FSU ANT2000 Final
Jablonski and Chaplin
- 2 m.y.a. to present: hominin migrations out of Africa begin...the *last migration* was Homo sapiens - Less than 40,000 years ago: modern Homo sapiens arrive at higher latitudes--> fair skin
U. Witwatersrand
- 2016 Time 100 List--> influenced individuals who are changing the world
"Lucy" (Australopithecus afarensis)
- 40% of skeleton - 1 meter tall - Short legs; longish arms - Pelvis and knees suggest bipedalism
Why are there so many hominin fossils but so few panin (chimpanzee) fossils?
- Conditions of preservation in the rainforest were not good (chimpanzees) - Humans are water dependent--> died near water sources--> better preservation conditions
*Mutations* in Genetics *(DeVries)*
- Consequences for individuals but not for populations - Cell- ex. *Too many chromosomes* in a gamete such as Down's Syndrome - Molecule- constant introduction of *point mutations*
Anthropology has *4 subfields*
- Cultural Anthropology - Linguistic Anthropology - Archaeology - Biological (physical) anthropology
Hunting by Humans (Leibenberg)
- Use of tools - *Planning, patience over long time periods* - *Pervasive calm* during all phases - Share with other hunters (egalitarian = no formal leaders) - Sexual division of labor - Human hunting is skill intensive - Use a wealth of information to make context-specific decisions - Polytheism
*Franz Boas*
- "Father of American Anthropology" - *Critic of "evolutionism" of Tylor* (and his diea that all cultures progress through similar stages) - *Cultural relativism*- cultures cannot be ranked as higher or lower... all humans see the world through the lens of their own culture - Created the *four-field* organization of American Anthropology
Ecological change--> Broad-spectrum revolution
- *"Broad-spectrum revolution"*- acquiring a greater variety of food resources - Mesolithic micoliths are part of composite tools (bone, antler, woods, etc.)
Researchers found ___ ___ ___ that would have affected proteins in which Neanderthals had the ancestral state and modern humans had a newer, derived state.
- *78 sequence differences* - Due to new alleles that emerged after the evolutionary spirit
Origins of Science
- *BOOK*: The Origin of Science- Louis Leibenberg - Human hunting is skill intensive. They covered a very large spatial area --> Ache men v. Chimpanzees
Science is
- *Generative* - A *procedure* for arriving at conclusions - An established *accumulation* derived from the above procedure
Tell
- *debris of mud brick structures build repeatedly in the same location* - Only a small number of tells have been excavated by archaeologists - *"Tell-es-Sultan" (Jericho)*: a tell in the Jordan valley that more than 20 occupation levels were discovered at... evidence of earliest known town at 10,000 BC - Earliest known town - Earliest pottery in this area - Stone wall
Archaeology
- *the study of ancient and recent human past through material remains* - Excavations are slow and meticulous - Have to be careful with record-keeping - Dating is critical = establishes sequences and cultural change--> cultural evolution
Gobekli Tepe
- 200 pillars in about 20 circles... megaliths - Settlements grew around them
Upper Paleolithic transition
- 40,000 years ago- amHs moved into Europe - Blade tools are long and delicate - Spear throwers increase the speed, force, distance, and accuracy for hunting
Subsistence
- A consistent and central aspect of any culture - Foraging (hunters and gatherers), horticulture (plant), pastoral (animal), agriculture (control of nature) - Industrial, Commercial = high levels of efficiency in food production and distribution allow big societies to be a part of a single political unit
Anthropology is...
- A science - A social science - A humanity
Mesopotamia
- Area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers - *Fertile Crescent* - contrasting environments that were geographically close (*vertical economy*) - Broad-spectrum foragers moved and traded among zones - Large area of Mediterranean climate... diversity of available animal species
Transition to Food Production in the Middle East
- By 7500 BC: *dependence* on domesticates - 7000 BC: irrigation systems using springs in *foothills* - 6000 BC: irrigation systems in dry *lowland* - 5500 BC: first cities and *states* - formal, central government
Key Attributes of Primary States in the Middle East
- Development of predictive sciences (arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy) - Art - Long distance and foreign trade
Benefits of Food Production
- Discoveries and inventions... brainpower is shared - Trade
Homo naledi
- Homo features: tool-using thumbs, long legs with knees together, arched feet - Australopithecine features: climbing, outward flared pelvis, curved finger bones
Pastoralism (only grass)
- Humans survive in grass only environments by herding animals that are able to turn cellulose into meat, milk, etc. - *Nomadism* = the entire group moves with the herd through the year... trade for crops - *Transhumance* = part of the group moves with the heard but most stay in the home village
Consequences of Moving from Food Collection to Food Production
- Increasing mental/cultural complexity and social stratification - Food producers work more hours than foragers
"Ardi" (Ardipithecus ramidus)
- Middle Awash, Ethiopia - 4.4 m.y.a., woodland habitat - Long arms, large hands--> suspensory - Bipedalism - Opposable big toe--> could not walk for long distance
Mesolithic (chipped)--> Neolithic (polished)
- Neolithic = grinding and polishing of stone tools - Dependence on food production... farming and herding (*Neolithic Revolution*) - Domesticates spread across Eurasia as similar climate in the same latitude allowed similar plants and animals to thrive
Osbidian Trade Routes (osbidian = trade)
- Osbidian = volcanic glass... used for tools and ornaments - Turkey
New World Food Production
- Squash and gourds (Ecuador) - Maize (South West Mexico) - Maize, beans, squash, turkey, dogs (Mesoamerica) - Llama = only large animal domesticates (South America)
Uruk period (6000-5200 BC)
- Sumer (Southern Mesopotamia) - First writing in cuneiform begins 5600 BC - Temples - Ubaid communities spread along the Euphrates river (irrigation) - River as a source of travel and trade... linking people over a large distance - Ubaid pottery: advanced chiefdom to early state diffused rapidly over a large area (6000-4300 BC)
Walter Sutton (1902, 1903)
Mendel's genes reside on the *chromosomes* found in the nucleus of the cell
Watson and Crick
Molecule
Ecofacts
Natural objects (plants/animals) that were used by humans
Features
Non-portable indicators of human activity (structures)
Mendel
Organism
Transcription
Portion of the DNA unwinds and one strand is used to produce *mRNA*
A hominin is a member of the ___ ___
Tribe Hominini
Habitual
less common but which still occurs repeatedly
Phenotype vs. genotype
visible in the organism vs. present but nor observable
Halafian pottery
widely distributed but not common = luxury item (7500-6000 BC)
Artifacts
objects that people have made, used, or modified
Middle East showed the earliest evidence of the ___ ___ and the ride of state level society
"urban revolution"
Laetoli
- Mary Leaky discovered footprints in ground - Volcanic ash + rain = preserved footprints - Footprints indicate modern bipedalism - Differences: 1 Toes are longer than normal 2 Slightly divergent big toe
While Neanderthals hunted big game in Europe...
- Mega droughts in Africa reduced the population of modern humans to a very small number - "genetic bottleneck"- all contemporary modern humans are 99.9% similar
TM-266 site (Toros Menalla, Djurab Desert)
- Michael Brunet - Ahounta Djimdourmalbaye (2001) - Discovery of hominin cranium, jaw fragments, teeth
Humans
- Striding *bipedalism*, which emerged earlier than the other traits unique to humans and frees the hands - Versatility of hands - Brain size/power (3x bigger than primates, 6-7 times bigger than other mammals) - In rhesus monkeys, the *big toe has the most motor cortex control of any digit*. Humans use the thumb - Humans DO NOT have a *canine-cutting complex*. Most non-human primates do - Humans and chimpanzees had a common ancestor according to molecular evidence
Denisovans (Siberia)
- Variant in the EPAS1 gene allows Tibetans to *thrive in the oxygen this air* on the Himalayan plain...a variant derived from *Denisovans*
Darwin (1809-1882)
- Voyage on *Beagle* (1831-1836) - Charles Lyell (1797-1875) *Principles of Geology* (1830)- "uniformitarianism" - Galapagos Islands - "transmutation of species" (evolution) - 1838 read Malthus "Essay"-inspired Darwin to conceive that competition for limited resources exists for all species-didn't publish his idea until 1859 - *BOOK*: On the Origins of Species (1859) - *Natural law*: a natural process is responsible for the "good-fit" seen between an organism and its environment - Comparative anatomy - *BOOK*: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871)- sexual selection - *BOOK*: The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872)- behavior evolves
Allele
- more than one form of a gene - *Dominant* allele vs. *recessive* allele (an allele is not always expressed yet continues to exist) - Observable traits are produced by invisible "hereditary factors" that are paired in organisms but which segregate during the production of gametes
Meiosis
- the production of gametes (mature sex cells) from immature sex cells 1 Double-stranded chromosomes line up as homologous pairs 2 Division 1: homologous pairs separate 3 Division 2: double-stranded chromosomes become single-stranded (gametes)
Chiefdom
kin-based groupings are still important but wealth and power differences are now more obvious; position of chief is often hereditary
Margaret Mead
*BOOK*: Coming of Age in Samoa
Derek Freeman
*BOOK*: The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead
Agriculture
- *Control of nature* - *Irrigation* = control of water - *Terracing* = control of topography - *Domesticated animals* = control of animals - Social stratification is extreme (different classes/ranks)
General A.L.H.F. Pitt-Rivers
- Believed museums would teach people that "evolution, not revolution, was nature's way" - Donated artifacts to Oxford University--> displayed collection by function/form/type (not age or origin)
Pre-Cambrain Eon
4.6 b.y.a to 570 m.y.a.
Humans survived for 99% of their existence by ___
Foraging
Homo erectus or Homo egaster?
Homo erectus = Asia + Africa Homo egaster = Africa only
Homozygous vs. heterozygous
alleles of the same gene are identical vs. alleles of the same gene are different
Tribe
no formal government and no way of enforcing political decisions; "village head" leads by example and persuasion
Customary
occurs in most or all members of one age or sex class
Neanderthals had ___ hair and ___ skin (MRC1 gene for melanocortin)
*red* hair and *fair* skin
Epochs of the Cenozic
- *Paleocene: Plesiadapiformes* do not have primate adaptations of the eyes and hands (but do have flexible wrists and ankles)
Evolution
- An explanation for the origin of organisms - *Change in series*
Pre-Darwin: Progress in Biological Science
- Anatomy (Andreas Vesalius) - Taxonomy (Carolus Linnaeus) - Natural History (Comte de Buffon) - *Paleontology (Georges Cuvier)* - *Transmutation (Jean Baptiste Lamarck)*
Band and Tribe vs. Chiefdom and State
- Band/Tribe are more egalitarian - Chiefdom/State have differences in power and wealth of individuals; classes, centralized rule
Political Organization (exercise of power)
- Elman Service: identified types of political organization - Band - Tribe - Chiefdom - State
The Geological Time Scale
- Eons--> Eras--> Periods--> Epochs
Post-Darwin
- Evolution in an age of genetic information - Darwin was interested in inheritance but had no knowledge of it --> Gregor Mendel's model of inheritance (1866) explained one source of variation - *Mendelism* and modern genetic showed how inheritance worked and how variation was continuously generated - *Neo-Darwinism* (a.k.a. the synthetic theory of evolution) 1. *BOOK*: Evolution: the Modern Synthesis- J. Huxley (theoretical biology) 2. *E Mayr- systematics* 3 *GG Simpson- paleontology* 4 *L. Stebbins- botany*
*Anthropoid*
- Eyes close together in a complete bony socket - Fused frontal bone (forehead) and fused mandible - Humans ARE anthropoids
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (found by Michael Brunet in TM-266 site)
- Flat (non-projecting) face - Massive brow ridge (male?) - Smaller canines and no canine-cutting complex - Back of skull and muscle-attachment areas look ape-like - Central foramen magnum suggests bipedalism
What is a hominoid?
- Forearms are adapted for suspension and have a versatile range of motion - Rotator shoulder joint allows for *360 rotation* of arm - Fully extendable elbow - Broad, flat, short torso, and no external tail - 5 cusps of the lower molar form a Y-shaped pattern = *Y-5 molar* - adapted for *suspension/suspensory locomotion* (derived trait)
Tipping Points of Cultural Change
- From foraging to food production--> The Neolithic Revolution - From small-scale societies to large-scale societies--> the Urban Revolution
New Behaviors
- Games with rules, dances, and chants - Language to discuss events of the past - Magical thinking - A sense of how humans "ought" to behave--> knowing right from wrong - Humans can synchronize behavior in group performance
Genetics = study of genes
- Gene = unit of inheritance - Genetics = the study of inheritance - Genetics - levels of analysis 1 Population 2 Organism 3 Cell 4 Molecule - Experiments on 29,000 Pisum savitum = *Discrete inheritance*
Suborder Strepsirhini
- Grooming claw on the second digit of the foot - Slit-like nostrils directed laterally
What is a tarsier
- Haplorrhine - Bony eye socket - Dry nose with simple nostrils
Trobriand Islanders (think of cultural behavior, culture change, cultural evolution)
- New kinds of behavior appear in human groups - Prestige leaders - Synthesizing old and new - Culture change--> cultural evolution (*"ratchet effect"*) - Human cultures are possible because of ultrasociality (enhanced flow of information)
Science is a procedure
- Observation, data collection via explicit techniques - Generalization, tentative explanation (hypothesis) - Testing (verification) - Rejecting or tentatively accepting the hypothesis - All "conclusions" are subject to continuing challenge... conclusions can be *"falsified" (Karl Popper)*
Catarrhine (Old World Monkey) vs. Platyrrhini (New World Monkey)
- Old World monkeys and hominoids both have a catarrhine nose - *Old World Monkeys teeth = 2.1.2.3. (2 premolars)* - *New World Monkeys teeth = 2.1.3.3. (3 premolars)*
Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania)
- Oldowan tools: earliest stone tool tradition -1.8 m.y.a. at Olduvai but 2.5 m.y.a. elsewhere - Stone in not native to Olduvai = carried into the gorge - Oldowan--> Acheulian tools (Homo erectus ergaster)--> reliance on meat - Acheulian tools are found in Africa, Europe, and the Middle East but not NOT east Asia - *BOOK*: "Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human" Richard Wrangham--> Mastery of fire
Major events in the history of life
- Origin of the universe (13.75 b.y.a.) - Origin of the solar system (5 b.y.a.) - Origin of the earth (4.6 b.y.a)
Major Epochs
- Paleocene - Eocene - Miocene - Pliocene - Pleistocene - Holocene
The Evolution of Evolution
- Pre-Darwin - Darwin - Post-Darwin
What is a *primate*?
- Primates are an order of mammals - *Eye-hand coordination* - Eyes face forward (emphasis on vision, NOT smell) - Stereoscopic vision/color vision - Grasping hands and feel with touch receptors - Nails instead of claws - Large brains
Mousterian tools
- Quick to make from a prepared core - Chemical analysis of bone suggests dependence on meat
"Cradle of Humankind"
- World Heritage Site, UNESCO 1999 - Rising Star Discoveries (South Africa): 1. 1 ,550 specimens of bones and teeth 2. Derived traits: feet, legs, long thumbs, small teeth (similar to modern humans) 3. Primitive traits: brain size, curved finger bones - Dinaledi Chamber (DH-1) 1. Difficult to reach chamber (30 meters below ground) 2. No sediment, *no bones from other species* 3. Lee Berger has proposed that the purposeful disposal of dead led to this collection of naledi-only bones
State
- a single central authority - codified laws - classes with sharp class lines
Pairing
- restored when sperm and egg fuse to form a fertilized egg - Organisms carry 2 alleles for each trait; gametes carry 1 allele
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic Eras
570 m.y.a. to present
Neanderthal genome is ___ identical to moderns
95.5%
Sutton
Cell
Translation
Ribosomes translate info on mRNA into a *chain of amino acids*
Karyotype
a visual image of all the chromosomes in a cell of that organism
Band
egalitarian (power differences are small... no distinctive political organization or formal law)
"Central dogma"
gene --> protein --> trait
The more similar the amino acid sequence of a protein the more ___ two species shared a common ancestor
recently
Neanderthal Genome Project
- *BOOK*: "A Draft Sequence of the Neanderthal Genome" Richard E. Green- 60% of a male Neanderthal's genome - *BOOK*: "The Complete Genome Sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains" Prufer- 2010 discovery of a toe bone of female Neanderthal provided *the complete genome*
The Scientific Revolution
- *BOOK*: Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution - Toby E. Huff - A dramatic change in the understanding of the natural world occurred in Europe - "infectious curiosity" and accumulation of "intellectual capital" - 1543: *Nicolaus Copernius* (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) - 1687: *Isaac Newton* (Principia- laws of motion, gravitation)
Methods of Food Acquisition
- *Collected*: Fruit, leaves, flowers, and other easily collected resources - *Extracted*: resources embedded in protective context (roots, nuts, seeds) - *Hunted*: Vertebrate meat - Over time, humans have shifted to dependence on calorie dense, skill-intensive food resources (hunted is most popular food acquisition for human; collected for chimpanzees)
Village Life
- *Horticulture* = growing plant food (yams) using labor-intensive techniques that require everyone to work - Food production (cultivation) using a digging stick, hoe, and other hand tools - *Surplus* can be accumulated--> social stratification begins - *Agriculture* = food production with high-yield technology such as irrigation and animal-assisted plowing - Permanent shelters--> villages (sedentary) - Leaders
Mendel's "Laws" (confirm unit of inheritance is *discrete and stable*)
- *Law of Segregation*: paired hereditary units segregate during production of gametes - *Law of Independent Assortment*: paired units for distinctive traits assort independent of each other
Ape field research
- *Loius Leakey* obtained research funding from the National Geographic Society for *Jane Goodall* - Leakey was interested in using information from wild apes to reconstruct the behavior of human ancestors - Two distantly-related descendants sharing one behavior = behavior present in *Last Common Ancestor (LCA)* - 39 behaviors of chimpanzees are cultural behaviors - Tai forest shows *greater variety of cultural behavior* than any other study site
Primitive vs. Derived Traits
- *Primitive* = same as ancestor - *Derived* = different from ancestor (ex. Having nails and not claws)
WT-15000 (Nariokotome Boy)
- 1.6 m.y.a. - 90% complete skeleton - 1st evidence of dramatic brain size expansion and brain/body ratios that deviate from ape pattern - Modern body proportions (long legs, shorter arms, and narrow torso) - *Short gut* - Smaller birth canals suggests infants have an increased dependence of their caretakers - Bipedal running - Ancestor: *Homo naledi*
Neanderthal DNA
- 1997 Svante Paabo: mtDNA from arm bone in Feldhofer cave - mtDNA of Neanderthal is 4x the distance from modern Homo sapiens as Europeans from New Guineans - 2006 Svante Paabo: 38k *fossil nuclear DNA* from *Vindija* (Croatia) - Y-Chromosome (nDNA) - 2006 Edward Rubin: no hybridization
*Homo neanderthalensis*
- 80+ sites in Europe, Israel, and West Asia - Homogeneous population with identifiable traits, limited time span and limited geographic distribution - Distinctive and consistent physical traits: 1. Large cranial capacity, distinctive cranial features 2. Dentition- front teeth show extreme wear and taurodontism; retromolar space 3. Post-cranial skeleton is short and indicates massive muscles - New kinds of behavior: 1. Stone tools used during hunting required close contact wi/ prey 2. Burial of the dead w/ ceremonial objects indicates symbolic capacity 3. Care of sick and aged indicates new social capacity - La Chapelle aux Saints - Large eyes--> large visual area
*Sir Edward Burnett Tylor*
- A founder of *social anthropology* - "Anthropology: An introduction to the study of man and civilization" *first anthropology textbook* - *First professor of anthropology* at Oxford University
Culture
- A group behavior --> acquired by learning - Cumulative --> *cultural evolution* - *Intergenerational* (passed from one generation to the next; occurs during childhood)
The Human Genome Project
- A multi-year effort to find all the genes that code for all the traits found in humans - A *genome* is an organism's complete set of DNA
Symbolism (Sally McBearty and Alison Brooks)
- A representation that can only be understood through a social convention or rule created by people - First appearance of symbolic representation in Europe = amHs (40-45 kya) - Earlier evidence in Africa --> Blombiois Cave, South Africa - Block of ochre w/ incised marks at 71,000 years old - *Pinnacle Point*, South Africa: 1. Systematically harvesting *shellfish* from the coast 2. Presence of *ochre* 3. Small *blade tools*
DNA is a long series of *nucleotides* (made of base, sugar, phosphate; constituent units of DNA)
- Bases form the rungs of a "ladder" - Sugar/phosphate molecules form the "rails" - Molecules replicate and continuously produce new DNA - The code for producing all the proteins of an organism can be found in the DNA of that organism
3.3 Million year old tools (Kenya)
- Bigger and heavier than Oldowan tools - Fossil animal bones with cutmarks found at Dikkika are 3.4 million years old - Supports the idea that an early hominin used stone tools for cutting before the appearance of Homo
Selam "Little Lucy"
- Discovered by Zeresenay Alemseged in Ethiopia - Found the *oldest and most complete fossil child* (3.31-3.35 m.y.a.) - Long, gorilla-like arms--> climbing and suspension - Knee articulations suggests bipedalism - A. afarensis was both terrestrial and arboreal
Slash and Burn Cultivation (mostly practiced in the tropics)
- High temperate and high rainfall = soils are not fertile - Burn land = ashes add minerals to the soil, but only for a few years. Cultivation site must be rotated - Crops are intermixed
What is a mammal?
- Homeothermy (fur) - Reproduction (internal gestation, lactation, extended parental care) - *Mastication* (chewing) - *Heterodonty* (4 different types of teeth: incisors, canines, pre-molars, molars
*Anatomically modern Homo sapiens (amHs)*
- Left Africa as recently as 60,000 years ago - Only hominin alive today... replacement of all resident hominins by amHs
Evolution of Human Skin Coloration
- Light (australopiths)--> Darl (Homo sapiens) - 6 m.y.a.: After the split from chimpanzees, early hominin ancestors retained the long hair and fair skins we see in modern chimpanzees - 4.5-2 m.y.a.: hominins move onto the savannah - Deal with heat through evaporative cooling (sweat glands increase, hair is not protective) - Excessive sun on hairless skin--> *dark skin color* to prevent *folate photolysis*
Australopithecus afarensis is a hominin species with many fossils and decades of analysis
- Major sites are *Hadar* (Ethiopia) and *Laetoli* (Tanzania) - Extreme sexual dimorphism - Physical traits: 1 Bipedalism 2 Smallish brain (a primitive trait) 3 Smallish canines; thick enamle... hominin traits