GEO 108 Exam 3

Digital Angel

An example of a Subdermal, RFID chip

Recreation and Activity Tracking Apps

- The scope of data and information offered by service provider is very comprehensive and it include local street map, wide variety of points of interests (restaurants, gas stations, cafes, stores, pharmacies, hospitals, services, touristic attractions etc. ), weather forecast, real-time traffic information etc.

UAVS/ Drones

- Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) are increasingly being used for a wide range of applications including reconnaissance, surveillance, surveying and mapping, spatial information acquisition and geophysics exploration, among others -As long as sufficient satellite signals can be accessed during the entire UAV mission, GPS navigation techniques can offer consistent accuracy. Often, GPS is used in conjunction with Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), to offer more comprehensive UAV navigation solutions.

Algorithm

- algorithms that attempt to use the crossing of two or more location tracks in order to increase the chances that an attacker confuses the path of different users. Such approaches allow the frequent updating of pseudonyms in order to prevent a single association between a user and a pseudonym to "unravel" the entire pseudonymized stored location tracks of that user (called an observation identification (OI) attack [7]). W

Sex-Offender Registries

- is a system in various countries designed to allow government authorities to keep track of and activities of sex offenders including those who have completed their criminal sentences. In some jurisdictions, where sex offender registration can, registration is accompanied by residential address notification requirements. In many jurisdictions, registered sex offenders are subject to additional restrictions, including on housing. Those on parole or probation may be subject to restrictions that do not apply to other parolees or probationers. Sometimes, these include (or have been proposed to include) restrictions on being in the presence of underage persons (under the age of majority), living in proximity to a school or day care center, owning toys or items targeted towards children, or using the Internet.

Crowdsourcing (Location Based)

- this form of crowdsourcing requires tasks to be completed in a specified place. This could be, for instance, supermarkets, toy stores, DIY stores, electrical stores, etc. Due to the need for the crowdworker to perform the task at a certain location, location-based crowdsourcing pretty much always equals mobile crowdsourcing.

Google Latitude and Trusted Contacts

- was a location-aware feature of Google Maps, developed by Google as a successor to its earlier SMS-based service Dodgeball. Latitude allowed a mobile phone user to allow certain people to view their current location. Via their own Google Account, the user's cell phone location was mapped on Google Maps. The user could control the accuracy and details of what each of the other users can see — an exact location could be allowed, or it could be limited to identifying the city only. For privacy, it could also be turned off by the user, or a location could be manually entered. Users had to explicitly opt into Latitude, and were only able to see the location of those friends who had decided to share their location with them.

Off-nadir scan

-Any point not directly beneath a scanner's detectors, but rather off at an angle. -Satellite operators may report this either as "elevation angle," where 90 degrees is looking straight down, or "off-nadir angle," where 0 degrees would be looking straight down. A typical minimum is an elevation angle of 60 degrees, which is a 30-degree off-nadir angle. A high-elevation angle (lower off-nadir angle) often is desirable, especially in areas of high relief or tall buildings to minimize what's known as the building-lean effect

Self-drive cars

-Autonomous cars use a variety of techniques to detect their surroundings, such as radar, laser light, GPS, odometry and computer vision. Advanced control systems interpret sensory information to identify appropriate navigation paths, as well as obstacles and relevant signage -Typical sensors include lidar, stereo vision, GPS and IMU. Visual object recognition uses machine vision including neural networks. Udacity is developing an open-source software stack

Compstat

-CompStat—or COMPSTAT—(short for COMPARE STATistics which was the computer file name of the original program) is a combination of management, philosophy, and organizational management tools for police departments. It is named after the New York City Police Department's accountability process and has since been implemented by many other police departments, both in the United States and abroad -Compstat offers a dynamic approach to crime reduction, quality of life improvement, and personnel and resource management, whereby ranking police department executives identify spikes in crimes using comparative statistics and address those spikes through the use of targeted enforcement.

Acoustic Triangulation

-For acoustic localization this means that if the source direction is measured at two or more locations in space, it is possible to triangulate its location.

Indoor-reception problem

-GPS signals are carried through waves at a frequency that does not move easily through solid objects. A GPS device relies on a series of satellites in order to determine where it is physically located. The signals sent from these satellites do not penetrate all kinds of barriers with ease. When you use a GPS inside a building, a wide variety of physical barriers and potential interference sources make it difficult for the device to pinpoint your location accurately.

Locational history/ Location traces

-Location information collected over time can tell a surprisingly full story about who you are and what your life looks like. Add publicly-available addresses, tweets, photos, and/or your phone records, and the story gets really detailed. -Location information can reveal not just where you live and work, but also your visits to churches, clinics, bars, friends and lovers; it can show which protests you've participated in, or which political organizations or support groups you're part of.

"City Watch" Applications (location data from many people)

-Location-based sharing can also be used to monitor the behavior of an entire city - in our framework, this could be called an "n:n" location sharing pattern. Instead of individual recommendations, such a system would simply collect location data from many people - an entire city, ideally -and identify macro- and micro-trends of behavior. The purpose of such a system is to aggregate data for analysing behaviours of large groups of people, e.g., to monitor traffic in order to locate or even predict traffic jams, or to find the "hot spots" inside a city on a Saturday evening, in order to give people an idea where to find the most popular clubs, restaurants, or events.

Streetview (google maps)

-Privacy advocates have objected to the Google Street View feature, pointing to photographs that show people leaving strip clubs, protesters at an abortion clinic, sunbathers in bikinis, cottagers at public parks, people picking up prostitutes and people engaging in activities visible from public property which they do not wish to be photographed and have published online.[1] Google maintains that the photos were taken from public property. However, this does not take into account that the Street View cameras take pictures from an elevated position, enabling them to look over hedges and walls designed to prevent some areas from being open to public view.

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

-Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology uses radio waves to identify people or objects. There is a device that reads information contained in a wireless device or "tag" from a distance without making any physical contact or requiring a line of sight. -The United States government uses two types of RFID technology for border management—vicinity and proximity: Vicinity RFID-enabled documents can be securely and accurately read by authorized readers from up to 20 to 30 feet away. Proximity RFID-enabled documents must be scanned in close proximity to an authorized reader and can only be read from a few inches away.

Minimum-distance routing

-Route optimization is part of GPS fleet management that offers the significant cost savings. When it comes to route optimization, it's more than trying to figure out the shortest distance between two destinations. It's a more complicated formula that encompasses a variety of variables and priorities that can have an impact on your profitability and customer satisfaction

911 Location data

-The US Federal Communications Commission introduced the wireless Enhanced 911 (E911) rules, the goal is to "seek to improve the effectiveness and reliability of wireless 911 service by providing 911 dispatchers with additional information on wireless 911 calls." E911 provides dispatchers with the location of callers and their phone number. -upon appropriate request by a local Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP), to report the telephone number of a wireless 911 caller and the location of the antenna (base station) that received the call.

Selective Availability

-The artificial and deliberate degradation of GPS satellite signals by the United States Department of Defense. Selective Availability was implemented in order to enhance national security, but was turned off on May 10, 2000 due to the presence of several sources of various differential correction (DGPS) messages, which rendered SA obsolete. -Selective Availability is a term used to describe the way signals from the GPS satellites in orbit around the Earth are masked. The U.S. Government controls the satellites, and uses Selective Availability to confuse the GPS receiver so it can't find your exact position.

NAVSTAR satellites

-The formal name given to the United States Department of Defense's navigation and timing system comprised of GPS satellites, monitoring stations, and Master Control Station. -These 24 main GPS satellites orbit Earth every 12 hours, sending a synchronized signal from each individual satellite. Because the satellites are moving in different directions, a user on the ground receives the signals at slightly different times. When at least four satellites get in touch with the receiver, the receiver can calculate where the user is - often to a precision of just a few feet, for civilian use.

Fourth Amendment (Unreasonable search and seizure)

-The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Mix Zone (no location sharing)

-The sensitive information of vehicles is related to location in vehicular networks. Pseudonym change is an effective way to protect the location privacy of vehicles, which is to establish a specific area called mix zone, where at least k number of vehicles change pseudonyms together to obtain k anonymity. -Suppose s vehicles want to change pseudonyms at the same time period, but the number of collaborators needed is k, where k > s, to gain k anonymity. In the proposed independent mix zone scheme, each collaborator will generate k/s indistinguishable pseudonyms by itself. In the view of an attacker, it cannot determine which vehicle each pseudonym is associated to

Facial Recognition

-These include external data thieves, who may break into the device or the data farm where content is stored; or internal employees of the company that makes the device, who improperly misappropriate customer content; or the police, by means of a subpoena or search warrant (depending on what the police are demanding). So, before technology users activate their always-on devices, they should think long and hard about the privacy implications."

Precision Farming

-These technologies enable the coupling of real-time data collection with accurate position information, leading to the efficient manipulation and analysis of large amounts of geospatial data. GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable rate applications, and yield mapping. GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility field conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness.

Creeping acquiescence

-Things that can be used to track us on system. Examples: Credit-card purchases. Ignore the dot-coms and 1-800 retailers, and the record of your credit-card purchases reveals a lot about where you've been and when. Video cameras in stores and other public places. Smile! Depending on image quality and retention period, video surveillance could finger you as a suspect—or help identify the crook who swiped your stereo. Mail-order purchases, whether by mail, telephone, or the internet. The retailer who knows where to send your packages can easily send its catalogs to you-and your neighbors. Cell phones and other wireless devices. Because of a need to pinpoint E-911 calls, cellular providers can soon compile detailed histories of their customers' movements.

Intended Recipient (Uber, Lyft)

-This usually involves the use of a service provider that offers to forward your location to the intended recipient -Uber has the passenger and driver sharing their locations with one another to increase the accuracy of pickups

Friend-Finder Applications

-Tinder (a location-based dating app) faced problems when a security firm discovered it is possible to pinpoint any user's location because the app released telemetry data without securing it. This could lead to hackers revealing user's location simply by triangulating a user.

Shot Spotter

-When three microphones pick up a gunshot, ShotSpotter figures out where the sound comes from. Human analysts in the Newark, California, headquarters confirm the noise came from a gun (not a firecracker or some other source). The police can then locate the gunshot on a map and investigate the scene. The whole process happens "much faster" than dialing 911 -uses acoustic triangulation

Geofencing

-When used in home security, geofencing is a virtual fence that that helps identify when people enter or exit a defined physical location. The virtual fence is drawn as a a circle with a defined diameter around a physical location. For example, you might draw a circle around your house, your child's school, or your office. In order for a geofence to work, you must have a presence sensor which might be an actual presence senor or your GPS enabled smart phone. Most home security cameras use the latter.

Trilateration

-[surveying] Determining the position of a point on the earth's surface with respect to two other points by measuring the distances between all three points. -Trilateration is determining a position by knowing your distance from at least 3 known points. In GPS those known points are the satellites themselves

Geometric dilution of precision

-a term used in satellite navigation and geomatics engineering to specify the additional multiplicative effect of navigation satellite geometry on positional measurement precision.

Google Maps

-a web mapping service developed by Google. It offers satellite imagery, street maps, 360° panoramic views of streets (Street View), real-time traffic conditions (Google Traffic), and route planning for traveling by foot, car, bicycle (in beta), or public transportation.

Orthophotograph

-an image of ground features in their true map coordinates, created photogrammetically from aerial photography. Think of an orthophoto as a picture and a scalable map. -Orthophotos have a consistent scale because the effects of camera tilt, relief, and lens distortion have been removed through a photogrammetric process that creates a new image with the original images in corrected positions.

Wire (induction) loop vehicle detection

-can detect vehicles passing or arriving at a certain point, for instance approaching a traffic light or in motorway traffic. An insulated, electrically conducting loop is installed in the pavement. The electronics unit transmits energy into the wire loops at frequencies between 10 kHz to 200 kHz, depending on the model. The inductive-loop system behaves as a tuned electrical circuit in which the loop wire and lead-in cable are the inductive elements. When a vehicle passes over the loop or is stopped within the loop, the vehicle induces eddy currents in the wire loops, which decrease their inductance.

Near-me Searches & Service Provider (Intermediary, google, that orchestrates sharing [Trusted Contact])

-depending on if you're using a cell phone or a desktop computer, Google knows for a couple of different reasons. If you allow your cell phone to use location services, Google will know where you are within a matter of feet. Even with location services off, Google can determine your location based off of your cellular provider's tower information and surrounding wifi networks. On computers, Google can also determine your location by the internet service provider (ISP) that you're using, your IP address, and if you're logged into the Google Chrome browser. - Google providing you with the Latitude application, or a restaurant recommendation system for near-by places. In contrast to the intended recipient, users usually do not have a primary goal of letting the service provider know their location - it is a by-product of getting a restaurant review or staying in touch with friends.

Location-Sharing Apps

-in order to regulate the transmission and sharing of user location data in the United States. It is based on the individual's one time consent to participate in these services (Opt In). The bill specifies the collecting entities, the collectable data and its usage. The bill does not specify, however, the period of time that the data collecting entity can hold on to the user data (a limit of 24 hours seems appropriate since most of the services use the data for immediate searches, communications, etc.), and the bill does not include location data stored locally on the device (the user should be able to delete the contents of the location data document periodically just as he would delete a log document). The bill which was approved by the Senate Judiciary Committee, would also require mobile services to disclose the names of the advertising networks or other third parties with which they share consumers' locations.

GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System)

-is a general term describing any satellite constellation that provides positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services on a global or regional basis. -While GPS is the most prevalent GNSS, other nations are fielding, or have fielded, their own systems to provide complementary, independent PNT capability. -GNSS can also refer to augmentation systems, but there are too many international augmentations to list here.

GPS constellation

-is a group of artificial satellites working in concert. Such a constellation can be considered to be a number of satellites with coordinated ground coverage, operating together under shared control, synchronized so that they overlap well in coverage, the period in which a satellite or other spacecraft is visible above the local horizon. -Low Earth orbiting satellites (LEOs) are often deployed in satellite constellations, because the coverage area provided by a single LEO satellite only covers a small area that moves as the satellite travels at the high angular velocity needed to maintain its orbit.

Positive Train Control

-is a system of functional requirements for monitoring and controlling train movements and is a type of train protection system -Electronic Train Management System, (ETMS) It is an overlay technology that augments existing train control methods. ETMS uses GPS for positioning and a digital radio system to monitor train location and speed. It is designed to prevent certain types of accidents, including train collisions.

Obfuscation

-is a technique used in location-based services or information systems to protect the location of the users by slightly altering, substituting or generalizing their location in order to avoid reflecting their real position.

In-Vehicle navigation systems

-is part of the automobile controls or a third party add-on used to find direction in an automobile. It typically uses a satellite navigation device to get its position data which is then correlated to a position on a road. When directions are needed routing can be calculated. On the fly traffic information can be used to adjust the route. -Dead reckoning using distance data from sensors attached to the drivetrain, a gyroscope and an accelerometer can be used for greater reliability, as GPS signal loss and/or multipath can occur due to urban canyons or tunnels.

VGI (Volunteered Geographic Information)

-is the harnessing of tools to create, assemble, and disseminate geographic data provided voluntarily by individuals (Goodchild, 2007). VGI is a special case of the larger Web phenomenon known as user-generated content. Some examples of this phenomenon are WikiMapia, OpenStreetMap, and Yandex.Map editor. VGI can also be seen as an extension of critical and participatory approaches to geographic information systems. VGI attracted concerns about data quality, and specifically about its credibility and the possibility of vandalism.These sites provide general base map information and allow users to create their own content by marking locations where various events occurred or certain features exist, but aren't already shown on the base map.

Megan's Law

-is the name for a federal law, and informal name for subsequent state laws, in the United States **requiring law enforcement authorities to make information available to the public regarding registered sex offenders.** Laws were created in response to the murder of Megan Kanka.

Geotagging

-is the process of adding geographical identification metadata to various media such as a geotagged photograph or video, websites, SMS messages, QR Codes[1] or RSS feeds and is a form of geospatial metadata. This data usually consists of latitude and longitude coordinates, though they can also include altitude, bearing, distance, accuracy data, and place names, and perhaps a time stamp.

Subdermal chip

-is typically an identifying integrated circuit device or RFID transponder encased in silicate glass and implanted in the body of a human being. This type of subdermal implant usually contains a unique ID number that can be linked to information contained in an external database, such as personal identification, law enforcement, medical history, medications, allergies, and contact information.

Crime Mapping

-is used by analysts in law enforcement agencies to map, visualize, and analyze crime incident patterns. It is a key component of crime analysis and the CompStat policing strategy. Mapping crime, using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), allows crime analysts to identify crime hot spots, along with other trends and patterns.

k-anonymity (you and k-1 other users)

-k-anonymity is a property possessed by certain anonymized data. The concept of k-anonymity was first introduced by Latanya Sweeney and Pierangela Samarati in a paper published in 1998[1] as an attempt to solve the problem: "Given person-specific field-structured data, produce a release of the data with scientific guarantees that the individuals who are the subjects of the data cannot be re-identified while the data remain practically useful." -Because k-anonymization does not include any randomization, attackers can still make inferences about data sets that may harm individuals. For example, if the 19-year-old John from Kerala is known to be in the database above, then it can be reliably said that he has either cancer, a heart-related disease, or a viral infection.

GPS-enabled smart phone

-some phones have a complete GPS receiver located in the phone or can connect to one with wires or through a Bluetooth connection. These GPS-enabled phones can understand programming languages like Java and can provide turn-by-turn directions or information about nearby businesses and attractions. -

Social Media

-the concept of GIS as media that we proposed 10 years ago only captures half of the story. During the past 5 years, media in general, and social media in particular, have become increasingly equipped with mapping and location-based features. In other words, media are increasingly becoming like GIS. Again, this new trend of media as GIS can be understood from two perspectives

Inherently meaningful break

-the importance of using a symbolization metaphor appropriate to the data and the power of data clasification to either reveal meaningful spatial trends or promote misleading interpretations -A specific piece of data that can be highlighted (if map is population vs time, first time we pass 1billion is a meaningful break)

Geoslavery

-the practice in which one entity, the master, coercively or surreptitiously monitors and exerts control of another individual or slave. -If the "master" discovered the "slave's" coordinates were different than the acceptable area of physical location, then the master could send a command to be "transmitted instantaneously to the transponder, which would administer punishment. The result would be an electronic form of geoslavery, equivalent to a human robot.

Recommender Apps/ Geo Matching

-uses LBS The recommended results typically include k items with the highest predicated scores, which are calculated based on: (1) a recommendation technique/model (such as content-based filtering, link analysis, or collaborative filtering) and (2) the spatial relevance (like Euclidean distance or network distances).

Dynamic Road Traffic Management

-uses simulation models combined with real-time traffic and origin-destination information to predict the effects of various management strategies, thus allowing more effective management and providing better traffic information than is currently possible. Route choice, travel time, and departure time data are collected from several sources of real-time information, such as loop detectors, roadside sensors, and GPS-equipped vehicle probes. -This travel information is then used, along with simulation models, to predict network flow patterns and travel times given various combinations of management strategies such as incident management, ramp metering, signal control, and traveler information.

Google Flu Trends

-was a web service operated by Google. It provided estimates of influenza activity for more than 25 countries. By aggregating Google Search queries, it attempted to make accurate predictions about flu activity. This project was first launched in 2008 by Google.org to help predict outbreaks of flu

"Naming and Shaming"

-when the authorities make known to the public the names of companies that have broken the law or the rules for a particular activity -Sex offender registries being public can cause this for those on that list

Infrastructure Provider (Mobile phone company)

-your mobile phone company, or the operator of an indoor location system. While self-positioning systems such as GPS can work without an infrastructure provider, mobile phone users are often implicitly located in order to provide communication services (i.e., route phone calls). -use the location information to provide services to carriers and content providers. The location-based applications use all of the aforementioned technology to target both the consumer and enterprise markets.

Secant (map projection)

As mentioned, when a conic or a cylindrical map projection surface is made secant, it intersects the ellipsoid, and the map is brought close to its surface. For example, the conic and cylindrical projections shown in the illustration cut through the ellipsoid. The map is projected both inward and outward onto it. And two lines of exact scale, standard lines, are created along the small circles where the cone and the cylinder intersect the ellipsoid. They are called small circles because they do not describe a plane that goes through the center of the earth as do the previously mentioned great circles.

Differential GPS

Differential correction is the process of correcting GPS data collected on a rover with data collected simultaneously at a base station. Because it is on a known location, any errors in data collected at the base station can be measured, and the necessary corrections applied to the rover data. Differential correction can be done in real time, or after the data has been collected by post processing.

GPS

Global Positioning System. A system of radio-emitting and -receiving satellites used for determining positions on the earth. The orbiting satellites transmit signals that allow a GPS receiver anywhere on earth to calculate its own location through trilateration. Developed and operated by the U.S. Department of Defense, the system is used in navigation, mapping, surveying, and other applications in which precise positioning is necessary.

unintended recipients (accidental, illegal, law enforcement)

In addition, a location-based system might have a number of unintended recipients, such as: •Accidental recipient, e.g., your parents when you claimto be at a friend's place studying, but forgot to turn off the system when you went out drinking. • Illegal recipient, e.g., a hacker intercepting your wireless location updates, or breaking into the service provider's or the infrastructure provider's records. • Law enforcement, e.g., police or other government agencies accessing the service provider's records.

Choropleth Map

Is a thematic map in which areas are shaded or patterned in proportion to the measurement of the statistical variable being displayed on the map, such as population density or per-capita income.

Geosynchronous orbit

Positioned in an orbit moving west to east with an orbital period equal to the earth's rotational period; is circular and lies in the equatorial plane, it is geostationary because it remains over one point on the equator. If not, the satellite appears to make a figure eight once a day between the latitudes that correspond to its angle of inclination over the equator.

Autonomous GPS

The least precise form of positioning that a GPS receiver can produce. The position fix is calculated in real time from satellite data alone. Autonomous positions are generally accurate to within 10 meters.

Euclidean Distance

The straight-line distance between two points on a plane. Euclidean distance, or distance "as the crow flies," can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem.

Multipath (in GPS) (multipath error)

[satellite imaging] Errors caused when a satellite signal reaches the receiver from two or more paths, one directly from the satellite and the others reflected from nearby buildings or other surfaces. Signals from satellites low on the horizon will produce more error.

Google Earth

a computer program that renders a 3D representation of Earth based on satellite imagery. The program maps the Earth by superimposing satellite images, aerial photography, and GIS data onto a 3D globe, allowing users to see cities and landscapes from various angles. Users can explore the globe by entering addresses and coordinates, or by using a keyboard or mouse. The program can also be downloaded on a smartphone or tablet, using a touch screen or stylus to navigate. Users may use the program to add their own data using Keyhole Markup Language and upload them through various sources, such as forums or blogs.

Ecological Fallacy

also called ecological inference fallacy, in epidemiology, failure in reasoning that arises when an inference is made about an individual based on aggregate data for a group. In ecological studies (observational studies of relationships between risk-modifying factors and health or other outcomes in populations), the aggregation of data results in the loss or concealment of certain details of information. Statistically, a correlation tends to be larger when an association is assessed at the group level than when it is assessed at the individual level. Nonetheless, details about individuals may be missed in aggregate data sets.

Active Sensor

emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of active remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an object.

Waze

is a GPS navigation software that works on smartphones and tablets with GPS support and provides turn-by-turn navigation information and user-submitted travel times and route details, while downloading location-dependent information over a mobile telephone network. Waze describes its app as a community-driven GPS navigation app, which is free to download and use

Turn-by-turn navigation

is a feature of some GPS navigation devices where directions for a selected route are continually presented to the user in the form of spoken and visual instructions. The system keeps the user up-to-date about the best route to the destination, and is often updated according to changing factors such as traffic and road conditions. Turn-by-turn systems typically use an electronic voice to inform the user whether to turn left or right, the street name, and how much distance to the turn

Reverse 911

is a public alert system most frequently used by safety organizations to alert individuals and businesses to the risk of danger by sending a recorded voice message to landline telephones and registered cellphones within a defined geographical area.

LBS (Location Based Services)

is a software-level service that uses location data to control features. As such LBS is an information service and has a number of uses in social networking today as information, in entertainment or security, which is accessible with mobile devices through the mobile network and which uses information on the geographical position of the mobile device

Virtual Globe

is a three-dimensional (3D) software model or representation of the Earth or another world. A virtual globe provides the user with the ability to freely move around in the virtual environment by changing the viewing angle and position. Compared to a conventional globe, virtual globes have the additional capability of representing many different views on the surface of the Earth.[1] These views may be of geographical features, man-made features such as roads and buildings, or abstract representations of demographic quantities such as population.

Augmented GPS

is any system that aids GPS by providing accuracy, integrity, availability, or any other improvement to positioning, navigation, and timing that is not inherently part of GPS itself. A wide range of different augmentation systems have been developed by both the public and private sectors. To meet specific requirements, the U.S. government has fielded a number of publicly available GPS augmentation systems, including (but not limited to) the following systems.

Buffer Analysis

used for identifying areas surrounding geographic features. The process involves generating a buffer around existing geographic features and then identifying or selecting features based on whether they fall inside or outside the boundary of the buffer. For example, the GIS was used to identify the locations of hazardous chemical storage sites in relation to health care facilities. The purpose of the project was to facilitate the evacuation of the health care facilities in the event of a leak or spill of hazardous materials.