Forensic Anthropology

High- vs. low-velocity trauma

-High-velocity traumas are caused by projectiles traveling at a rapid rate of speed -Low-velocity traumas refer to injuries caused by anything other than a fired bullet or projectile. -Trauma can be further subdivided into three primary manners of application: blunt force (including asphyxia), sharp force, and ballistic/gunshot trauma

Number of bones in the skull (in adult individuals and at birth)

28 in adults and 45 at birth. Six soft spots.

Tree of life

Yeah evolutionary trees are a very common way to visualize patterns of macroevolutionary processes and therefore play a central role in teaching evolution. Evolutionary trees can be used to visualize how certain traits of a living organism evolved in relation to other traits and organisms

Why evolution matters to Forensic Anthropologists (both within humans and within all life forms)

heredity: a trait must be inherited for natural selection to act on it variation: natural selection cannot occur without population variation in inherited characteristics fitness: differential reproductive success natural selection can act only on traits that affect reproduction

The subfields of Physical/Biological Anthropology

human biology, primatology, molecular anthropology, paleoanthropology, skeletal biology and osteology, paleopathology, forensic anthropology

What (/who) Anthropologists study?

the study of humans. Forensic pertains to law/courts

Deciduous vs. permanent dentition (including definition and dental formula)

the human dentition is composed of two sets of teeth - primary and permanent. Teeth are organised into two opposing arches - maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower). There are 20 deciduous teeth in the human dentition: two incisors, one canine, and two molars. Dental formula for each quadrant of deciduous teeth is 2:1:0:2 . Deciduous teeth are smaller and have a thinner enamel layer. These teeth will be exfoliated (lost) as the permanent teeth erupt. The permanent dentition consists of 32 teeth in total, with the dental formula 2123/2123, indicating two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in each quadrant.

Clines

the gradual changes in the frequency of an allele or trait over space

Importance of population-specific standards

there are differences in skeletons based on ancestry

Trauma. Definition. Common forms

trauma is the application of force to the human body sufficient to cause damage, irritation, or inflammation of the soft and hard tissues and can be accidental or nonaccidental in origin. - Common forms of skeletal trauma include: fracture, dislocation, and subluxation

Recovery scene. Types of recovery scenes. Why is it important to properly investigate and document a recovery scene?

"The purpose of forensic archaeology is to properly investigate a recovery scene from the beginning of a search to the removal and transport of the evidence from the scene, and to maintain context and the chain of custody for all evidentiary materials recovered" (Christensen et al. 2016: 184) common scenes: surface, burial, submerged, and fire

Potential challenges of Disaster Victim Identification

- Failure to provide adequate psycho-social services to responders and family members - Failure to systematically obtain ante mortem data - Failure to systematically manage post mortem data - Lack of antemortem medical records (often young vs old) - Catastrophic destruction of all known relatives.

History of Forensic Anthropology. Know the four main periods and the main contributions, events, and people within each of them

- The formative period (early 1800s-1938) o A major development includes the Robert J.Terry Collection, which is a collection featuring approximately 200 human skeletons and has skeletons of known age, sex, ancestry, stature, weight and cause of death. - The consolidation period (1939-1971) o A major development includes the formation of the Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii (CILHI), which aided in the recovery, identification, and repatriation of the remains of US soldiers. o mildred trotterr was anatomist and succeeded snow at the CILHI and estimation of stature - The modern period (1972-2007) o A major development related to this period relates to William Bass. He founded the Anthropology Research Facility (ARF) to study human decomposition and has a wide-ranging skeletal collection, with skeletons of known age, sex, ancestry, stature, weight and cause of death. - The modern/validation period (2008-present) o A major development involved the formation of the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH) and the FBI and National Institute of Justice sponsoring Scientific Working Groups.

How shape/size differs in long, short, flat, irregular, and flat bones (be able to provide at least one example for each)

->There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and pubis). The function of flat bones is to protect internal organs such as the brain, heart, and pelvic organs. Flat bones are somewhat flattened, and can provide protection, like a shield; flat bones can also provide large areas of attachment for muscles. ->The long bones, longer than they are wide, include the femur (the longest bone in the body) as well as relatively small bones in the fingers. Long bones function to support the weight of the body and facilitate movement. Long bones are mostly located in the appendicular skeleton and include bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges). ->Short bones are about as long as they are wide. Located in the wrist and ankle joints, short bones provide stability and some movement. The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial cuneiform) are examples of short bones. ->Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid). They often have a fairly complex shape, which helps protect internal organs. For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the spinal cord. The irregular bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic cavity. ->Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, round bones are commonly found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones function to protect tendons from stress and wear. The patella, commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone.

Age estimation methods. Which bones and features are most informative and why. Be able to explain the age estimation methods covered in class and in the required readings, including their main limitations and advantages. For each method you should know the general pattern of how features used in age assessment change over time (you do not need to memorize every single stage or phase) Be able to determine the age of an individual based on these methods and explain your assessment. Questions about age assessment would be based on extreme (obvious) cases

-A method with which skeletal age can be determined in subadults is bone fusion. At birth, the skeleton is only partially formed and since bones mature at a fairly predictable rate, evaluating the fusion between them can give an indication of age. Since growth stops and thus fusion slows as well, this method is not as reliable when older. The most accurate method for determining skeletal age for subadults is commonly believed to be the assessments made from dental formation. Dental formation can assess age through evaluating individual teeth, utilizing local standards and sex and population differences. Although this method does not provide as accurate and reliable of an estimate as the individual grows older and is adult. -Evaluating the pubic symphysis is a method commonly used for determining skeletal age at death in adults. The pubic symphysis refers to the surface at which the two innominate articulate anteriorly. As an individual goes through adulthood, the pubic symphysis changes its appearance, including eroding at a greater or lesser extent of its length and disfiguring. Another method is evaluating the sternal end of the fourth rib which can estimate age as the sternal end begins to form a pit in adulthood. Out of the two methods listed, evaluating the pubic symphysis method is said to be more reliable because there is less variation in the ribs at any given age

Bone biomechanics associated with trauma interpretations

-Bone exhibits viscoelastic properties (with both viscous and elastic characteristics) when undergoing deformation -Ductile materials undergo a period of elastic deformation before failure (e.g. aluminum) -Brittle materials undergo little, if any, plastic deformation before failure (e.g. glass)

Explosive and burning trauma

-Explosive and burning trauma is associated with the application of high energies through blast waves or the application of thermal energy through heat induction or radiation -Models established for explosive and burning trauma have almost exclusively been developed using nonhuman analogues -Alteration and damage of evidence that is vital to the identification process • Cases that deal with the accidental or intentional burning or explosive disruption of human remains are very difficult to analyze

Forensic Archaeology vs. Forensic Anthropology

-Forensic archaeology is the application of archaeological skills to forensic contexts - Forensic anthropology is the examination of human remains that are more or less skeletonized within a forensic context

AAPA statement on race (PDF available: Brightspace -> Content -> Readings ->Week 5) o Understand the key points

-The concept of rase was a classification system that emerged from European colonialism and does not have any roots in biological basis, but instead is a social reality that structures societies. -Race does not provide a clear picture of genetic ancestry. -Humans cannot be divided into clear discrete units or groups as no group of people has ever been biologically homogeneous and the distribution among humans is in a manner that does not map clearly onto socially recognized racial groups. -While race is not biology, racism is real and can have biological and social consequences that negatively impact our lives.

Genetic ancestry o How well does it trace ancestry at continental and subcontinental levels? o Case of Baton Rouge killer

-Since all of the cases involved sexual assaults, Lee's DNA was obtained from his semen at the crime scenes, which showed a serial rapist/killer was involved. It also enabled investigators to conclude the killer was African-American. A muddy footprint at one of the crime scenes led to the identification of the type of shoe worn by the killer, but efforts to use this information to identify the killer were unsuccessful. The DNA information was eventually used to determine whether a rape case might exist in which the victim survived to identify the rapist. Such a case was found in which the DNA matched the serial rapist/killer and in which a computer cord was used to try and strangle the victim before he was interrupted and fled the scene with the computer cord still in his hand.

Postmortem changes on skeletal remains by animal scavenging o Carnivore damage (covered in week 11)o Rodent damageo Herbivore damage o Type of damage left by each animal group

-Taphonomic alterations on skeletal remains are largely destructive (e.g., animal scavenging may remove entire bones) -Loss of biological information available to the examiner -But...estimation of postmortem interval, area of expected dispersal, and reconstructions of ecological system associated with remains -Long bones. Two important food (fat) resources: 1) marrow cavity, 2) epiphyses -Carnivore gnawing on long bones starts on the epiphyses -Process leaves a cylinder-like bone -Longboneepiphysesandweakerbonesarevulnerableto post-depositional forces associated with carnivore damage

Chronological vs. biological age

-chronological age is the number of years a person has been alive -biological age refers to how old a person seems. It is influenced by genetics, diet, lifestyle, exercise and sleeping habits, diseases, etc. -any age estimate derived from skeletal age at death is at best a rough approx. of chronological age at death

Objectives of Forensic Anthropologists

-obtain biological/skeletal profile from the remains, including age at death, sex, stature and ancestry -ascertain whether there is evidence of trauma on the skeleton. identify cause of trauma and time of it -through decomposition, contribute understanding of amount of time has elapsed since death (post-mortem interval) -assist in recovering and locating buried human remains -provide info on positive identification of the deceased individual (expert testimony)

Medicolegal death investigation system in the US. What is it and what is it responsible for?

-performed in accordance with state law -responsible for conducting death investigations certifying the cause and manner of unnatural unexplained deaths (including homicides, suicides, unintentional injuries, drug-related deaths, and other deaths that are sudden or unexpected) -medicolegal death investigations represent ~20% of the 2.4 million deaths in the US each year -conducted by coroner and medical examiner systems

Antemortem trauma. Healing process. Timing of healing process

1. Inflammatory response: formation of Hematoma or clotted blood at the site of the break2. Reparative stage: formation of the fibrous callus3. Formation of the primary bony callus (woven bone). Primary bony callus is the transformed into the secondary bony callus (woven bone is replaced by cortical bone) 4. The secondary callus is remodeled and reduced over time. Bone returns to its original shape

Processing protocols. Make sure to know the basic steps for processing and their correct order. You should be able to define and explain them, including when forensic anthropologists should use them (e.g. maceration), as well as to determine the pros and cons of these processing methods when dealing with remains from forensic contexts

1. manage evidence 2. initial description 3. clean evidence 4. inventory evidence 5. analyze evidence 7. return evidence Maceration is the softening of the soft tissue (and any other adhering material) by soaking the remains in water. This process can be done either through warm-water maceration or cold-water maceration. In cold water maceration, remains are soaked in a sealed container in cold water to allow soft tissue to decompose slowly through bacterial reaction. The process is slower than warm-water maceration and it may take weeks to clean remains. Water should be changed periodically, and bones should also be removed from the container periodically to pull out adhering flesh. Dermestid beetles feed on soft tissue, particularly dried skin. It is a slow, non-destructive method to clean bones. Beetle colonies are not easy to maintain and they should always be kept within a sealed container to avoid contamination to other collections stored in the lab. Cleaning remains through dermestid beetles is a lengthy process that may require months to clean an entire skeleton. Bone processing can also be done using chemical agents such as bleach and acids to degrease bones and remove soft tissue. It is a quick method, but it can degrade bone and the DNA contained in it. The use of chemical agents can also be hazardous to people. Considering time constraints and the forensic nature of the case, the most appropriate method to use on the remains is warm-water maceration. The method is relatively quick and safe to the bones. While cold-warm maceration and dermestid beetles are associated with good preservation of skeletal details, both methods are time consuming and thus impractical in most forensic contexts. The use of chemical agents is the least preferred option as the quality of bone and DNA can be seriously compromised.

The human skeleton. How many bones are found in the adult skeleton? What is it composed of (organic and inorganic components)? Main functions of the skeleton

206. The organic part of bone is a protein ossein and collagen fibers (33%) and the inorganic is mainly calcium phosphate (67%). Main functions: -support structure for body -gives shape, allows movement, makes blood cells, provides protection for organs and stores minerals

Mass disaster: What is it? What are the kinds of disasters that can occur?

A mass disaster is commonly construed as an event (air, naval, railway, or motorway accident, flooding, earthquake, and so on), resulting in a large number of victims that need to be identified and subject to medicolegal investigation.

Timing of trauma: antemortem, perimortem, postmortem. How do you differentiate among them? Definition and identification

Antemortem trauma - refers to trauma that occurred before death. It shows signs of healing. The edges of an antemortem defect are smooth. Postmortem trauma - refers to bony damage that occurred after death. If the postmortem damage occurs after the bone has lost most of its collagen, fracture edges appear jagged and irregular. Perimortem trauma - refers to trauma that occurs at or around the time of death. Perimortem fractures do not show signs of callus formation and healing, but the edges of the fracture are not as jagged as postmortem fractures of dry bone It may be difficult to distinguish between perimortem and early postmortem trauma

Views about the world and human origins before Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection

Before Darwin's theory of natural selection, Lamarckianism, Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism were thought to explain how species change.

Bones in the cranial and postcranial skeleton, including location and main features (as indicated in the TermstoKnow.pdf). You should also know the elements bones articulate with (e.g., Assignment 3- questions 2 and 3) and to be able to side the bones identified with * in lecture slides

Bones in the cranial: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid The postcranial skeleton includes all the bones and cartilages caudal to the head skeleton; it is subdivided into axial components and appendicular components. Axial skeleton: consists of the braincase (cranium) and the backbone and ribs, and it serves primarily to protect the central nervous system. Appendicular skeleton: Alongside axial skeleton, the other major bone group is comprised of the upper and lower limbs, together with the shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle. Bones of the limbs are attached to the axial skeleton by the means of the shoulder and pelvic girdle. List all of the bones articulate (touch) the frontal bone. · The sphenoid · The ethmoid · The two parietals · The two nasals · The two maxillae · The two lacrimals · Two zygomatics List all of the bones that articulate with the temporal bone. · The sphenoid bone · Parietal bone · Occipital bone · Zygomatic

Cranial landmarks (the 9 cranial landmarks covered in class). Be able to define and identify them in the skull

Bregma: The bregma is the midline bony landmark where the coronal and sagittal sutures meet, between the frontal and two parietal bones. It is the anterior fontanelle in the neonate and closes in the second year 2 (typically around 18 months after birth). Glabella: The glabella, in humans, is the area of skin between the eyebrows and above the nose. The term also refers to the underlying bone that is slightly depressed, and joins the two brow ridges. It is a cephalometric landmark that is just superior to the nasion Nasospinale: point where a line tangent to the inferior most points of the two inferior curves of the anterior nasal aperture margin crosses the midline Nasion: midline point where the two nasal bones and the frontal intersect pterion: region rather than point where frontal, temporal, parietal, and sphenoid meet on side of vault opisthocranion: instrumentally determined point at the rear of the cranium. It is defined as the midline ectocranial point at the farthest chord length from glabella basion: midline point on anterior margin of foramen magnum opisthion: midline point at posterior margin of the foramen magnum lambda: ectocranial midline point where sagittal and lambdoid sutures intersect

Know why the following people are important, what theories/viewpoints they created/held, and how they did/did not contribute to the theory of evolution: -Carolus Linnaeus -Jean-Baptiste Lamarck -Georges Cuvier -George Louis Leclerc de Buffon -Charles Lyell -Thomas Malthus -Erasmus Darwin -Charles Darwin -Alfred Russell Wallace

Carolus Linnaeus -made the classification system called taxonomy but did not believe in theory of evolution Jean-Baptiste Lamarck -one of the first scientists to recognize that evolution has occurred and that organisms change to live more successfully in their environment. He believed things evolve in a continuous direction from dead matter toward human perfection. Georges Cuvier -He was the first to demonstrate that the different strata of rock in the Paris basin each had its own mammal fauna. Furthermore, he showed that the lower a stratum was, the more different its fossil animals were from species living in the present. Yet Cuvier rejected the idea of organic evolution George Louis Leclerc de Buffon -According to Georges-Louis Leclerc, a set number of distinct types of life generated near a central point. He suggested that species then went under change as they migrated, affected by their new environments. In a way, Leclerc was proposing a sort of proto-evolutionary hypothesis nearly 100 years before Darwin Charles Lyell -was one the earliest men to embrace Darwin's theory of natural selection in biology. Lyell's geological contributions ranged from volcanoes and geological dynamics through stratigraphy, paleontology, and glaciology to subjects that would now be considered as parts of prehistoric archaeology and paleoanthropology Thomas Malthus -he published the Principle of Population where he made the observations that the human race would be likely to overproduce if the population size was not kept under control. Malthus' work made Darwin realize the importance of overpopulation and how it was necessary to have variability in different populations. Darwin also used Malthus' ideas to use competition as well as the survival in numbers idea to come up with his full idea of natural selection. Erasmus Darwin -he did publish a book about how adaptations result in speciation. These ideas, passed down to his grandson, helped shape Charles's views on evolution and natural selection. Charles Darwin -theory of evolution states that evolution happens by natural selection, organisms evolve over generations through the inheritance of physical or behavioral traits Alfred Russell Wallace -After a variety of zoological discoveries, Wallace proposed a theory of evolution which matched the unpublished ideas Darwin had kept secret for nearly 20 years. This encouraged Darwin to collect his scientific ideas and collaborate with Wallace. They published their scientific ideas jointly in 1858.

Human variation and skin color o Be able to discuss the selective factors associated with skin color variation

Complex traits like skin pigment are continuous; race categories are discrete. populations with darker skin colors occur in the tropics. lighter skin as you move from equator. -all humans have the same number of melanocytes (cells that produce melanin) but amount and type of melanin produced is controlled by multiple genes -darker skin- higher levels of melanin production -Human skin pigmentation is the product of two clines produced by natural selection to adjust levels of constitutive pigmentation to levels of UV radiation (UVR). One cline was generated by high UVR near the equator and led to the evolution of dark, photoprotective, eumelanin-rich pigmentation. The other was produced by the requirement for UVB photons to sustain cutaneous photosynthesis of vitamin D3 in low-UVB environments, and resulted in the evolution of depigmented skin.

DNA databases (have a general idea of the amount of data available and their importance) o National DNA Index System (USA) o UK National DNA Database

DNA database or DNA databank is a database of DNA profiles which can be used in the analysis of genetic diseases, genetic fingerprinting for criminology, or genetic genealogy. DNA databases may be public or private, the largest ones being national DNA databases. National DNA Index System (NDIS) is a system of DNA profile records input by criminal justice agencies (including state and local law enforcement agencies). The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is the automated DNA information processing and telecommunication system that supports NDIS.

Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT).

Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams (DMORTs) support local mortuary services on location, working to quickly and accurately identify victims and reunite victims with their loved ones in a dignified, respectful manner.DMORTs are deployed to supplement federal, state, local, tribal and territorial resources at the request of local authorities. On location during or after transportation accidents, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and pandemics such as COVID-19, they focus on the recovery, decontamination, examination, identification, and return of deceased victims to help families, friends and communities find closure.

Dislocation and subluxation

Dislocation: Displacement of the bone from its normal orientation at the joint (e.g. hip dislocation) Subluxation: Partial displacement of the bone (e.g. hip subluxation)

Anatomical/directional terms for the entire skeleton (for both bipeds and quadrupeds)

Distal:Away from the trunk of the body, along a limb Postcranial:Pertaining to all of the skeleton except the skull Superior:Toward the head Cranial:Pertaining to the head Proximal:Toward the trunk of the body, along a limb Posterior:Toward the back of the body Inferior:Toward the feet, away from the head Lateral:Away from the midline of the body Anterior:Toward the front of the body Medial:Toward the midline of the body Dorsal: Upper or back side of body Ventral: Front part of the body Palmar: Pertaining to the palm of the hand Plantar:Relating to the sole of the foot

Fordisc: What is it? How does it work and what are some of its limitations?

Fordisc (Jantz and Ousley, 2012) is a statistics-based software with the main purpose of estimating ancestry, sex, and stature of unknown individualsand can therefore help with the assessment of a biological profile. Furthermore, it can be used to perform group comparisons using different types of data. Called Fordisc, the program determines ancestry through discriminant function analysis of cranial measurements. We evaluated the utility of Fordisc with 200 specimens of known ancestry. Some of these limitations include the fact that ForDisc will classify any unknown into the 'closest' group, this means that even if an individual's ethnic group or race is not represented in the database, the program will classify it to the 'closest' group.

Forensic DNA phenotyping. What is it? How can it be used in forensic contexts? Commonly used phenotype markers. Limitations

Forensic DNA Phenotyping refers to the prediction of appearance traits of unknown sample donors, or unknown deceased (missing) persons, directly from biological materials found at the scene.The main advantage of STR markers is due to their high allele diversity, making such markers highly informative. The most polymorphic STRs have a high discriminating power (probability that two randomly selected individuals have distinct genotypes) and low probability of match (probability that two randomly selected individuals have identical genotypes).1,2 In practical terms, these values ensure that each individual in the world population (except for identical twins) may have a unique genetic profile. The main disadvantage lies in the fact that this type of examination is uniquely comparative, requiring a pair of unknown/reference samples to be compared. In the absence of such a pair, the only possibility would be searching a DNA database containing suspects' profiles. Another disadvantage is the structure of the STR markers, which are composed of repetitions from ~100 to 300 base pairs in length. There are situations in which biological material from the crime scene is so degraded that DNA samples obtained are not feasible of obtaining enough data for an accurate identification.4

Fracture. What is it? How does it occur? Classification based on forces to bone

Fracture is the interruption of the structural continuity and integrity of the bone Conditions to produce a bone fracture: 1.The presence of a single traumatic event 2. Repeated stress 3. Abnormal weakening of the bone Fracture is generally classified into 5 forces that compromise the bone: tension, compression, flexion, shearing, and torsion

Paranasal sinuses (frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, maxillary)

Frontal Sinus: A type of paranasal sinus (a hollow space in the bones around the nose). There are two, large frontal sinuses in the frontal bone, which forms the lower part of the foreheadand reaches over the eye sockets and eyebrows. The frontal sinuses are lined with cells that make mucus to keep the nose from drying out. Ethmoidal sinus: A type of paranasal sinus (a hollow space in the bones around the nose). Ethmoid sinuses are found in the spongy ethmoid bone in the upper part of the nose between the eyes. They are lined with cells that make mucus to keep the nose from drying out. Sphenoidal sinus: Sinuses are air-filled sacs (empty spaces) on either side of the nasal cavity that filter and clean the air breathed through the nose and lighten the bones of the skull. Maxillary sinus: The maxillary sinus is one of the four paranasal sinuses, which are sinuses located near the nose. The maxillary sinus is the largest of the paranasal sinuses. The two maxillary sinuses are located below the cheeks, above the teeth and on the sides of the nose

Homology vs. homoplasy

Homology is defined as the similarity between the characters that come from the same ancestor. Homoplasy is defined as similar characters but is not derived from the same ancestor. Homology is any common element that comes due to evolutionary change in the structure and parts of different organisms from the common ancestor. Homoplasy is when the organ of the two organisms works with similar features and functions due to similarity in the environment rather than any ancestral link.

Humanitarian vs. human rights (judicial) investigations. o Be able to know the difference between themo Role of forensic anthropologists in humanitarian and human rights investigations o Structural violence

Humanitarian investigations are typically more limited in scope, emphasizing assistance to the living, respect for the deceased, and alleviation of suffering. Human rights investigations focus on protection of individuals/communities through the investigation of legal violations and holding perpetrators accountable for their actions." In both humanitarian and human rights investigations, victims might have been subjected to structural violence.

Adaptation

In evolutionary theory, adaptation is the biological mechanism by which organisms adjust to new environments or to changes in their current environment.

How natural selection works

In natural selection, genetic mutations that are beneficial to an individual's survival are passed on through reproduction. This results in a new generation of organisms that are more likely to survive to reproduce. For example, evolving long necks has enabled giraffes to feed on leaves that others can't reach, giving them a competitive advantage. Thanks to a better food source, those with longer necks were able to survive to reproduce and so pass on the characteristic to the succeeding generation. Those with shorter necks and access to less food would be less likely to survive to pass on their genes.

Forensic genetic genealogy o How does it work in forensic contexts?o How can it help in the identification purposes? o GEDmatch databanko Case of Golden Gate killer

Investigative genetic genealogy, or forensic genetic genealogy is the emerging practice of utilizing genetic information from direct-to-consumer companies for identifying suspects or victims in criminal cases. -When DeAngelo was arrested, prosecutors would say only that they had used family tree searches to find relatives of the killer and, from there, identified DeAngelo. Shortly after, a detective confirmed the investigative team had uploaded semen from a rape kit to develop a fresh DNA profile that was then uploaded to GEDmatch, an open-source platform frequently used by members of the public to trace their heritage. What prosecutors did not disclose is that genetic material from the rape kit was first sent to FamilyTreeDNA, which created a DNA profile and allowed law enforcement to set up a fake account to search for matching customers. When that produced only distant leads, a civilian geneticist working with investigators uploaded the forensic profile to MyHeritage. It was the MyHeritage search that identified the close relative who helped break the case.

Joints. Types of Joints and their definitions. Be able to provide examples for each.

Joints are the areas where 2 or more bones meet. Joints consist of the following: cartilage, synovial membrane, ligaments, tendons, bursas, synovial fluid, meniscus. -Ball-and-socket joints, such as the shoulder and hip joints, allow backward, forward, sideways, and rotating movements. -Hinge joints, such as in the fingers, knees, elbows, and toes, allow only bending and straightening movements. -Pivot joints, such as the neck joints, allow limited rotating movements. -Ellipsoidal joints, such as the wrist joint, allow all types of movement except pivotal movements.

Medico legal significance: What is it? Main questions addressed when trying to determine the medicolegal significance of remains recovered. Know how forensic anthropologists address each of these questions (including methods and analyses generally used). Be able to identify or provide examples of what is and is not of medicolegal significance

MC significance: material that is of interest of the medicolegal death investigation system for identification or criminal prosecution. Remains <50-75 years old, found in non-burial context. Forensic anthropologists assess that a set of remains might not be of medicolegal significance if the material they are identifying is non-skeletal, if the skeletal material is nonhuman and if the human skeletal material is historic/prehistoric. Methods used for if skeletal: -visual examination -microscopic examination -radiologic examination -elemental analysis Methods for if human: -gross skeletal anatomy -macrostructure -microstructure (histology) biochemical analysis Methods for if material recent: -state of preservation -antemortem body modification (bicultural indicators) -associated personal belongings (cultural indicators) -conditions of interment Examples of non-medicolegally significant human remains include individuals from archaeological contexts, disturbed cemeteries, anatomical teaching specimens, dissected cadavers

Minimum number of individuals

MIN refers to the fewest possible number of people or animals in skeletal assemblage. Counting the MNI from sided bones (bones we have pairs of, a left and right) is easier. Count all the left sided bones, then count all the right sided bones, and the larger of the two numbers becomes your MNI.

Medical Examiners and Coroners: know the differences between both systems, requirements to practice, advantages and disadvantages, and when they were introduced in the US

Medical Examiner (1918): +quality of death investigations and forensic pathology services and their independence from population size, county budget variation, and politics +uniformity +centralized administration that can sustain the cost of central laboratories -strong leadership and human-resource management -attention to state budget priorities and competition with other agencies Coroners (1637): +autonomy +ability to represent the will of the electorate -laws are generally less specific and so they are not medically proficient to carry out a good investigation -variability in terms of minimum requirements -more likely to be influenced by conflicts of interest

Differences and main responsibilities associated with Medical Examiners vs. Coroners vs. Forensic Anthropologists

Medical examiners: -almost always physicians -appointed and usually pathologists -often and ideally forensic pathologists (study of disease and injury of interest to public or courts) Coroners: -usually elected -usually not physicians with minimal requirements -usually must rely upon the help of pathologists for autopsies -often have other jobs that take priority Forensic anthropologists: -assist law enforcement with location and recovery of human remains -cleans bones to examine and analyze skeletal remains to establish biological profile -interpret trauma evident on bones to establish extent and type of injuries

Forensic genetics. Markers and current methods. Pros and cons of each marker in forensic contexts

One of the central aspects of forensic genetics is the use of genetic markers, which are the easily identifiable phenotypes of genotypes. Genetic markers generally have features such as strong polymorphisms, codominant expression and ease of observation and recording. Examples of genetic markers are single polymorphism nucleotides (SNPs) and microsatellites.

Journal of Forensic Sciences. Letter to the Editor (PDF available: Brightspace -> Content -> Readings ->Week 5) -Understand the key points of the TWO commentaries - Ancestry in forensic contexts. Arguments for and against its inclusion in biological profiles -Potential issues associated with ancestry assessments

One of these issues includes that while a lot of anthropologists have rejected the validity of social race as biologically grounded, there are still anthropologists that continue to reference and depend on erroneous race science ancestry estimates. Another detrimental issue that is affecting ancestry estimates is the "Missing White Woman Syndrome", which is influenced not only be anthropologists but also police, victim advocacy, medicolegal and law enforcement. This syndrome is a result of there being a disproportionate media coverage and attention given to missing white women compared to other women of colour or men. It has also resulted in anthropologists or medical examiners jumping to conclusions when determining the ancestry of a victim.

Cell types. Osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts

Osteoblast synthesizes bone though secreting a collagen matrix and calcium salts. Osteocytes are formed from osteoblast and are mature bone cells involved with the maintenance of bone. Osteoclast breaks down bone tissue and stems from monocytes and macrophages.

Phases of archaeological investigation applied to forensic contexts. You should be able to explain and give examples for each phase, the main tasks and methods used in each

Phase I (Identification):2. Visual or Pedestrian Search: conduct a detailed walkover search of an area and flag all significant objects (without removing or disturbing them). 3. Technological aids may be useful in the search—GPS, aerial photography, thermal (infrared) imagery, and geophysical methods (e.g., GPR—Ground Penetrating Radar, Electrical Resistivity, Metal Detectors). 4. Decomposition (cadaver) dogs may aid in the identification of burials, given appropriate climatic conditions. Phase II (Evaluation):. Confirm that the remains are indeed human (and not animal); Human vs. Animal Bone 2. Assess the age of the remains (Assessing Time Since Death or Postmortem Interval): Phase III (Mitigation/Data Recovery): 1. Document site topography, climate, etc. through field sketches, notes, and photographs. Keep a photographic log; 2. After identification of surface remains or a possible grave site, photograph the site as it initially appears, then carefully remove vegetation WITHOUT disturbing potentially significant objects; 3. Establish datum and grid over investigation site; 4. Begin field map of site and map in place the locations of all surface objects, again photographing all exposed objects or remains using a scale and north arrow.

Be able to explain the sex estimation methods covered in class and in the required readings, including their main advantages and limitations. For each method you should know the general pattern of how features used in sex assessment vary between males and females (you do not need to memorize every single score associated with sex estimation methods)

Phenice method: 1. ventral arc 2. degree of subpubic concavity 3. shape of ischiopubic ramus wide sciatic notch->female Skull morphology: five features (nuchal crest, mastoid process, supraorbital margin, glabellar region, and mental eminence)

Monogenism & polygenism

Polygenism is a theory of human origins which posits the view that the human races are of different origins (polygenesis). This view is opposite to the idea of monogenism, which posits a single origin of humanity. Monogenism takes the position that the whole human race is descended from a single couple or a single individual. Polygenism is more likely.According to the first (called monophyletic polygenism), since evolution always proceeds within an interbreeding group, humanity would have first appeared among a number of individuals, whose progeny gradually spread world-wide through emigration. Thus, one would speak of a first community rather than a first couple or man. The second type (called polyphyletic polygenism) hypothesizes that the human species arose through separate evolutionary lines in a number of different places at different times, with the different lines converging to form our present population.

Primary vs. secondary burial

Primary burial: the initial burial of a human body Secondary burial: human remains who were exhumed and reburied. It involves the additional manipulation of the human remains, whether intentional or accidental

What are the three primary identifiers of the victim identity? What are some of the secondary identifiers generally considered in DVI (name at least three)?

Primary identifiers: - Dental records - Fingerprints - DNA Secondary identifiers: - Personal description - Personal effects - Medical findings other than dental, fingerprints, or DNA

Ancestry and Race : - Differences between them - Implications of the terms

Race: socially constructed mechanism for self-identification ancestry: an inidivudals ancestral geographic region of origin

What are the four phases of DVI? Disaster Victim Identification

Scene: Ensures scene safety for DVI team and accounts for all victims with due respect and attention. Post-mortem phase: removes victims from the scene and performs the postmortem examination to identify cause of death and victim identity. Ante-mortem phase: Liaison with family using standardized format to get information to identify the victim. Reconciliation: ante and post mortem records are compared.

Gender vs. biological sex.

Sex and gender are defined differently in anthropology, the former as grounded in perceived biological differences and the latter as the cultural constructions observed, performed, and understood in any given society, often based on those perceived biological differences.

Parabon snapshot. What kind of information does it provide? Facial reconstruction and its genetic basis. Problems associated with a 'genetic'-based facial reconstruction

Snapshot is a cutting-edge forensic DNA analysis service that provides a variety of tools for solving hard cases quickly: Genetic Genealogy: Identify a subject by searching for relatives in public databases and building family trees.DNA Phenotyping: Predict physical appearance and ancestry of an unknown person from their DNA.Kinship Inference: Determine kinship between DNA samples out to six degrees of relatedness. Snapshot is ideal for generating investigative leads, narrowing suspect lists, and solving human remains cases, without wasting time and money chasing false leads.

Cranial sutures (4 main sutures covered in class)

Squamosal suture: the cranial suture between the temporal and parietal bones bilaterally. coronal suture: sagittal suture: lambdoidal suture:

Taphonomy. Definition. Importance of taphonomy in forensic investigations

Taphonomy = laws of burial -Analysis of depositional history of a particular set of remains -The scope of taphonomy within a forensic context is broad (perimortem and postmortem processes + soft and hard tissues) -Forensic pathologists: changes to the body in the immediate postmortem period -Forensic anthropologists: later postmortem changes to the soft and hard tissues (e.g., mummification, skeletonization)

Determining sex in adults vs. subadults

The accuracy of sex estimation is undoubtedly lower in juveniles than in adults. ... There are differences in the timing of skeletal and dental growth between subadult males and females, which, when compared to the few traits that are actually dimorphic could serve as a measure of sexual dimorphism. There are two major obstacles to research attempts in this area: (1) there is a lack of large, known skeletal samples of subadults and (2) the smaller size of the bones increases the significance of measurement error. Due to the dearth of juvenile skeletal samples, many of the studies of sexual dimorphism in subadults have used radiographs, which do not necessarily compare well with dry bones

Location differences between the appendicular and axial skeleton (be able to identify which bones belong to each)

The axial skeleton forms the vertical axis of the body and includes the bones of the head, neck, back, and chest of the body. It consists of 80 bones that include the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones and includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs.

Bone growth and development. Diaphysis, metaphysis, and epiphysis.

The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow. The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone. The metaphyses (singular: metaphysis) are the wide portions of long bones and the regions of the bone where growth occurs. Growth occurs at the section of the metaphysis that is adjacent to the growth plate (physis). The metaphysis is located between the diaphysis and epiphysis. The epiphyses (singular: epiphysis) are the rounded portions at the ends of a bone separated from the metaphysis by the physis. The epiphysis contributes to a joint, compared with an apophysis which is a site of tendon or ligament attachment. Once the growth plate has fused, the epiphysis and metaphysis are joined and it is only the metaphysis.

What was the main piece of evidence (i.e., primary identifier) used to identify victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami?

The main piece of evidence was dental records as approximately 50% of victims in the 2004 tsunami were IDed on dental findings.

Open vs. closed populations. Definition. Examples

The population is of two types such as open and closed population. The significant difference between the open and closed populations are In the open population in which migration occurs and in a closed population the immigration and migration do not occur. The population growth of a closed population depends on the difference between birth and death, and the open population growth depends on the natural increase and net migration.

Ontogeny (know and be able to define the differences between intramembranous and endochondral ossification)

The process of individual development from a single cell, an egg cell or a zygote, to an adult organism is known as ontogeny. The main difference between endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification is that the endochondral ossification is the method of forming a bone through a cartilage intermediate while the intramembranous ossification directly forms the bone on the mesenchyme. Furthermore, endochondral ossification is involved in the formation of long bones while intramembranous ossification is involved in the formation of flat bones.

What is the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH) and why is it important?

The puposes of SWGANTH are: - To develop consensus best-practice guidelines and establish minimum standards for the Forensic Anthropology discipline; - To dissemnate SWGANTH guidelines, studies, and other findings that may be of benefit to the forensic community.

Genetic analysis: reality vs. fiction

The study of a sample of DNA to look for mutations (changes) that may increase risk of disease or affect the way a person responds to treatment. Results of genetic testing can often be uninformative and ultimately can cause more stress and anxiety over the possibility of a disease you may never get. Genetic testing should be encouraged only when there is effective therapy available to prevent or treat the condition tested for.

Know the general dental anatomy

The tooth has two anatomical parts, the crown and the root. The crown is the top part that is exposed and visible above the gum (gingiva). It is covered with enamel, which protects the underlying dentine. The root of a tooth descends below the gum line anchoring the tooth in the mouth.

Make sure you have a general understanding of the first and last bones to fuse

The usual progression of fusion of growth plates is elbow first, then foot and ankle, then hand and wrist, then knee, then hip and pelvis, and last the shoulder and clavicle. Medial clavicular epiphysis (clavicle) is the long bone epiphysis to fuse last and therefore, is useful for estimating age in the post-pubertal period. Measuring the length of long bones can give an estimate of age for children, but this technique is useful only until bones have stopped growing.

Dental tissues (types, definition, location, and composition)

Your teeth are composed of four dental tissues. Three of them—enamel, dentin and cementum—are hard tissues. The fourth tissue—pulp, or the center of the tooth that contains nerves, blood vessels and connective tissue—is a soft, or non-calcified, tissue. Enamel is the outer most layer of the tooth that protects teeth from the elements that cause cavities. It is the hardest surface in the human body and the first line of defense against cavities. It is the visual surface of the tooth, and usually stops around the gum line. Think of enamel as a barrier that shields your teeth from harm. The layer directly beneath enamel is dentin, which is made up of microscopic tubes! It is a sensitive layer that surrounds pulp, and plays a pivotal role in communicating sensations from the surface of your teeth to the nerves inside your teeth. Without dentin, our teeth wouldn't feel the difference between ice cream and hot soup! Cementum is layer between the root of teeth and gums. It is primarily beneath the gum line, and helps anchor teeth to the bones in the jaw. Cementum is really cool because it can actually repair itself! Think of Cementum as the foundation of a home that keeps the house (tooth) grounded and secure. Dental pulp is the living tissue at the core of teeth, and acts as an alarm bell that sends signals sent from the dentin to the brain. Pulp is soft and contains a large network of nerves and blood vessels. It is the most sensitive and important part of teeth, and can be very sensitive if it is ever exposed.

Secular changes

a change in trends over time. There has been a significant increase in height during the course of the last century. changes in adult stature have been found to correlate with variables such as income distribution, nutrition, sanitary conditions and medical care.

Aging adults vs. subadults

adults, it is much more difficult to estimate age-at-death since the body has stopped growing and you are then looking at degenerative changes over time which are affected by health, occupation, status, etc.

Estimation methods for stature : -Which bones and features are most informative and why -Be able to explain the stature estimation methods covered in class and in the required readings -Be able to determine the stature of an individual based on these methods and to explain your assessment

anatomical method: individual skeletal elements are summed to provide a direct stature estimate mathematical method: regression equations based on lengths of skeletal elements (usually long bones) are used to calculate stature stature=a+bx+SE (a:y intercept of line, b_slope, x:bone measurement, SE:standard error)

Difference between cause and manner of death

cause of death: any injury or disease that produces a physiological derangement in the body that results in the individual dying manner of death: the circumstance that gave rise to cause of death (natural causes, accident, homicide, suicide, and undetermined)

Know the main characteristics of trabecular, compact, and woven bone

compact bone is a tough and heavy bone made up of compactly packed osteons. Trabecular bone is a soft and light bone made up of loosely packed trabeculae. The first type of bone formed developmentally is primary or woven bone (immature).Woven bone is characterized by the irregular organization of collagen fibers and is mechanically weak, but forms quickly.

Know the difference between the postcranial and cranial skeleton

cranial skeleton (cranium and mandible). The postcranial skeleton includes all the bones and cartilages caudal to the head skeleton; it is subdivided into axial components and appendicular components.

Chain of custody

documentation of evidence allowing for legal custody to be traced from the scene to initial agency and to subsequent agencies. Presentation in court requires a continuous chain of custody

Make sure to know which bones/parts of the skeleton are of particular importance for the creation of the biological profile. As well as, their contribution in assessing the cause and manner of death and/or their ability to provide additional information in forensic investigations (e.g. hyoid for cause and manner of death if hanging or strangulation is suspected, pelvis for sex estimation, sinuses and atypical skeletal features for individualization, teeth for age estimation)

hyoid for cause and manner of death if hanging or strangulation is suspected, pelvis for sex estimation, sinuses and atypical skeletal features for individualization, teeth for age estimation)

Tooth types (characteristics and location in the dental arcade)

incisors, canines, premolars, molars, and third molars. Four of the five types will come in as primary teeth and then as permanent teeth which will replace the primary teeth.

4 traditional fields of Anthropology

linguistic anthropology, archaeology, sociocultural anthropology, physical/biological anthropology

Main examination methods used by Forensic Anthropologists

macroscopic (visual) analysis: conducting an inventory of remains, assessing overall condition of material, describing taphonomic changes, estimating sex, age, and ancestry, and interpreting pathology and trauma metric analysis: osteometry (measurement of bones) radiology other techniques include 3D geometric morphometrics, histology, computed tomography

Microevolution vs. macroevolution

microevolution: changes in gene frequency that occur within a population without producing a new species macroevolution: evolution at the level of species or higher (a population becomes so different that it is no longer able to reproduce with members of other populations)

Pathology. What is it? Pathology as a secondary marker of identification when dealing with skeletal remains. Advantages and limitations

o Pathology: "study of disease"o Pathology as a secondary indicator of identity in forensic contexts o The skeleton is the last body system to respond toan "aggression" o Many diseases that do not leave any sign on bones o Only 5 % to 20 % progress to skeletal expression o Antemortem records

Main types of pathological conditions discussed in lecture and required readings. Be able to briefly describe/explain the common manifestations left on the skeleton. Having an idea of the general patterns is sufficient, no specific details will be asked

oArthropathy: joint disease o Most common form of arthropathy: osteoarthritis o Articular deterioration begins with damage to the cartilage through biomechanical stress or by trauma o Osteoporosis o Affected individuals tend to have limited mobility Congenital skeletal anomalies are a consequence of pathological alterations suffered during intrauterine life o Examples: (1) polydactyly, (2) cleft palate, (3) craniosynostosis, (4) congenital dislocation of the hip, (5) Klippel-Feil syndrome, and (6) spina bifida

estimation methods for body weight

oMorphometric method calculates body mass based on relationships between different measurements of the skeleton, typically stature and bi-iliac breadth. o Biomechanical method is based on biomechanical principles of load bearing on the diaphysis and articulations of the weight-bearing bones of the lower limb

Sex estimation methods. Which bones and features are most informative and why.

sexing methods can be divided into two: morphological (shape) and metric (size) sex-specific morphological aspects are primarily found in the pelvis and the skulls. Pelvis is best indicator (>90%) -In females the pelvic inlet is wider and more open than in males and the lower sacral vertebrae and coccyx do not curve under as they do in males. -Males tend to have narrow sciatic notch, while females usually exhibit a wide notch. -The subpubic region is located on the pubis, inferiorly to the obturator foramen. In females, the subpubic region is concave, while in males the subpubic region is either straight or convex. -In general, females have longer pubic bones and wider subpubic angles than males. -the mastoid process is larger in males than in females. In males, there is often a ridge above the mastoid process from the posterior zygomatic arch. -The nuchal crest located on the occipital bone at the back of the head is more pronounced in males than in females. -The mental eminence (chin) is often larger and squarer in males and pointed and smaller in females. The mandibular ramus (vertical part of the jaw) is also more upright in males, while it tends to be smaller and more sloping in females. metric differences in both cranial and post cranial

Know the differences between skull, cranium, calvaria, and calotte

skull:skeletal framework of the head of vertebrates, composed of bones or cartilage, which forms to protect the brain and supports the face.Cranium and mandible. Cranium: The eight bones that form the head and protect the brain. The cranium is made up of cranial bones (bones that surround and protect the brain) and facial bones (bones that form the eye sockets, nose, cheeks, jaw, and other parts of the face). The eight bones of the cranium form the "vault" that encloses the brain. They include the frontal, two parietal, occipital, two temporal, sphenoid and ethmoid bones. Skull without the mandible. Calvaria: The calvaria or skullcap is the upper part of the cranium and surrounds the cranial cavity containing the brain. Made up of the frontal, occipital, right and left parietal, right and left temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. Cranium without the face. Calotte: calvaria without the base

Ballistic trauma, blunt force trauma (including LeFort fractures), and sharp force trauma o Definitiono Main characteristics of wounds (including entry and exit wounds, where applicable)o Weapon or object typeso Identification of number and sequence of woundso Factors that influence injury characteristics and severity (e.g. for high-velocity trauma: bullet size, construction, and velocity of projectile)

• Low-velocitytraumascanbedividedintobluntandsharp trauma -Sharp-force trauma is caused by edged, pointed, or beveled instrument. Depending on the area of the body injured and on the angle at which the blade enters the body, sharp instruments may leave puncture marks or linear cut marks in bone -Blunt force trauma injuries come from low-energy impacts resulting from a broad instrument delivered over a relatively large surface area (or from the low velocity impact of a body with a blunt surface) Initial in-bending of the cranial vault at the impact point (which creates tensile stress at the inner table). Peripheral out-bending Bone fails first on the inner table. Radiating fractures propagate to the external table and create triangular-shaped pieces of bone The triangular fragments are pushed into the cranial cavity. Concentric fractures propagate perpendicular to the radiating fractures -High-velocity loading causes bone to react as a brittle material. Bone does not undergo plastic deformation; instead it fails almost instantaneously and shatters like glass Ballistic weapons can be divided into two classes: short barrels (e.g. pistols and revolvers), and long barrels (e.g., rifles and shotguns)

Stratigraphy. Principles of Forensic Archaeology (superposition, association)

• Stratigraphy = the study of the order of layers and the sequence of events they reflect Principle of superposition: a lower stratum or layer is older than a higher stratum Superposition = older layers are laid down first and then covered by younger (overlying layers) Association = the spatiotemporal relationship between two objects within a stratigraphic unit is determined by the integrity of that stratigraphic unit