not just the beginning and ending states
Spatial intelligence
- Ability to see the world and then mentally manipulate or recreate what is seen - Careers: Engineers and artists
Practical intelligence
- Ability to solve everyday problems by changing yourself or your behavior to fit the environment better, or moving to a different environment in which you can be more successful
Inhibitory control
- Ability to stop more automatic cognitive responses to do what is needed to carry out a task correctly - Measured by the Stroop Test - Increases in middle childhood through adolescence
Cognitive flexibility
- Ability to switch focus as needed to complete a task - Improves through middle childhood
Metacognition
- Ability to think about and monitor one's own thoughts and cognitive activities - Ex: Studying for exam you begin with determining what you already know, next you consider strategies you will use to prepare, you continue to evaluate your level of understanding as you study, and after you get your grade you can evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies you used
Recursive thinking
- Ability to think about other people thinking about your thinking - How social cognition and theory of mind in adolescence become more complex
Existential intelligence
- Ability to think about the ultimate questions of life and death - Careers: Philosophers and religious leaders
Intrapersonal intelligence
- Ability to understand your own emotions and thoughts and express them - Careers: Actors and poets
Linguistic intelligence
- Ability to use language - Careers: Public speakers and writers
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
- Ability to use your body effectively - Careers: Dancers and athletes
Does everyone reach the formal operations stage?
- According to Piaget, NO - He argued that many people remain concrete thinkers all their lives - Does continue to develop through adolescence so they may develop this type of thought later on in life but they may not ever develop formal operational thinking - This type of thinking is dependent on whether an individual's education trains him or her to develop it NOT maturation
Risk factors for child sexual abuse
- Age - Single parent households - Not living with a biological parent - Living in a household marked by discord and violence - Having a physical or cognitive disability - Lower SES or minorities
Mental age
- Age level at which a child is performing on a test of mental ability
Reasons for dropped pregnancy rates
- Almost the entire decline among older teens can be attributed to an increased use of contraceptives - Among younger teens: reduced sexual activity levels, & increased reliance on contraceptives
Dyslexia
- Alternative term for a specific learning disorder that is characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities - Brain chemistry can play a role (higher levels of glutamate and choline) - Functional differences: more reliance on the right hemisphere for reading, when the left is more common - Structural differences: Connection between Broca's and Wernicke's areas is smaller
Negative Identity
- An identity that is in direct opposition to that which parents or other adults would support
Stereotype threat
- Anxiety that results when individuals feel they are behaving in ways that confirm negative stereotyped expectations of a group with which they identify - Ex: Girls become anxious taking the ACT or SAT and begin to think they are proving the negative stereotype about girls and math to be correct
Child sexual abuse
- Any interaction between a child and an adult (or another child) in which the child is used for the sexual stimulation of the perpetrator or an observer - Greatest risk of victimization: 8-12 years
Positive youth development
- Approach to finding ways to help all young people reach their full potential - Does more than help young people avoid the pitfalls associated with too much unsupervised time, strives to identify the people, contexts, circumstances, and activities that help youth develop to their maximum potential
Balanced reading approach
- Approach to teaching reading that combines elements of the whole language approach (which emphasizes comprehension and meaning) with elements of the phonics approach (which emphasizes decoding words)
Phonics (or basic skills) approach
- Approach to teaching reading that starts with basic elements like letters and phonemes and teaches children that phonemes can be combined into words before moving on to reading as a whole
Puberty Physical Changes for Both
- Arms and legs grow first - Hormonal changes usually begin in middle childhood - Growth and sex hormones work together to produce rapid increase in height in both girls and boys (adolescent growth spurt) - Pituitary gland releases growth hormone - Sex hormones (estrogens, androgens) released by adrenal glands
Which ethnic and racial groups has the lowest self-esteem?
- Asian American adolescents - BUT differences WITHIN any of the groups are greater than differences BETWEEN them
Dynamic assessments
- Based on Vygotsky's ZOPD - Attempts to measure the child's potential for change when the examiner intervenes and assists the child - This "potential to change" or modifiability can be measured by the number of hints a child needs to solve a problem he has previously failed and a second assessment of the child's ability after the assistance has been removed - Goal: Eliminate irrelevant factors that influence a child's performance (i.e. confusion about what to do)
Peak period of growth for boys
- Begin puberty 2 years later than girls - 2 years after puberty begins
Personal Fable (self-consciousness)
- Belief held by teenagers that you are in some way unique and different from other people - Ex: When a young girl is dumped she may think her mother will never understand because she never experienced a love like this - Can be the basis of risky behaviors ("I won't get pregnant that happens to other people")
Cultural test hypothesis
- Belief that standardized intelligence tests systematically underestimate the intelligence of minority groups because of bias built into the test
Primary sex characteristics
- Body structures necessary for reproduction that develop during puberty - Females: Uterus, Ovaries, Vagina - Males: Testes, Penis
Brain development
- Brain reaches 95% of it's peak size by the age of 6 - Peak volume at 10/12 for girls and 14-1/2 for boys - Frontal lobe, parietal lobe and corpus callosum experience growth in middle childhood
Short-term & Long-term memory
- Brief, temporary storage of information in memory - Ex: Recall of a string of numbers shortly after it is given to you - Makes up working memory with attentional control - Short-term memory is improved at this age - Unlimited long-term memory storage
Developmental bilingual programs
- Build ons students' skills in their native language while they learn English as a second language - Students initially receive instructions in the core subjects in their native language but receive instruction in art, PE, and music in English - As soon as they have sufficient skills, English is used for their instruction in the core subjects as well - Students typically remain in these programs longer than in traditional transition programs, but they continue learning English throughout their time in the program
Piaget's Formal Operations (12+)
- Capacity for abstract thought, logic - Systematic problem-solving through reasoning - Ability to generate many possible solutions to a problem and test them before making a decision - Hypothetical thought - Not equivalent across cultures **Marked by the development of abstract thinking**
Speech-sound disorder
- Causes difficulty producing sounds or using sounds correctly for the child's age - Child's speech is difficult to understand as a result and this interferes with social and academic skills - Ex: Child substitute's one sound for another
Brain chemistry changes
- Changes occur in the chemistry of the neuronal pathways that support long and short-term memory functioning - Chemical changes continue for hours or days after we learn something, consolidating the learning and making the information available in our long-term memory - Improved connectivity and coordination between different areas of the brain all contribute to the improvement of motor skills, visual-spatial skills, and coordination
Ideal selves
- Characteristics one aspires to in the future - Influenced by adolescent's ability to think hypothetically - The greater the discrepancy between this version vs their real selves influences their self-esteem
Where did the obesity problem come from?
- Childhood obesity is the result of eating too many calories and not getting enough physical activity.
Gifted or talented children
- Children and youth who exhibit high performance capability in intellectual, creative, and/or artistic areas; possess an unusual leadership capacity' or excel in specific academic fields - Programs for them are supported IF they do not reduce opportunities for average or below-average learners - lack of training in basic teachers to deal with gifted students has led to special programs for gifted students **NOT emotionally or socially maladjusted**
Criticisms of Piaget
- Children are found to be capable of carrying out some of his operations, such as seriation and classification, at earlier ages than indicated (if the tasks are simplified) - Ex: a younger child can put 2 or 3 sticks in height order, but gets confused when there are many more **Learning these skills appears to be a more gradual than sudden process**
Teeth and oral health
- Children normally have 20 baby teeth when they begin losing them around the age of 6 (first lost in the middle of the mouth) - Pulling baby teeth does not speed up adult teeth growth (should let them come out naturally) - All baby teeth should be replaced by adult teeth around the age of 12/13
Genetic link to specific learning disorders?
- Children who have dyslexia have parents or other close relatives who are 4-8X more likely to also have them compared to children who do not have the disorder - Moderate genetic influence for mathematical and reading ability, with monozygotic twins being more similar in ability than dizygotic
Identity Achievement
- Choice of an identity following exploration of the possibilities - Commitment to self-chosen values - Active exploration and are ready to commit
Executive functioning is characterized by what three abilities...
- Cognitive flexibility - Inhibitory control - Working memory
Identity Foreclosure
- Commitment to an identity before exploring possible options - No questioning or exploration - Ex: In a family of doctors it is expected that you follow that same path
Developmental Assets
- Common sense, positive experiences, and qualities that help young people become caring, responsible adults - Building blocks for positive youth development - Ex: Creative activities, theater, youth programs in the community, membership in a religious institution
Anorexia Nervosa
- Condition in which individuals become obsessed with their weight and intentionally restrict food intake to a point that it may become life threatening - Lose more than 15% of their body weight - High mortality rate if not treated early - Goal: Weight loss, try to have complete control over their behavior - Susceptible to it: Highly controlled individuals who set unrealistic goals for themselves, individuals with demanding/over-controlling parents may develop this as a way to control something for themselves
Precocious puberty
- Condition in which pubertal changes begin at an extraordinarily early age - As young as 6/7 - Could be linked to hormonal disorders or brain tumors
Most common types of contraceptives among adolescents
- Condom (96%) - Withdrawal (57%) - Pill (56%) - Injections (20%) - Patches (10%) - Plan B (14%)
Mainstreaming and full inclusion
- Congress passed Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, in the mid-1970s - Least restrictive environment - Mainstreaming - Full inclusion: Playgrounds that are accessible to everyone
Coping
- Conscious efforts made to master, tolerate, or reduce stress - People use combinations of strategies - Strategies: Problem-focused and Emotion-focused
Mentor
- Constructed relationship in which a non-parental adult provides a range of functions to a young person - Establish through programs in schools or organizations - Similar characteristics to positive parent-child relationships: closeness and warmth, consistency, and structure - most effective when it includes intensive and ongoing training and support for mentors, interactions with the teens parents, and clear guidelines for the duration of the relationship
Emotion-focused strategies
- Coping strategies that are designed to reduce or manage emotional distress - Helpful in all situations, especially if you cannot control the stressful situation - Ex: Venting, seeking sympathy, acceptance of the situation
Problem-focused strategies
- Coping strategies that focus on changing or improving a stressful situation - Only effective in realistic situations that you can change or control - Ex: Planning, seeking assistance, take action to remove the source of stress
Enrichment approach
- Covers the same curriculum as a typical class but in greater depth, breadth, or complexity - Good deal of flexibility in structuring the students' exploration of the topics they cover - Many take place after school, on Saturdays, or during the summer and act as supplements to the child's regular education
Accelerated program
- Covers the standard curriculum, but more quickly than typical as the student shows mastery of the material - Advanced students might take the class with a higher grade level but maintain in their grade for other subjects OR the student might be allowed to skip an entire grade to accelerate their progress in all subjects
How does heredity play a role in puberty development?
- Daughters go through puberty at about the same age their mothers did
Advantages of standardized tests
- Degree of reliability and validity have been established by their developers
Lack of sleep in teens results in...
- Depression - Anxiety - Lower academic performance - More car accidents
Specific learning disorder
- Diagnosed when there is a discrepancy between children's actual academic performance and their apparent potential to learn. - Ex: Dyslexia (most widely studied), executive functioning, auditory processing
What factors affect the timing of puberty
- Diet - Health - Body type - Heredity - Racial background
Social or pragmatic communication disorder
- Difficulty with appropriate use of both verbal and nonverbal communication - Ex: Child does not greet others, does not change the way she communicates to a young child or to an adult, has trouble taking conversational turns or explaining misunderstandings, cannot understand humor or metaphors that rely on multiple meanings of the same word
How do peers influence academic achievement?
- Direct: Peers can accept or reject the high achiever - Indirect: Peers model academic behaviors and attitudes
Language disorder
- Disorder in which a child's understanding and use of language is significantly below his nonverbal intelligence - Child has a limited vocabulary and has difficulty using tense correctly, recalling words, or producing sentences of the length and complexity expected of a child of that age - Difficulty understanding words or sentences
Childhood-onset fluency disorder or stuttering
- Disorder in which the chid has difficulty with fluency and time patterning of speech - Child may repeat sounds or syllables, repeat whole words, pause within a word, or pause in speech
Unstructured Time
- During such time the likelihood of criminal behavior, teen sexuality, and drug/alcohol use increases - However, adolescents still need time to hang out with their peers and relax the same with children need free time to play - Allows them to develop an identity separate from their parents and to learn how to manage themselves with their peers - Trick is to provide adolescents with an appropriate balance of freedom and structured time so they develop a sense of self-direction
Alternatives to standardized testing
- Dynamic assessments - Authentic assessments **Examiner's are active participants who have specialized training in the administration of the tests and they are only given to one child at a time**
Bulimia
- Eating disorder characterized by eating binges, followed by purging to get rid of the food - Goal: To prevent weight gain, impulsive and out of control - Causes: Less known than anorexia, helps ease feelings of stress and anxiety
Ability grouping
- Educational approach that places students of similar ability in learning groups so they can be taught at a level that is most appropriate for their level of understanding - Controversial - Critics say it harms lower-level students (self-esteem and teacher quality) - Creates homogeneous groups of students at similar ability levels
Collaborative learning
- Educational strategy that allows groups of students who are at different ability levels to work together on a common goal, such as a project or an assignment - Students show higher achievement, better self-esteem, and greater social competency - Creates heterogeneous groups of students with varying learning abilities - More advantageous for low-performing students than for high-achieving ones (high achieving students appear to do well in both homogeneous and heterogeneous groups)
Expectancy effects
- Effect that the expectations of others can have on one's self-perception and behavior - A teacher's expectation for their students can change their behavior in how they facilitate the children's intellectual growth - Sends the message, "believe in the child and communicate that belief to him/her" to see effective learning and growth - Ex: Freedom Writers
Health risks now for obese children
- High blood pressure - Type 2 diabetes - Joint problems and musculoskeletal discomfort - Social and psychological problems
Identity vs. role confusion
- Erikson's stage during adolescence when teens are dealing with consolidating their identity - Adolescents must figure out and get comfortable with who they are and who they want to become as they move into young adulthood - Cognitive ability to pull divergent pieces of the self together into a coherent whole
T/F: Number of US adults who today identify themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual is close to 20%
- FALSE - 3.5% - Slightly more identify as bisexual (women especially) - At around age 10 many children have their first romantic attraction and those drawn to the same sex are triggered by sexual questioning (often before puberty)
T/F: All boys are not doing as well in school as they have in the past
- FALSE - Boys from middle/upper class families are doing BETTER - Boys from disadvantage families or minority groups are NOT doing better
T/F: IQ tests are the best predictors we have of how well a child is going to do in school
- FALSE - Far from perfect - Self-control may be a better indicator
T/F: It is more difficult to fool a school age child than a younger child into thinking he remembers something he never actually saw
- FALSE - In the case of false recognition, the opposite is true - Because school aged children place terms into conceptual categories, they are more likely to recall something they didn't actually hear or see if it relates to what they did actually hear or see
T/F: When teens are given statistical evidence to support an argument and personal opinions to support the same argument, they think logically and are more likely to base their own opinion on the statistical evidence
- FALSE - Majority of adolescents will choose intuitive evidence based on personal opinions over statistical evidence - Based on two systems of thought: Experience and analysis
T/F: Many teens these days are overscheduled, spending most of their time after school in multiple organized activities like sports and music lessons
- FALSE - Only 3-6% of youth ages 5-18 report spending more than 20 hours a week in organized activities - Only 1 in 10 children could be described as overscheduled
T/F: In the US, 90% of adolescents between the ages of 15 and 19 have had sex at least once
- FALSE - Only 42%-43% of all teenagers between 15 and 19 report they have had sexual intercourse at least once - US teens today are waiting longer to become sexually active than in the recent past (religious or moral reasons, fear of pregnancy, or haven't found the right person yet)
T/F: Parents of children who participate in organized sports worry a great deal about their child being injured while playing
- FALSE - Parents may not be fully aware of the risk their child is exposed to - Parents of children who spend more hours per week participating in a sport, who are younger, or who are minorities perceive a higher risk than other parents - More than 2/3 of parents CORRECTLY see football as the sport that carries the greatest risk of injury
T/F: Growing during middle childhood is slow, and steady
- FALSE - Typically occurs in spurts of about 24 hours, followed by days or weeks of no growth - Pattern only appears smooth because we average the data from a number of children to create the growth curve - Growth spurts may also occur during certain seasons of the year (sometimes 3x as fast than in the slow seasons)
t/f: Children who participate in organized sports develop skills they use to keep them physically active throughout their lifetime
- False - Most quit by the age of 13 (70%)
Risk factors of Type 2 Diabetes
- Family history - High-risk population groups - Female - Overweight - Physically inactive
Symptoms of Type 2 diabetes
- Fatigue - Excessive thirst - Weight loss - Blurred vision - Slow healing of sores **Can come on slowly and may be misdiagnosed**
Most effective way to change eating disorder behaviors
- Focus on changing maladaptive attitudes (thin ideal) and maladaptive behaviors (fasting or overeating) - Effective to target high risk groups rather than general population of adolescents
Exosystem impact (Societal level)
- Food production system - Food access and availability - Advertising and marketing - Health care system - Race/ethnic culture - Income disparities - Education - Policies of the federal food programs (SNAP, etc.)
Sef Trafficking
- Forcible removal of children from their families for the purpose of prostitution or pornography
Mesosystem impact (interpersonal level)
- Frequency of family meals - Food insecurity - Neighbors and peers - Family size - Quality of family meals - Race/ethnic culture - Family traditions - Family income - Extended family
Causes of Schizophrenia
- Genes definitely play a large role - If one identical twin is schizophrenic, there is a 40-60% chance the other will be as well (fraternal only has a 5-15% chance) - Prenatal disruption of brain development increases possibility of development (starvation, influenza) - Marijuana use can increase risk if the child has a genetic predisposition, dysfunctional environment, or other factors
Menarche
- Girl's first menstrual period - Beginning of ovulation
How does SES play a role in puberty timing?
- Girls from families with more social and economic resources reach menarche 3 months to 3 years earlier than girls from disadvantaged families - Related to better diet and overall health (Critical level of body fat is necessary for girls to maintain regular menstrual periods) - Studies show a weight of 105+ is associated with menarche - Opposite for boys: being overweight may delay puberty
Friendship gender differences
- Girls generally have smaller, more exclusive friendship networks - Boys are more likely to feel that sharing problems with friends is "weird" - Boys are more likely to base their friendships on qualities such as status and achievement and have more open friendship networks - Girls are more likely to base their friendships on intimacy, loyalty, and commitment
Forgotten Half
- HS students who do graduate from high school but do not continue their education by going to college and are not well prepared for the transition to work - Nearly 1/2 of the 14 million jobs that will be created in the US by 2018 will go to people with associate's degrees or occupational certificates
Asthma
- Highest prevalence between the ages of 5-17 - Children sometimes outgrow their symptoms so the prevalence rates drop in older ages - More prevalent today than in 1980's - More common in children from low-income families - Low-income schools located in congested urban neighborhoods harbor more irritants that can trigger an asthma attack
Epiphyses
- How we estimate a person's skeletal age - Bones continue to grow until their soft spongy ends harden off, usually during adolescence (then growth is complete) - Because girls reach this stage at a younger age than boys, on average they are shorter in stature than boys - One of the consequences of very early puberty is too early bone maturation -> results in short stature for females and even some males
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- Idea that intelligence represents a balance of analytical, creative, and practical abilities - Using these three types of intelligence to interact in the best possible way with one's particular environment - Limited evidence to support this theory BUT he has shown that learning is enhanced when teachers promote all these types of intelligence rather than focusing on memory alone
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence
- Idea that there are a number of different types of intelligence that are all relatively independent of each other - States, "there is NOT, and there never can be, a single irrefutable and universally accepted list of human intelligences" (List may change or continue to grow) - 9 types:
Grouping
- If you can group pieces of info together while you learn them, you are more likely to be able to retrieve and use the information later
Which 5 states require physical education for all grades, k-12?
- Illinois - Iowa - Massachusetts - New Mexico - Vermont
Fine motor skill development
- Improvements in handwriting, print and cursive - Increased detail and complexity into drawings - Children begin to enjoy activities that rely on fine motor skills; beading, sewing, building models, and playing complex video games
Puberty Physical Changes (Boys)
- In boys, maturing testes release testosterone - Height spurt (shoulders broaden, legs longer) - Muscle growth (add muscle tissue at a faster rate than girls, 150% more muscle development, greater muscle strength, 1.5X as much muscle as girls by the end of puberty) - Body and facial hair
How does body type play a role in puberty development?
- In girls, fat cells release a protein called leptin that tells the brain that the fat stores in the body are adequate to sustain puberty - As a result, girls who are heavier than average are likely to go through puberty at a younger age than girls who are average in weight or thinner
Adrenache
- Increase in adrenal androgen production that occurs in the pubertal sequence and affects brain development - Changes begin when the adrenal gland begins producing DHEA, which promotes synaptogenesis in the cortex and prolongs the development of the prefrontal cortex - Advances the way children think and learn, and in turn supports the work they do in the school environment **Signature feature of middle childhood**
Growth in working memory related to...
- Increase in information processing speed - Encoding strategies that help children store and retrieve information (grouping and elaboration)
Peer Relationships (Adolescence)
- Increase in self-disclosure and intimacy (causes girls to be more concerned with betrayal) - More relational aggression between girls - Increase in other-gender friends - Conformity peaks in early adolescence, declines by age 16/17
Puberty: Emotional
- Increased negative mood - Increased conflict in parent-child relationships - Impact of pubertal timing - Body image - Comparison with peers
Changes in relationships during adolescence
- Increasing Autonomy - Parent-adolescent conflict - Family time (remains highly important)
Peer Pressure
- Influence exerted by peers to get others to comply with their wishes or expectations - Can be direct (rewards/punishments), or subtle (modeling or establishing group norms) - More often subtle than direct - Not as common as parents fear
Academic Intelligence (Testing)
- Intelligence testing: psychometric approach to evaluating cognitive development -Alfred Binet: developed the first successful intelligence test in 1905 -Binet & Simon: intelligence quotient (IQ) - Spearman: general reasoning ability (g) - Contemporary intelligence tests: Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales & Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Fluid intelligence
- Intelligence that allows us to quickly and effectively solve novel problems for which we have little training - Linked with activity in the prefrontal cortex
Mnemonic Strategies
- Intentional goal-directed behaviors designed to improve memory 1. Rehearsal (repetition over and over) 2. Organization (into meaningful categories) 3. Elaboration (creating extra connections, like images or sentences, which can tie information together)
Noturnal enuresis
- Involuntary emptying of the bladder during sleep beyond the age at which children usually gain bladder control - 1.5% of children still have this problem at 9-1/2 years of age - Related to deep sleep, small bladders, large amounts of urine production
Positive Parental Feeding Practices
- Involvement: - Environment: - Modeling - Encourage balance/diversity - Teaching about nutrition
Cognitive limitations that STILL exist
- Lack adults' broad base knowledge - Unable to use skills to problem-solve - Unable to reason about abstract and hypothetical problems
Identity Diffusion
- Lack of interest in developing an identity - Lack of crisis or perceived need to explore alternatives - No clear direction, no commitment
Crowds
- Larger groups in which membership is based on an individual's abilities, interests, or activities - More loosely organized groups - Reputations/stereotypes - May be ethnically defined - Important influence on behaviors in early adolescence - Not all members hang out with one another
Two - way immersion program
- Less common - Children who are native speakers of English and children who are non-native speakers work together in a classroom where BOTH majority and minority languages are used - This requires highly trained and skilled teachers who can support the development of both languages in their students in a language-integrated classroom
Increasing autonomy
- Less willing to accept the unilateral authority of their parents - Decision making evolves into a shared process in most families - Adolescents report spending less time with their fathers and feeling closer to their mothers (Father-daughter relationships are typically the most distant) - Mother daughter relationships are the closest but they are marked by conflict, especially around the time of puberty
Adrenal glands androgens function
- Linked to the development of facial hair and increased muscle mass in boys - Linked to growth of pubic and armpit hair in both boys and girls
Major cognitive changes from early to middle childhood
- Logical, systematic thinking - Perceive reality despite false appearances - Expertise about certain topics (domain-specific) - Control own attention and memory - Metacognition: think about their own thinking
Which gender is least likely to disclose about sexual abuse?
- MALES - Both in the moment or down the line
Binge Drinking
- Males: 5+ drinks within a 2 hour period - Females: 4+ drinks in a 2 hour period - 90% of alcohol consumption for adolescents is binge drinking - Highest proportion: 18-20 year olds - Decreasing gender gap - White students report the highest rate, Black students the lowest
Deviation IQ
- Measure of intelligence that is based on the individual's deviation from the norms of a given test
Crystallized intelligence
- Measure of the knowledge we already have that we can draw on to solve problems - Linked with activity in specific frontal and posterior temporal and parietal areas of the brain
Self-fulfilling prophecy
- Mechanism that underlies teacher expectancy effects - Your expectations cause you to predict what will happen in the future and lead you to behave in ways that, in turn, help ensure that you find exactly what you expected to find
Elaboration
- Memory strategy that involves creating extra connections, like images or sentences, which can tie information together - Ex: Want to remember to buy lemons at the grocery store so you picture yourself walking in the parking lot with lemons as shoes and then later recall that image when you're walking in the parking lot (idk?)
Diabetes
- Metabolic disorder in which the body does not produce insulin, or cannot use insulin produced by the body - Result: High blood glucose levels or hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) - Type 1: autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system destroys cells in the pancreas that produce insulin (leading cause of diabetes in children) - Type 2: Body become resistant to the insulin produced by the pancreas (usually in adults over 40/overweight, and rare in children under 10) -> Increasing in children today, particularly Hispanics, Asian/Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans
Vulnerable populations for lower academic performance
- Minority/Low-income students: (Less support, less academic and social skills entering middle school) - Low-performing students: (Separation by abilities -> slowing down, less qualified teachers, less likely to value school, less active in school) - Special learning disorder adolescents: Boys are more resilient and face the problems head on than girls, which influences outcomes - Girls and STEM disciplines: Stereotype threat
Intervention tips
- Modeling - Family meals: Families who eat together tend to have more healthy diets - Repeated Exposure: New foods take time - Let children serve themselves: Parent decides what, when, and where foods are served and child decides whether and how much to eat - Patience vs. Pressure: Pressuring kids to eat certain foods may decrease their preferences for that food
Parental Feeding Practices with Unknown Effects
- Monitoring - Child control - Emotional regulation
Sports injuries
- More common in boys - More prevalent in adolescents than younger children - Exception: Girls are more likely to tear their ACL than boys (notch in the knee that contains this ligament is narrower in women than in men) & girls are more likely to get a concussion in sports played by both genders (soccer, lacrosse, basketball, etc.)
Toxic Stress
- More dangerous type of stress that results in frequent, strong, and prolonged activation of the body's stress response system without any protective buffering from a supportive adult relationship - Ex: Child abuse, parent battling substance abuse, ongoing discrimination, etc. - Unending exposure eventually impairs learning, behavior, and physical and mental well-being
Retained students are...
- More likely to be aggressive during adolescence - More likely to drop out of high school - 50% of students who are retained do NO better the second time around and 25% actually do worse
Risks of being overweight in middle childhood
- More likely to become overweight adolescents and overweight adults - Type 2 diabetes - Asthma - Use more medication - More trips to the ER
Health threats in childhood
- More than 90 percent of children are likely to have at least one serious medical condition over the 6-year period of middle childhood. - About one in nine has a chronic, persistent condition, such as migraine headaches, asthma - Some illnesses are actually becoming more prevalent
Healthy eating
- Most children have an adequate amount of protein and carbohydrates in their diets - More than 92% of children in a survey had adequate amounts of 8 of the 13 essential vitamins and minerals in their daily diets (missing Vitamins A, C, E, phosphorous and magnesium) - Important to have breakfast - School healthy eating intervention programs
Coaches
- Most have the children's best interest at heart, but many lack experience working with children and may not have a good understanding of child development - Might push a young player, thinking it will help their development, but the child is likely just looking to have fun - Children consistently dislike how their coaches push them too hard, gets mad and yells at them, doesn't let them play enough or doesn't teach them much
Structured Time
- Must be carefully planned - Programs should be scheduled when the teens would normally be hanging out with friends without adult supervision, usually directly after the school day when most problematic teen behavior would otherwise occur
Parent-adolescent conflict
- NOT as common as people think - Describes no more than 20% of families - FREQUENCY of conflict is highest in early adolescence and declines as adolescents move into middle and late adolescence, but the INTENSITY of conflict, when it does occur, tends to increase during middle adolescence - likely related to ordinary, every day events like cleaning chores, getting along with family, respect/manners, and school issues **CONFLICT IS OKAY IF IN THE CONTEXT OF A WARM, SUPPORTIVE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT TO FOSTER PERSONAL GROWTH**
Smoking
- Nearly 80% of adult smokers begin as adolescents - Over 443,000 smoking related deaths a year - Lowest rate of smoking: Black and asian adolescents - Highest rate: Native Americans and Alaska Natives - Gender differences: None
Macrosystem impact (Environmental level)
- Neighborhoods - Transportation - Grocery stores - Child care - Employment opportunities - Race/ethnic culture - Fast food restaurants - Health care service - Corner stores
Medical interventions for learning disabilities
- None so far - Variety of medications are used for treating ADHD (Ritalin) - Behavioral therapy combined with medications
STI's/STD's
- Not considered a disease until symptoms develop - All STD's begin as STI's but not all STI's become STD's - Roughly 19 million new cases of STD's each year (almost 50% occur in adolescents ages 15-24) - Adolescent females highest prevalence is for HPV - Adolescent 14+ can obtain treatment for STI's without parental consent in all 50 state (just don't know where or how)
Health risks later for obese children
- Obese adults - Heart disease - Diabetes - Some cancers
Racial differences in puberty
- On average, AA girls mature earlier than white girls - Ex: Breast buds for AA: 8.8 years, for white girls: 9.7 years
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
- Originally a measure of intelligence calculated based on the ratio of a child's mental age to chronological age - Largely replaced now by deviation IQ - Infant/early childhood IQ scores do not correlate with later performance; middle childhood IQ scores do correlate with later performance - IQ scores can predict academic performance, occupational success, and psychological adjustment
Sexual Violence
- Over 680,000 people are raped in US each year - Only about 16% of rapes are reported: Embarrassment, shame, denial, fear - Approx. 50% of all sexual violence is committed by friends or acquaintances
How do parents influence academic achievement?
- Parenting style (authoritative is best) - Self-fulfilling prophecy - Effective parenting
Nonparental Adults
- Parents tend to underestimate the influence of extended family members - Parents tend to overestimate the influence of unrelated adults who knew the adolescent in a formal or professional capacity: Coaches, clergy, teachers, etc. - Girls are more likely than girls to report having a very important adult in their lives and experiencing greater enjoyment and psychological intimacy in the relationship
Micro/individual problems impact
- Parents: Preferences, genetics, health status, time, knowledge, health beliefs, value of food and feeding, view of role as parent, personal eating habits - Child: Genetics, age, sex, birth order, physical appearance, preferences, health status, attitudes about own body
Adolescent Growth Spurt
- Period of rapid increase in height and weight that occurs in early adolescence - For girls age: 9-10 (textbook) or 10-15 (slides) - For boys age 12.5-17.5, (average 2 years later than girls, and grow even faster) - For both: Add 10-11 inches and 50-75 lbs - Adolescent weight gain: Gaining 50% of their adult weight during this period - Both boys and girls add muscle and fat, but the amount of each and distribution in the body results in the typical gender difference in appearance
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
- Persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that begins in childhood and interferes with functioning or development - Looks differently in different kids (Three patterns of symptoms) - Higher incidence in boys
Factors that affect identity development
- Personality - Family - Peers - School, community, culture - Ethnic identity - Assimilation vs. acculturation - Bicultural identity
Why do girls exhibit depression more than boys?
- Physical changes of puberty for girls are linked to lower body satisfaction and more depression - More likely than boys to experience multiple stress events during adolescence (daily hassles, interpersonal problems) - Socialized differently: Boys are allowed to express their frustration and anger by acting out, while girls are socialized to internalize these feelings in a way that may take a toll on them
Puberty
- Physical changes that make adolescents capable of sexual reproduction
Puberty Physical Changes (Girls)
- Physical changes visible in girls first - Height spurt - Underarm and pubic hair - Maturation of breasts, uterus, vagina - Accumulation of body fat (faster rate than boys, more fat on arms, legs, trunk -> curvier appearance) - Hips widen
Secondary Sex Characteristics
- Physical characteristics that are associated with gender that do not directly affect the sex organs - Important outward signs to others that a child is becoming physically mature - The way peers and adults interact with a young person is often affected by these changes - Ex: Breast development in females, deepening of the voice in males, or growth of pubic and underarm hair in both genders
Sexual abuse outcomes
- Physical health risks (gastrointestinal and gynecological symptoms, cardiopulmonary symptoms, and obesity) - Higher rates of depression, anxiety disorders, antisocial behavior, substance abuse, and attempted suicide - May reveal inappropriate sexual knowledge or engage in sexualized behaviors (important to know what's normal and what's not)
Early-onset schizphrenia
- Symptoms often first appear in late adolescence or even later in someone's mid-30s - Very rare cases when children and young teens develop this disorder
Authentic Assessments
- Places more emphasis on the process used to respond to the assessment than on the product or answer itself - Content consists of complex problems that resemble real-life skills - Advocated for student populations that are difficult to assess with standardized methods (students with disabilities, very young children, and gifted students)
Romantic Relationships
- Play an important role in development of identity - Influence the process of individuation from the family of origin - Change the nature of peer relationships - Lay groundwork for future intimate relationships - No common definition for what a romantic relationship is - Younger adolescents care more about superficial qualities: physical appearance, having fun together - Older adolescents value qualities such as commitment and intimacy - Girls often prefer partners who are slightly older
Rough and tumble play
- Play that looks like fighting or wrestling, where the goal is not to hurt or win, but to have fun - Increases during the early school years and continues through early adolescence - Influences physical strength and endurance but also brain development
3 patterns of ADHD symptoms
- Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation (Fidgety, always seems to be in motion, has trouble staying on task, and does everything quickly and without much apparent thought) - Predominantly inattentive presentation (Easily distracted, has trouble getting organized, has trouble following directions, continually loses things, and often shifts from one task to another without completing either of them) - Combined presentation
Outcomes Associated with Teen Childbearing
- Pregnancy and birth complications - School dropout/limited educational attainment - Maternal depression - Poverty - Decreased likelihood of marriage - Child developmental and behavioral problems - Child academic limitations (less likely to graduate) - Child maltreatment - Intergenerational transmission of teen childbearing (children of teen moms become them themselves)
Environmental factors influencing ADHD development
- Prenatal factors: maternal use of alcohol and/or tobacco or other environmental toxins - Adverse family conditions as the child grows up **Symptoms are reduced when children with ADHD play outdoors**
Negative Parental Feeding Practices
- Pressure: - Food as a reward - Restriction for health and weight control:
Childhood Obesity
- Prevalence has more than doubled in children and quadrupled in adolescents in the last thirty years - Health disparity - Socio-environmental conditions have a significant impact on the child's health outcomes
Prevention and Treatment of Substance Abuse
- Prevention program elements: Promote effective parenting including monitoring, Teach skills for resisting peer pressure, Emphasize health and safety risk, and decrease social acceptability of drug use - Very difficult to treat - Family + individual therapy needed - Alarmingly high relapse rates
Automaticity
- Process by which skills become so well practiced that we can do them without much conscious thought, freeing up processing capacity for other tasks - Ex: How you learn to drive a car or ride a bike - Child ex: Sounding out words becomes so natural that it leads to reading words and entire sentences for comprehension with little thought
Estrogen
- Produced by the girl's ovaries - Triggers changes in the growth of the uterus, vagina, and breasts - Causes fat to accumulate in the distribution pattern typical of females - Necessary to support the girl's menstrual cycles which can begin as early as age 10
Social promotion/Grade retention
- Promoting a child who has not mastered grade-level material to keep the child in a class with same-age peers - AA and Latino students are more likely to be retained (held back) than white students, boys are retained at higher rates than girls & children from low SES are more likely to be retained than affluent families
Factors that affect the amount and rate of physical growth
- Puberty - Nutrition - Level of physical activity - Overall health and well-being
Adolescent Depression
- Rates of depression increase sharply from 12-16 years of age - 20-50% of US teens experience mild to moderate feelings of depression - 15-20% of US teens have one or more major depressive episode - Approximately 5% are chronically depressed - More common in girls (1 in 6 teenage girls reported an episode of clinical depression in the past year) - Rates of depression among adolescents have not changed in the last 30 years
Adolescent Pregnancies
- Rates of teen births falling dramatically but still much higher than other industrialized countries (European countries are more likely to use contraceptives) - Teen birth rate: 27 births per 1,000 teen girls age 15-19 (273,105 births to teen girls in the US total) - Historically low rate in the US - Racial disparities: Non-Hispanic White teens: 19 per 1,000, Non-Hispanic Black teens: 39 per 1,000, Hispanic teens: 42 per 1,000, American Indian teens: 31 per 1,000
Prevention and Treatment (Adolescent suicide)
- Recognize signs of depression in teens - Treatment usually includes antidepressant medication, individual, family, and group therapy - Hospitalization - Close monitoring - Support for parents, family, friends, community - Asking about suicide will NOT make it more likely that someone will think about it or do it
Backpacks
- Recommended max weight is 10-15% of the child's body weight - Girls and younger children are at greater risk of pain or injury
Rapid Repeat Pregnancies
- Repeat pregnancy within 24 months of previous birth - Reported rates for teen mothers range from 35-63%
Causes of ADHD
- Research is ongoing - Twin and adoption studies support the likely role of genetics - Differences in brain structure have been identified (Ex: volume is 5% for hyperactive children) - Differences in neurotransmitters that help with focusing attention and controlling impulses - Reduce communication between the posterior part of the brain vs. the front - NUMEROUS environmental factors as well
Rites of Passage
- Rituals that publicly mark a change in status from child to adult - Ex: Barmitzvah, Quinceanera
What do most LGBTQ adolescents say is one of the most accepting parts of their community?
- School
Puberty Timing
- Sequence of events that occur is fixed but the timing is variable - Age for females menarche has dropped from 16 to 12 since the mid 1800's - Earliest maturation for boys occurs in AA, then Hispanic, last was white boys - Early maturation has advantages for boys (Positive self-images, self-confidence, independence) - Early maturation for girls has disadvantages (isolation, jealousy, targets for peer rumors and gossip, anxiety and increased self-consciousness) - Early maturation is linked to children hanging out with older adolescents (drinking, drugs, sexually active)
Schizophrenia
- Serious mental disorder in which individuals have difficulty discriminating external reality from their own internal states - Affects 0.3-0.7% of the population - Related to structural and functional differences in many regions of the brain - Diagnosis requires 2 or more of the following symptoms: Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, very disorganized or catatonic behavior, or negative symptoms (reduction in expression of emotion) which must be present for at least a month - NO CURE (medications and behavioral therapy are best options right now)
Prevention of Teen Pregnancy
- Sex education does not encourage or increase early sex - Sex educations programs that teach abstinence only are NOT effective - Elements of effective TPP programs - Also need to build success in school, community, social skills, self-respect - We need to find ways to build competencies that protect the adolescent not only from risky sexual activity but also a range of other risky behaviors
Growing pains
- Sharp, throbbing pains in the legs (usually in the late afternoon or evening) - 25-40% of children between the ages of 3 and 5 experience these - Can recur between ages 8 and 12 - Likely the result of fatigue from excessive physical activity
Interpersonal intelligence
- Skill in interacting with other people - Careers: Sales representatives and politicians
Media Literacy
- Skills to understand the underlying purposes and messages of media - Separate fact from fantasy
Cliques
- Small groups of friends who spend time together and develop close relationships - Groups of about 5-8 - Similar backgrounds, values - Usually same gender in early adolescence - Forum for acquiring social skills, experimenting with roles - Membership is often fluid and individuals hold different roles within the group (leader, wannabes, core members) - Cliques can be linked together by mutual members
Functions filled by non-parental adults
- Social support - Support for educational achievement, personal development, and efforts to try new things - Seen as role models, companions, teachers, guides, and confidants - Occasionally financial assistance is given - Unrelated adults provide a unique context for development because they represent an adult POV but are less judgmental than parents - Not based on compensating for problems with parents (do NOT substitute)
Criticisms of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence
- Some argue if they were TRULY independent, ability in one area would NOT correlate with ability in others - Few human activities rely on a single type of ability (Ex: chess requires logical thought, spatial awareness, interpersonal skills to intuit strategies of your opponent, etc.) - Neurological evidence reveals shared pathways in the brain, not isolated
Postformal Operations
- Some theorists believe cognitive development can continue to this stage - Cognitive ability to understand multiple perspectives and bring together seemingly contradictory information - Knowledge is not absolute, there is not always one right and one wrong answer
Adolescent Brain Development
- Still far from adult maturity - Changes over the course of adolescence are more about reorganizing the existing structures and functions to allow for greater efficiency than it is about adding anything new - Pruning of prefrontal cortex - Increased sensitivity to excitatory neurotransmitters - Increased sensitivity before cognitive control leads to increased risk-taking, impulsivity - Shift in circadian rhythm - Connections between the centers for reasoning and emotions are still developing -> therefore emotional responses are less tempered by reasoning than will be the case in adults (reason why adolescents act on their emotions without thinking it all the way through)
Normative Stress
- Stress that is predictable and that most people go through, and which requires a moderate and relatively brief response - Caused by experiences that almost everyone goes through, we can anticipate and prepare for, and that do not overwhelm our ability to cope - Ex: Starting college, going through puberty, going on date, etc. - Give us the chance to build coping skills, and develop confidence in our ability to deal with challenges
Non-normative stress
- Stress that results from a relatively rare occurrence that often overwhelms the individual - Ex: Death of a parent, serious illness, or natural disaster - Although intense, it can often be tolerated if the adolescent has a supportive relationship with an adult who can facilitate adaptive coping
Immersion programs
- Students are taught academic subjects in English, with teachers tailoring the language they use to the current language level of their students
Transitional bilingual education programs
- Students receive some instruction in their native language while they also receive concentrated instruction in learning English - Goal: Prepare students to transition to regular classes in English ASAP, so they do not fall behind their peers in content areas such as math, science, and social studies
English as a second language (ESL) pull-out programs
- Students spend part of the day in a separate classroom designed specifically to teach English and there is no accommodation for their native language in their regular classrooms
Knowledge telling
- Style of writing (typical of younger children) in which the writer proceeds with little or no evidence of planning or organization of ideas, with the goal of telling as much as he knows about a topic
Knowledge of transforming
- Style of writing in which the goal is to convey a deeper understanding of a subject by taking information and transforming it into ideas that can be shared with a reader - Attempts to convey a deep understanding of a subject - Done by adolescents and adults - As children move through middle childhood, their ability to do this increases
Substance Use and Abuse
- Teen substance abuse has decreased since 1990's, except for marijuana use, which has increased steadily - 10th graders: 26% tried smoking, 52% tried drinking, 39% tried at least one illegal drug - 12th graders: 9% smoke cigarettes regularly, 22% engaged in heavy drinking in last two weeks, 25% have used at least one highly addictive substance - Most used prescription drugs: Adderall, Vicodin, & cough medicine
Consequence of thinking hypothetically
- Teens may become idealistic - They focus on imagining what COULD be rather than simply what IS - Idealism can cause them to question adult authority - They realize that even though there is a rule, it doesn't mean it always has to be that way
Imaginary audience (self-consciousness)
- The egocentric belief that one is the center of other people's attention much of the time - Ex: Teens may refuse to go to school because their hair looks bad (they assume everyone else will be aware of such perceived flaws) - Rooted in adult egocentrism - Can be positive or negative
Why are children in middle childhood so flexible?
- Their ligaments are not firmly attached to their bones yet
Leisure Repertoire theory
- Theory that says if children develop a wide repertoire of activities while young, they will be more likely to continue to participate in physical activity as they get older
Fuzzy trace theory
- Theory that there are two memory systems: A systematic, controlled memory for exact details, and an automatic, intuitive memory for the gist, or meaning of events - Young children are more likely than older children or teens to have very specific, verbatim memories - Older children are more likely to have extracted the meaning of an event and then remember the gist of it rather than each specific detail
Suicide in adolescents
- Third leading cause of death in American youth - Rates increasing among young adolescents (higher death rates among 10-14 year olds from suicide than from motor vehicle crashes) - Groups at highest risk: Native American youth and LGBT youth - Rates of suicide completion 4 times higher in boys than girls (81%) - Hispanic teens were more likely than others to make a suicide ATTEMPT
Concrete operations
- Third stage of Piaget's cognitive development - Children between ages 6-12 develop logical thinking but still cannot think abstractly - Ex: When told not to put all their eggs in one basket they explain the saying by stating "When you go to the store, take two baskets and put half your eggs in one and half in the other" - Focused very much on the here and now - Advances: Reversibility, classification, & seriation
Intelligence
- Those qualities that help us adapt successfully so that we achieve our goals in life (not just in school) - Types: Emotional (EQ), Academic intelligence (IQ) -Practical intelligence ("street smarts")
Dating
- Time frame determined by culture - Early adolescence usually casual and brief
KiSS-1 Gene
- Trigger gene for puberty - When this gene turns on, which is genetically programmed to do, it stimulates the production of the kisspeptin protein molecule - In turn leads to the release of gonadotropins that stimulate the testes in males and the ovaries in females
Management of Diabetes
- Type 1: Insulin therapy/insulin pump - Type 2: Balancing healthy eating and portion control with the required level of physical activity and medication, if any (Children need to restrict intake of refined sugars, and carbohydrates)
Analytical intelligence
- Type of intelligence that is closest to "g" or general intelligence and the one prized highly in most schools
Height changes
- U.S. children grow an average of 2 to 3 inches a year - By age 11, the average height for girls is 4 feet, 10 inches and the average height for boys is slightly shorter at 4 feet, 9 1/2 inches
Metalinguistic ability
- Understanding that words are not the same as what they stand for - Ability to think about and talk about language - Ex: understanding sarcasm - Ex2: "I like the sound of brussels sprouts, even though i don't like to eat them" - Ex 3: Knock Knock, Who's there, Lettuce, Lettuce who, Lettuce in we're hungry
Sensory impairment
- Visual impairment - Auditory impairment: - Speech impairment: - Child-onset fluency disorder/stuttering:
Whole language instruction
- Way to teach reading that emphasizes understanding the meaning of words from the context in which they appear
High School Dropouts
- We have cut the HS dropout rate by more than half in the last 40 years - Programs of early intervention are very important at young age
Weight changes
- Weight gain follows similar pattern - Weight is redistributed - About 6.5 pounds a year
Gross motor skill development
- When children begin school these skills are still relatively undeveloped - By 5th/6th grade most have made great strides and those are almost as coordinated as adults - Increasingly able to control and coordinate parts of their body as they run, skip, jump, and throw - Flexibility, balance, reflexes, and strength all improve
Market2Mealtime
- Working with farmers' markets throughout the state to encourage shoppers to add new fruits and vegetables to their basket - Provide recipe cards, nutritional handouts, seasonal displays - Can be used at food banks or food pantries, or with a Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) program
Prepubescence
- Year immediately before puberty when hormonal changes begin - Earliest events of puberty occur in middle childhood, sooner than many people realize (as young as 5 in girls) - At some point between the ages of 5 and 9 the adrenal gland increases its production of androgens in both boys and girls
Children with Special Needs
- differ significantly from typical children in terms of physical attributes or learning abilities.
Sleep
- girls sleep more than boys - Less sleep is often associated with TV's in your room or watching more than 2 hours a day - Lack of sleep and poor quality sleep have been associated with negative consequences
Grooming
- tactics to lure children into increasingly sexualized contact - Ex: give the child gifts, do special activities with them, or even threaten the child to keep their encounters a secret
autism spectrum disorder
-Apparent by age 3 -Pervasive developmental delay -1 in 88 American children are on the autism spectrum •1 out of 54 boys; 1 out of 252 girls -Core features: Preserve sameness in environment, social isolation, severe language deficits
maintain gender boundaries
-Define and defend the borders of their gender group -React negatively toward children who stray from gender lines
Contexts of Development: School time
-Learn social behaviors -Acquire mainstream cultural values and norms -Influences child's behavior and achievement
middle child development of self: sense of gender
-More flexible gender-role ideas -Boys more sex-typed than girls -Parents continue to model and reinforce gender role behavior -Social factors influence flexibility of gender thinking
oppositional defiant disorder
-Negative, hostile, defiant behavior
Contexts of Development: out-of-school time
-Peers -Clubs, lessons, sports -TV, video games, computers
•Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
-Preconventional Morality •Want to be obedient, fear punishment •Look out for your own well-being, pragmatic -Conventional Morality •Want to be thought of as a good boy or nice girl •Respect authority and rules -Postconventional Morality •Keep social contract•Conscience
gilligans stages of ethic of care
-preconventional: goal is individual survival (transition is from selfishness to responsibility for others) -conventional: self sacrifice is goodness (transition is from goodness to she is a person too) -postconventional: principle of violence: do not hurt others or self.
5 major developments of peer relations in middle childhood
1) Form loyal friendships 2) Form peer groups 3) Coordinate group interaction 4) Adhere to peer group norms 5) Maintain gender boundaries
What motivates one to get involved in Relational Aggression?
1)Belonging - If I share the secret she told me with you, my info gets me 'in' 2)Fear - I'm afraid of being rejected by my classmates, I'll go along with it 3)Drama- I'm bored, and RA creates drama and excitement
4 Major Tasks During Adolescence
1. Establish a personal identity 2. Achieve closeness and trust with peers 3. Acquire a new status in the family 4. Become more autonomous
4 Stages of Identity Development (Marcia)
1. Identity Diffusion 2. Identity Foreclosure 3. Identity Moratorium 4. Identity Achievement *Requires adolescents to engage in a period of active exploration of the alternatives available to them, followed by a personal investment in the choices they make (called commitment)* - NOT VERY DYNAMIC
Ethnic identity process in adolescents
1. Unexamined ethnic identity: Either has not thought about it or has no clear understanding of the issues or has accepted without question the values and attitudes that others hold about their group 2. Ethnic identity search: Adolescent actively tries to understand his culture and to explore the meaning of ethnicity 3. Achieved ethnic identity: Adolescent has a clear, secure, understanding and acceptance of one's own ethnicity **More complex for biracial individuals**
auditory impairment
A special need that involves the loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing
Prevalence of Adolescent Suicide
Among students in grades 9-12 in the U.S. during 2013: - 17.0% of students seriously considered attempting suicide in the previous 12 months (22.4% of females and 11.6% of males). - 13.6% of students made a plan about how they would attempt suicide in the previous 12 months (16.9% of females and 10.3% of males). - 8.0% of students attempted suicide one or more times in the previous 12 months (10.6% of females and 5.4% of males). - 2.7% of students made a suicide attempt that resulted in an injury, poisoning, or an overdose that required medical attention (3.6% of females and 1.8% of males)
Parent- Child Relationships (Adolescence)
Balance between connection and separation: - Consistent monitoring of activities - Democratic decision-making - Warmth and acceptance - Consistent discipline *Quality of parent-child relationship is predictor of mental health*
Intellectual disability
Criterion: - IQ score below 70-75 in addition to overall deficits in cognitive functioning - Inability to adaptively function (function independently) - Condition begins before the age of 18 **1% of the population fit this definition**
relational aggression
Behaviors that harm others through damage (or threat of damage) to relationships or feelings of acceptance, friendship or group inclusion -Exists on a continuum from eye-rolling to school shootings and serious violence -Involves interpersonally manipulative behaviors such as: direct control, social alienation, rejection, and social exclusion -Includes attempts to exclude peers from activities, to damage their reputations, and/or to gossip about their negative characteristics or behavior
Brain wave changes in middle childhood
By age 7, alpha waves, the ones associated with engaged attention, become predominant over theta waves, the ones associated with sleep
What type of bullying is more common among adolescents than younger children?
Cyberbullying: - Messages can be sent instantaneously, making the impact greater - Harder to hide from a cyberbully - Anonymity of the Internet means that people can say things they may not say in person
Restriction for health and weight control parental feeding practice
Children may eat restricted foods in absence of hunger
involvement parental feeding practice
Children need direct communication from parents
Encourage balance/variety parental feeding practice
Children who are encouraged to eat a variety of foods consume fewer unhealthy foods
middle childhood moral development
Cognitive advances + social relationships + emotions = moral development •Experience guilt-Justify behavior-Compensate for behavior •Morals depend on culture
coordinate group interaction
Cooperation, coordination, rules-Group integration and functioning
visual impairments
Difficulties in seeing that may include blindness or partial sightedness
learning disabilities
Difficulty with learning and academic performance based on impairment in reading, written expression, and/or mathematics
environment parental feeding practice
Healthy if it fosters appropriate self-regulation, unhealthy if it impedes a child's ability to develop healthy habits
Cognitive Developments: Information Processing
Increases in: - Verbal, mathematical, and spatial abilities - Memory capacity (older teens likely only use the prefrontal cortex) - Attention - Comprehension - Knowledge
anxiety disorder
Internalizing disorder •Generalized anxiety disorder •Separation anxiety disorder •Obsessive compulsive disorder •Post traumatic stress disorder
adhere to peer group norms
Interpret rules rigidly and literally
Contexts: Peer Relations
Status and Acceptance -Sociometrics: used to measure children's peer status by asking children who they like and don't like •Accepted: children are frequently named as liked •Rejected: consistently named as disliked •Neglected: rarely named as either liked or disliked -Based on personal characteristics that are useful for achieving group goals -Predictor of adjustment in adolescence and mental health in adulthood
teaching about nutrition parental feeding practice
Less parental teaching about nutrition is related to higher BMI
Gardners 9 types of multiple intelligence
Linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, & existential
Substance Use Disorder
Marked by: 1. Impaired control of the use of the substance so the teen craves it and uses more than intended 2. Social impairment including problems with peers, at home, or in school 3. Risky use of the substance when teens know it is causing problems in their lives 4. Tolerance build-up so individuals need more and more of the substance and experience withdrawal symptoms when they try to stop
Child-onset fluency disorder/stuttering
Substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech; the most common speech impairment
Natural mentor
Nonparental adult who provides support and guidance to a young person -> - Higher levels of educational achievement for at risk AA students - Lower levels of anxiety and depression among adolescent mothers - Lower levels of marijuana use and nonviolent delinquency - Higher levels of attachment to school
conduct disorder
Pattern of behavior that violates rights of others or major age-appropriate social norms -Early onset •Early examples of physical aggressiveness, restlessness, subtle deficits in cognitive functioning •Rejection by peers, high conflict, limited social skills •Harsh parenting or parental rejection, abuse, avoidant attachment -Late onset (puberty) •Peer context •Better prognosis
pressure parental feeding practice
Pressuring children to eat vegetables before being allowed to leave the table may lead to a dislike of those vegetables
Types of special needs
Sensory impairments, Learning disabilities, Social-emotional or behavioral impairment
speech impairment
Speech that deviates so much from the speech of others that it calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, or produces maladjustment in the speaker
food as a reward parental feeding practice
Using food as a reward for good behavior has been associated with higher BMI
Metamemory
_ Understanding of memory, how it works, and how to use it effectively - Each decision you make is an indication of your level of understanding of how cognition and memory work
Research that has looked at the quality of the relationship that a teen has with an important nonparental adult in their life has found that these relationships are:
a unique sort of support, rather than a substitute for the teen's relationship with his or her parents.
In Phinney's theory of ethnic identity development, adolescents move from a stage of unexamined ethnic identity to:
an active attempt to understand and explore the meaning of the adolescent's ethnicity.
Children who were bullies in middle childhood are more likely to:
become involved in criminal, delinquent behavior.
cooperative learning experiences
cognitive development in the context of peer groups who have about the same knowledge and skill
obesity
excess body fat, specifically BMI at or above the 95th percentile for children of the same age and sex.
Overweight
excess body weight for a particular height (Can come from fat, muscle, bone, and water, in any combination) BMI at or above the 85th percentile and lower than the 95th percentile for children of the same age and sex.
The challenge for parents of adolescents is:
how to balance granting autonomy with maintaining connectedness.
Didactic learning experiences:
knowledgeable adults teach children (e.g. teachers, adults, older siblings)
The process of racial socialization involves:
parents teaching their children about discrimination and preparing them to deal with it.
When adolescents completed their homework either with the TV on in the background or without the TV on, the group that had the TV on:
remembered less and understood what they remembered less well.
The difficulty in estimating the number of cases of HIV/AIDS among adolescents is that:
the infection takes about 10 years to develop so infected adolescents may not show symptoms until they are in their 20s.
An explanation for why cross-cultural research on moral development has not found that everyone reaches the highest stage of moral reasoning is that:
the measure of moral reasoning used in this research may be biased because it reflects Western and urban cultural values.
When teens and their parents were asked to report on the strength of the teen's relationship with important people in the teen's life, the parents:
underestimated the influence of extended family members, but overestimated the influence of professionals, such as teachers and coaches.
Moral Development: Carol Gilligan
•"In a Different Voice" •Challenged Kohlberg's theory as only from male viewpoint •Women's morality within relationships
Isnt relational aggression normal?
•10% of kids are verbally and/or physically assaulted at school consistently over time. •In the US, fear keeps more than three million children out of school each year .•RA affects children as young as preschool age but peaks in adolescence. Why? •RA is more prevalent among females. Why?•RA is not linked with socioeconomic status.
What are the consequences of rational aggression?
•Childhood aggression is one of the best-known social predictors of future maladjustment in perpetrators. •Bullying can lead to effects in academic, behavioral, and emotional realms. •RA can lead to school violence, shyness, low self-esteem, poor academic achievement, isolation, depression, and even threatened or attempted suicide among victims.
Contexts of Development: Sibling Relationships
•Depends on what factors? •Compete for parents' attention and approval •Social comparisons •Can be facilitators, helpers, friends •Learn how to deal with conflict and anger
form loyal friendships
•Evaluate others in terms of personal traits •"Best friends forever": emotional connection •Understand that conflict is natural and ok •Fairness, equity, reciprocity
Development of Self: Gender Development
•Girls stop "knowing what they know" in order to maintain relationships (Carol Gilligan) •Boys socialized to decrease emotional expression, "tyranny of toughness" •Boys generally have higher activity level - more difficulty in school? More aggression?
middle childhood depression
•Internalizing disorder •2% of children, 8% of adolescents qualify for a diagnosis •Somatic symptoms •Irritable mood, socially withdrawn •Associated with a history of psychosocial adversity (stress, anxious attachment, physical or sexual abuse) •Suicide
Contexts of Development: Family
•More responsibilities given •Effective discipline = warmth, support, reasoning •Important for parents to monitor child's behavior •Authoritative parenting leads to more agency •Conflict should be resolved in a balanced way
disruptive behavior disorders
•Oppositional Defiant Disorder •Conduct Disorder
modeling parental feeding practice
•Parents' modeling of appropriate food-related behavior is associated with improved diet quality in children
form peer groups
•Stable friendship networks •Girls: emphasize intimacy and sharing secrets •Boys: emphasize competition and joint building activities
other childhood disorders
•Tic Disorders (Tourette's) •Enuresis and Encopresis •Pica •Language disorders •Learning disorders •Selective Mutism •Separation Anxiety •Reactive Attachment Disorder
middle childhood emotional development
•Understand complexity of emotion-arousing situations •Consider situation when determining an appropriate emotional response •Know rules of displaying emotions
characteristics of the aggressor
•Wants power and is willing to use others to get what he/she wants •Is concerned with his/her own desires •Highly sophisticated social competence skills •Understands dynamics of interpersonal relationships, perspective-taking abilities •Does not report high levels of self-disclosure to friends, but tends to choose friends who are relatively open with their secrets
