Funeral Services (8-13)

(Early American) What was the repercussion of the political revolutions on funeral practices?

(a result of urbanization) made for more competition and a division of classes (upper, middle, and lower)

What four sanitary reformation recommendations did Edwin Chadwick make?

1. All cemeteries should be municipalized 2. all trading cemeteries should be abolished 3. Religious rites should be simplified and standardized 4. All deaths should be medically certified

What two revolutions significantly impacted the colonial society?

1. The American Revolutionary War 2. The Industrial Revolution

Skilled craftsmen who supplied the coffins and other necessary funeral items emphasized what two points in their advertisement

1. The wide range of funeral goods available 2. The protection of the corpse

The rise of English undertakers in the late 19th century led to what three things?

1. a secular occupation with no ties to the church 2. the loss of church control of the funeral ceremony 3. the rise of undertaking in a separate occupation

The meaning of the term "funeral directing" as we know it today consists of what three aspects?

1. an occupation which provides a set of tasks for the care and disposal of the dead 2. takes the form of a personal service 3. operates as a business enterprise

What was the role of the church sexton? (6 things)

1. digging the grave 2. Ringing the bell 3. Laying out the body 4. Directing the procession 5. keeping records of who is buried there 6. furnishing undertakers with merchandise and paraphernalia

(Early American) Specific Undertaking procedures from death to burial (4 things)

1. laying out 2. coffining 3. transporting the body to the grave 4. furnishing paraphernalia of mourning

Name 3 groups who were the prior performers of personal service

1. nurses 2. midwives 3. specific layers out of the dead

What were two reasons given by the clergy who demanded funeral simplicity?

1. simplicity in the name of religion 2. sanitary reasons

Colonial funerals generally combined what three functions?

1. sociability 2. religiosity 3. the reaffirmation of the established social status of the deceased

What were the five major themes surrounding the casket that emerged during the Early American times?

1. utility 2. Status indication 3. preservation of the body 4. protection of the body 5. aesthetic representation

In 1990, the U.S. Census estimated the Native American Indian and Alaskan Native population to be about ______

1.9 million

Coffins were increasingly used from the _____ century on

17th

The rise of the English undertakers in the late _____ century led to a secular occupation with no ties to the church.

19th

When was the occupation of the funeral director that we know today born?

19th century

Who patented the first widely used coffin design and what was it?

Almond D. Fisk in 1848, the Fisk Metallic Coffin

Who is considered to be the father of modern surgery?

Ambrose Pare

(Early American) Origin of Customs

Appear to have come with the English settlers when they came to the New World; however things changed once the colonists were here in America

What did barber-surgeon's do?

Cutting the tonsure that monks were required to wear; and minor medical procedures such as bloodletting

Who was Fredrick Ruysch

Dutch professor who devised a technique for arterial embalming

Who was William Harvey

English physician, anatomist, and physiologist, who used colored dyes to trace the circulation of blood

The courts in Massachusetts in the early 1700s passed many laws prohibiting what practice related to funerals?

Extraordinary expense, excessive spending on funerals

True/False: Native Americans share a single faith, which results in common funeral practices throughout the United States

False

True/False: Western dualities, such as heaven and hell, are compatible with Native American views.

False

Who was Jean Nicholas Gannal

French chemist who wrote The History of Embalming

Because of funeral expenses, ________ _________ were formed to help carry some of the costs.

Friendly Societies

What organizations led to what we now consider the insurance industry?

Friendly Societies

Who was Gabriel Clauderus

German physician who further described arterial embalming followed by eviseration.

(Early American) What was the traditionally an avenue of salvation for the Protestant?

Hard work as well as good

What were some of Leonardo da Vinci's contributions

He dissected over fifty cadavers and produced 750 very detailed anatomical plates or drawing

What were Tradesman Undertakers?

Introduction of many craftsmen into the field of undertaking. Importance increased as cities grew and material resources of the townspeople increased.

Who did the the Protestants follow?

John Calvin

(Medical Embalmers) Who was the most important individual among early anatomists?

Leonardo da Vinci

The ______________ ____________ ___________ - primarily religious, but its charter was commercial in nature

Massachusetts Bay Colony

In 1839, under the auspices of the _______ _______ ______________ Edwin Chadwick investigated the conditions of the urban English worker

Poor Law Commissioners

(Early American) Gifts were given to mourners as a means of paying tribute to the dead; however what was the repercussions?

Resulted in an increased financial burden on the widow

Who was William Hunter

Scottish anatomist who used cavity and arterial embalming for laboratory purposes and burial. Generally considered to be the originator of the injection technique for preserving human remains

(Medical Embalmers) The surgeons who studied in the universities were known as the:

Surgeons of the Long Robe

barber-surgeon's who became secularized and organized into a powerful guild were called what?

Surgeons of the Short Robe

(Early American) Who wanted to get away from the domination of the Church of England and set up their own theocracy?

The Pilgrim Fathers of Massachusetts

The __________ ___________ - formed the basis of commercialism

The Virginia Colony

What has been suggested as the reasoning for the secular undertaker coming into existence?

The expense of buying the paraphernalia used for the funeral of noblemen. The undertaker would defer some of the costs related to a funeral because they owned and would rent the equipment necessary to have elaborate funerals, thereby saving the family money and making a profit themselves.

What was the first coffin shop, warehouse, and manufacturer?

The firm of John L. Dillon, Coffin and Shroud Warehouse, of New York

Who did the Friendly Societies arrange burials for?

The lower class

What is Protestantism?

The religion of Protestants, those Christians who split off from the Catholic Church

What is the main difference between a "tradesman undertaker" and a "furnishing undertaker"?

Tradesman undertakers were in business to provide funeral goods to the family; furnishing undertakers provided funeral goods to other undertakers

True/False: In early New England, funerals were simple and dignified?

True

True/False: Many of the overall costs related to funerals were not directly attributable to burial costs, but to the parties and celebrations later.

True

True/False: university surgeons were mainly concerned with research and study and only treated patients if forced to. They were only to be educated and to educate, and not to treat.

True

What was the difference between the Virginia Colonists and the Massachusetts Bay colonists belief in salvation?

Virginia colonists subscribed to the Protestant ethic that "industriousness" or hard work was a means to salvation. The Massachusetts Bay colonists believed hard work was necessary for survival and prosperity but not sufficient to reach salvation.

What system did Leonardo da Vinci develop to preserve cadavers long enough to be of use?

a system of venous injection

(Early American) Who were a part of the Virginia Colony?

adventurers, soldiers of fortune, or criminals who were given a choice of going to America or jail.

What were the Native American views on death and creation?

all creation is seen as sacred. Death is a journey to another world

Municipal Officers: Town Undertakers

also expected to perform duties related to public health and sanitation. May also have been coroners, city registrars of death, city messengers, or providers of ambulance services. Undertakers were often wood craftsmen (furniture makers)

Was Ambrose Pare a barber-surgeon or a university surgeon?

barber-surgeon

The __________-__________ origins are in the monastic medicine practiced by early barbers who were also monks.

barber-surgeon's

Why did many tradesmen in America become skilled and making coffins to the point where it became a specialty?

because of the time it took for coffins to arrive from England

Why did the barber-surgeons and anatomists protest the new occupation of secular undertakers

because they felt they themselves should have control, and only they should be allowed to embalm.

_________ was the practice of drawing a quantity of blood to cure illness or disease

bloodletting

Seventeenth and eighteenth century coffined burial in America consisted of what?

burying the body after wrapping it in a shroud and placing it in a coffin

Municipal Officers: Inviter to Funerals

called those who were expected to attend; was often a municipal appointment

Early American burial was in the ______________

churchyard

On what premise was the Virginia Colony founded?

commercial

The ____________ who came from England provided the necessary expertise for the production of coffins

craftsmen

Who was John Hunter

employed his brother's (William Hunter) methods, prepared anatomical speciments

True/False: the tradesman undertaker performed many embalmings

false

The Middle Ages were known for elaborate ___________ __________ which continued into the Renaissance

feudal funerals

It was because of the __________ _____________ that personal service became a central preoccupation of the undertaker

furnishing undertakers

Define "Burial case"

generic term used in America to designate all burial receptacles as new variations of the coffin/casket being offered

What were common gifts that were given to mourners

gloves

According to Protestantism and Calvinism, what is the avenue to salvation?

hard work and good work

Name two municipal jobs often given to early funeral functionaries because of their supposed knowledge in health and sanitary matters

health official or inspector, coroner, registrar of deaths, ambulance service provider, town undertaker (also served as inviter to funerals, city messenger, etc.)

There were many woman who made it their sole function to be "_______ ____ ____ ______ _______". Eventually these women were phased out by the modern day funeral functionary

layers out of the dead. Predecessor to the undertaker.

(Early American) What was the repercussion of the economic revolution on funeral practices?

limited the use of mourning paraphernalia

Who were pall-bearers?

men of dignity

What were often given to the pallbearers in the Dutch colonies

monkey spoons

What was the impact of the Industrial Revolution?

more goods were available and undertakers did not have to furnish as much themselves.

The early New Englanders recognized death as a:

natural, inevitable, commonplace reality

Who were the prior performers of personal service?

nurses often performed the laying out of the dead person that they had attended during that person's illness. Midwives performed the care of the deceased as an extension of the other personal service they provided in the birthing of children.

Sacred Native American services are both _________ and __________ experiences meant to shape the individual

personal and communal

The so-called _________ ________ of saying prayers over the dead was avoided by the ministry of the early New England colonies, who attempted to make burial a civil function

popish error

What is a tonsure

shaved crown of the head

The most persistent symbol in Early America funerals was a carryover from England - the symbol of the _____________

skull and crossbones

There was a shift in attitude toward the casket from a ____________ _____________ approach to more aesthetic concerns

strictly utilitarian

The period of westward expansion following the War of 1812 was marked by what?

the beginning and spread of coffin shops, coffin warehouses and manufacturers

Who objected to the pagan-like pomp and expense of the feudal funeral and view it strictly as profit-making?

the clergy

For what reasons did the modern casket begin to evolve?

the increased desire for a product that was practical, offered protection, indicated the status of the deceased, and was more artistic and beautiful.

The demand for better methods of preservation during the Middle Ages was largely due to:

the needs of artists who drew anatomical plates

What slowly replaced the skull and crossbones and why?

the winged cherub. It symbolized the shift in the Puritan view from the finality of death to the promise of ascent into paradise by salvation

In the Dutch colonies, when did funerals generally take place?

three or four days after death

What were the main crops of the Virginia Colony

tobacco, peanuts, and cotton

____________ ____________ were more in the business to provide the goods for the funeral rather than the service aspect

tradesman undertakers

True/False: Funeral service in America developed as a separate occupation during the first half of the 19th century, and took the role of caring for the deceased away from the church and put it into the hands of the secular businessman

true

True/False: It is not uncommon for native American tribal funeral customs to integrate some Christian practices into the funeral services

true

True/False: The university surgeons considered the lay surgeons to be beneath them in knowledge and prestige

true

The term ________ in its modern sense goes back at least to 1698, at which date its present usage was recorded in a parish register as "the furnishing of funerals by a small number of men"

undertaker

(Early American) describe the funeral procession

usually on foot. Under-bearers carried the coffin on the bier; pall-bearers carried the pall

Early American coffins were mostly made of ____________; and were primarily _______________

wood; anthropoidal

The early American undertaker originated in what trades?

woodworking trades