GEOG 1010 Exam 2

The four major types of Earth biomes:

1) forest biome near Dornbirn, Austria; 2) pronghorn antelope on a grassland biome in the Dakotas; 3) desert biome in Arizona; and 4) tundra biome in Alaska.

6 Major Climate Groups

1: Tropical 2: Desert 3: Mesothermal 4: Microthermal 5: Polar and Ice Cap 6: Highland

biological weathering

the breakdown of rocks related to vegetational processes or animal activities.

eccentricity cycle

the change in Earth's orbit from slightly elliptical to more circular, and back to its earlier shape every 100,000 years.

obliquity cycle

the change in the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of the ecliptic over a 41,000-year period.

soil taxonomy

the classification and naming of soils.

paleoclimates

the climatic conditions of the past; typically refers to prehistoric times.

soil texture

the distribution of particle sizes in a soil that give it a distinctive "feel."

matrix

the dominant area of a mosaic (ecosystem supporting a particular plant community) where the major plant in the community is concentrated.

ecotone

the extent of limits on environmental conditions under which an organism can survive (for example: a range of temperature, or a range of annual precipitation).

range of tolerance

the extent of limits on environmental conditions under which an organism can survive (for example: a range of temperature, or a range of annual precipitation).

climax community

the final step in the succession of plant communities that occupy a specific location.

secondary productivity

the formation of new organic matter by heterotrophs, consumers of other life forms.

Pleistocene Epoch

the interval of Earth history immediately before the present (Holocene) epoch that experienced times of glacial advance and lasted from about 2.6 million to 10,000 years ago.

regional base level

the lowest level to which a stream system in a basin of interior drainage can flow.

fan apex

the most upstream point on an alluvial fan; where the fan-forming stream emerges from the mountain canyon.

secondary succession

the reestablishment of an ecosystem in an area after having been destroyed or seriously disrupted.

slip face

the steep, downwind side of a sand dune.

zooplankton

tiny animals that float and drift with currents in water bodies.

phytoplankton

tiny plants, algae and bacteria, that float and drift with currents in water bodies.

savanna

tropical vegetation consisting primarily of coarse grasses, often associated with scattered low-growing trees or patches of bare ground.

falls

type of fast mass wasting characterized by Earth material plummeting downward freely through air.

Debris

unconsolidated slope material with a wide range of grain sizes including at least 20% gravel

oxidation

union of oxygen with other elements to form new chemical compounds.

plant community

variety of individual plants living in harmony with each other and the surrounding physical environment.

heaving

various means by which particles are lifted perpendicular to a sloping surface, then fall straight down by gravity.

xerophytes

vegetation (xerophytes) that is able to withstand extended periods of drought.

natural vegetation

vegetation that has been allowed to develop naturally without obvious interference from or modification by humans.

soil profile

vertical cross-section of a soil that displays the various horizons or soil layers that characterize it; used for classification.

interglacial

warmer period between glacial advances during which continental ice sheets and many valley glaciers retreat and disappear or are greatly reduced in size.

hygroscopic water

water in the soil that adheres to mineral particles.

hydrolysis

water molecules chemically recombining with other substances to form new compounds.

infiltrate

water seeping downward into the soil or other surface materials.

salt crystal growth

weathering by the expansive force of salts growing in cracks in rocks; common in arid and coastal regions.

granular disintegration

weathering feature of coarse crystalline rocks in which visible individual mineral grains fall away from the main rock mass.

Mud

wet, fine-grained sediment, particularly clay and silt sizes.

loess

wind-deposited silt; usually transported in dust storms and derived from arid or glaciated regions.

surface creep

wind-generated transportation consisting of pushing and rolling sediment downwind in continuous contact with the surface.

liana

woody vine found in tropical forests that roots in the forest floor but uses trees for support as it grows upward toward available sunshine.

inceptisol

young soil with weak horizon development.

he water in a soil is not pure, as it contains nutrients dissolved in liquid, a form that can be extracted by vegetation. Plants need air, water, and minerals from the soil to live and grow. Soil is a critical natural resource that functions as an open system

Matter and energy flow in and out, and a soil also holds them in storage. Understanding the flows of inputs and outputs, the components and processes involved, and how they vary among different soils are the keys to appreciating the complexities of soil.

Midwest Savanna For perhaps the first time in two centuries, bison are returning to Illinois

Midwest Savanna Herd of Bison to Graze on Restored Grassland South of Chicago

buttressed trunks

Most common in tropical rainforests, they also occur in some midlatitude and subtropical forests with very wet climates.

The four major components of soil. Soil contains a complex assemblage of inorganic minerals and rocks, along with water, air, and organic matter. The interactions among these components and the proportion of each are important factors in soil development.

Most minerals found in soils are combinations of the common elements of surface rocks: silicon, aluminum, oxygen, and iron.

Which soil horizon can be found above an A horizon?

O

Perhaps as much as nearly 50% of a soil consists of open spaces between soil particles and clumps (aggregates of soil particles).

Perhaps as much as nearly 50% of a soil consists of open spaces between soil particles and clumps (aggregates of soil particles).

Thornthwaite Climate System

Based on potential evapotranspiration (potential ET or PET), which approximates use of water by plants if an unlimited water supply were available

Climographs

Easily recognizable, visual image of temperature and precipitation variations throughout the year for particular location

A mesa typically has smaller surface area than a butte.

False

Although climate greatly influences the natural vegetation of a region, it has little impact upon the soils of a region.

False

Grasslands are mainly located in polar and tundra regions where most of the precipitation accumulates in the winter.

False

In the Köppen classification system, polar climate are assigned the letter D.

False

Loess deposits are typically created by flowing water.

False

Mass wasting is a collective term for the upslope transport of sub-surface materials in direct response to gravity.

False

Plants and animals are generally unimportant to soil formation.

False

Rockfall deposits at the base of cliffs often form into rectangular structures called solifluction.

False

Slumps are earth slides that turn all the slumping sediment completely upside down, like flipping a pancake.

False

Soils with a higher proportion of clay-sized particles tend to be well aerated and allow water to infiltrate the soil quickly.

False

South-facing slopes in the middle and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere have microclimates that are cooler and wetter than those on North-facing exposures.

False

The angle of reposition is the steepest natural slope angle that loose material can maintain before it fails.

False

The climate boundaries in Köppen's classification were designed to correspond closely to global mammal regions.

False

The nonliving environment is not technically part of the ecosystem of a species.

False

The removal of soil components from the topsoil is called illuviation and their deposition in the subsoil is termed eluviation.

False

The topographic effects of differential weathering and erosion tend to be more prominent and obvious in landscapes of humid climates.

False

Tundra vegetation is typically taller in more exposed valleys so that wind can pass around it more easily.

False

Vegetation is not able to stabilize dunes because it is typically not strong enough.

False

Water that percolates down through a soil under the force of gravity is called hygroscopic water.

False

Weather and climate are essentially the same thing.

False

Wind does not have much power to move sediments and so is generally ignored by geomorphologists.

False

Cl, O, R, P, T

Hans Jenny's list of soil formation factors: Climate, Organics, Relief, Parent material, and Time.

Biomes

Largest recognizable subdivision of terrestrial ecosystems, including total assemblage of flora and fauna interactions.

Our definition of an ecosystem is broad and flexible

This area in Grand Tetons National Park, Wyoming, demonstrates the close relationship between living organisms and their nonliving environment. Beavers have dammed a stream to make a pond. Here, there are high mountain, forest, stream, pond, and meadow environments.

A climograph plots temperature and precipitation, among other variables, for particular locations.

True

Climate regions are separated on the Köppen climate classification map as an abrupt line. In reality, these are really zones of transition.

True

Desert pavement is created when wind selectively removes finer-grained sediments from the surface, leaving a close-fitting mosaic of gravel-sized stones on top

True

Ecosystems are open systems.

True

Forests are associations of large, woody, perennial tree species, generally several times the height of a person and with a more or less closed canopy of leaves overhead.

True

In general, loam soils are best suited to support vegetation growth.

True

In general, the more "massive" a rock is, the more resistant it is to weathering.

True

Köppen mainly considered average (mean) monthly temperature and precipitation values in his climate classifications

True

Living things have even found a way to exist in rather inhospitable environments, even some heavily impacted by humans.

True

On a global scale, generalization is necessary in order to distinguish between climate types and regions in a classification system.

True

Organisms are affected less by temperature variations than by the availability of sunlight and water.

True

Pioneer communities invade barren or devastated areas, for example following a volcanic eruption.

True

Plants with mechanisms to combat drought are known as xerophytes.

True

Playa lakes often form in the lowest part of desert basins.

True

Soil erosion, soil depletion, and mismanagement of the land are problems that we should have great concern about today.

True

Soil texture refers to the particle sizes (or distribution of sizes) that make up a soil.

True

Soils contain four major components: inorganic materials, soil water, soil air, and organic matter.

True

Surface and near-surface conditions, which have comparatively low temperature, low pressure, and extensive contact with water, cause rocks to undergo varying amounts of disintegration and decomposition.

True

The Thornthwaite climate classification system concentrates on a local scale, and is most useful for water resources specialists, soil scientists, and agriculturalists.

True

The cliff-forming, resistant, horizontal rock layer that is the top of a sequence of rock units is called a caprock.

True

The distributions of plants and animals are also affected by a diversity of natural processes that are sometimes referred to as catastrophes.

True

The process by which particles bounce along the ground by wind is called saltation.

True

Early Greeks classified three climate zones: Torrid, Temperate, and Frigid - based on relative warmth

Two most common indicators for describing climate: temp. & precip. • Thermometers dates to Galileo (early 1600s) • Sporadic collection began in 1700s • Routinely kept records start mid-1800s

Bergmann's Rule

Within a warm-blooded species, the body size of the subspecies usually increases with the decreasing mean temperature of its habitat.

piedmont alluvial plaina

a plain created by stream deposits at the base of an upland, such as a mountain, a hilly region, or a plateau.

mosaic

a plant community and the ecosystem on which it is based, viewed as a landscape of interlocking parts by ecologists

epiphytes

a plant that grows on another plant, but does not take its nutrients from the host plant.

soil survey

a publication that describes the soil types in an area and includes maps that show their distribution.

climate region

a region defined by the similarity of climatic conditions in the area within its boundaries.

loam

a soil with a texture in which none of the three soil grades (sand, silt, or clay) predominate over the others.

playa lake

a temporary lake that forms on a playa from runoff after a rainstorm or during a wet season.

pioneer community

a vegetation community that is the first to colonize an unvegetated, barren area.

clay (clayey)

a very fine-grained mineral particle with a size less than 0.004 mm (1/256 in), often the product of weathering.

deflation hollow

a wind-eroded depression in an area not dominated by wind-deposited sand.

barchan

crescent-shaped sand dune with arms (horns) pointing downwind.

parabolic dune

crescent-shaped sand dune with arms pointing upwind.

Climate

accumulated and averaged weather patterns of a locality or region; the full description is based on long-term statistics and includes extremes or deviations from the norm.

actual evapotranspiration (actual ET)

actual amount of moisture loss through evapotranspiration measured from a surface.

Soil fertilization

adding nutrients to the soil to meet the conditions that certain plants require.

soil fertilization

adding nutrients to the soil to meet the conditions that certain plants require.

yardang

aerodynamically shaped remnant ridge of wind-eroded bedrock or partly consolidated sediments.

biomass

amount of living material or standing crop in an ecosystem or at a particular trophic level within an ecosystem.

specialist

an animal that can survive only on a single or a very limited food type for its nutrition

herbivore

an animal that eats only living plant material.

herbivores

an animal that eats only living plant material.

zone of transition

an area of gradual change from one region to another.

gap

an area within the territory occupied by a plant community when the climax vegetation has been destroyed or damaged by some natural process, such as a hurricane, forest fire, or landslide.

clay pan

an ephemeral lake bed composed mostly of fine-grained clastic particles.

salt-crust playa (salt flat)

an ephemeral lake bed composed mostly of salt minerals.

wash (arroyo, wadi)

an ephemeral stream channel in an arid climate.

sand sea (erg)

an extensive area covered by sand dunes.

sand sheet

an extensive cover of wind-deposited sand having little or no surface relief.

bajada

an extensive intermediate slope of adjacent, coalescing alluvial fans connecting a steep mountain front with a basin or plain.

plateau

an extensive, flat-topped landform or region characterized by relatively high elevation, but low relief.

glaciation (glacial period)

an interval of glacial activity.

Altithermal

an interval of time about 7000 years ago when the climate was warmer than it is today.

consumer (heterotroph)

an organism that consumes organic material from other life forms, including all animals and parasitic plants.

consumers

an organism that consumes organic material from other life forms, including all animals and parasitic plants.

Omnivores

animal that can feed on both plants and other animals.

omnivore

animal that can feed on both plants and other animals.

carnivore

animal that eats only other animals.

carnivores

animal that eats only other animals.

Which type of soil develops in desert regions?

aridisol

Weather

atmospheric conditions, at a given time, in a specific location.

greenhouse gas

atmospheric gases which hinder the escape of Earth's heat energy.

badlands

barren region of soft rock material intensely eroded into ridges and ravines by numerous gullies and washes.

The total amount of living material in an ecosystem is referred to as its ____.

biomass

A soil rich in organic material will be ____.

black or dark brown

Chemical weathering

breakdown of rock material by chemical reactions that change the rock's mineral composition (decomposition).

Physical weathering

breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments (disintegration) by physical forces without chemical change.

Freeze-thaw weathering

breaking apart of rock by the expansive force of water freezing in cracks; also called frost weathering or ice wedging.

carbonation

carbon dioxide in water chemically combining with other substances to create new compounds.

precession cycle

changes in the time (date) of the year that perihelion occurs; the date is determined on the basis of a major period 21,000 years in length and a secondary period 19,000 years in length.

permeability

characteristic of soil or bedrock that determines the ease with which water moves through Earth material.

porosity

characteristic of soil or bedrock that relates to the amount of pore space between individual peds or soil and rock particles and that determines the water storage capacity of Earth material.

polar climate

climate region that does not have a warm season and is frozen either for much, or all of the year.

microthermal climate

climate regions or conditions with warm or mild summers that have winter months with temperatures averaging below freezing.

tropical climate

climate regions that are warm all year.

hardpan

dense, compacted, clay-rich layer occasionally found in the subsoil (B horizon) that is an end product of excessive illuviation.

Humid subtropical climate

dense, mixed forest with pine, oak, and palm species on a coastal island in Georgia

avalanche

density current of pulverized (powdered) Earth material (including ice and snow) traveling rapidly downslope by the pull of gravity.

illuviation

deposition of fine soil components in the subsoil (B horizon) by gravitational water.

bolson

desert basin, surrounded by mountains, with no drainage outlet.

desert pavement (reg)

desert surface mosaic of close-fitting stones that overlies a deposit of mostly fine-grained sediment.

slope aspect

direction that a slope on a hill or a mountain faces in respect to the sun's rays.

solution

dissolving material in a fluid, such as water, or the liquid containing dissolved material; water transports dissolved load in solution.

stratification

distinct layers within sedimentary rocks, called strata.

soil horizon

distinct soil layer characteristic of vertical zonation in soils; horizons are distinguished by their general appearances and their specific chemical and physical properties.

Overgrazing by _____ animals can seriously harm marginal environments in arid and semi-arid climates.

domesticated

eluviation

downward removal of soil components by water.

playa

dry lake bed in a desert basin; typically fine-grained clastic (clay pan) or saline (salt crust).

deflation

entrainment and removal of loose surface sediment by the wind.

short-grass prairie

environment where the dominant vegetation type is short grasses.

tall-grass prairie

environment where the dominant vegetation type is tall grasses, with a few scattered trees

Chaparral

evergreen shrubs (sclerophylls), grows in many Mediterranean climate regions and is adapted to a regime of dry summers alternating with rainy winters.

debris flow fan

fan-shaped depositional landform, particularly common in arid regions, created where debris flows emerge onto a plain from a mountain canyon.

alluvial fan

fan-shaped depositional landform, particularly common in arid regions, occurring where a stream emerges from a mountain canyon and deposits sediment on a plain.

slides

fast mass wasting in which Earth material moves downslope in continuous contact with a discrete surface below.

mesa

flat-topped, steep-sided erosional remnant reminiscent of a table, broader than tall, and common in arid regions with flat-lying sedimentary rocks.

autotrophs (plant life), followed by the heterotrophs (animal life) that reside within and feed in the plant communities.

flora and fauna must adapt to the new climatic conditions, migrate to areas with favorable conditions, or cease to exist.

pediment

gently sloping surface of eroded bedrock, thinly covered with fluvial sediments, found at the base of an arid-region mountain.

climograph

graphic means of giving information on mean monthly temperature and rainfall for a select location or station.

climographs

graphic means of giving information on mean monthly temperature and rainfall for a select location or station.

fast mass wasting

gravity-induced downslope movement of Earth material that people can witness directly.

mass wasting

gravity-induced downslope movement of Earth material.

Heterotrophs that eat only living plant material are called ____.

herbivores

tundra

high-latitude or high-altitude environments or climate regions that are not able to support tree growth because the growing season is too cold or too short.

corridor

in biogeographic terms, any linear feature that crosses the general vegetation cover in an area (for example, rivers, power line clearings, and roads).

Allen's Rule

in warm-blooded species, the relative size of exposed parts of the body decreases with decreasing mean temperatures.

Plants or animals that people have introduced to a place that is not their native environment, where they outcompete native species and reproduce in great numbers, are called ____.

invasive exotic species

laterite

iron-, aluminum-, and manganese-rich layer in the subsoil (B horizon) that can be an end product of laterization in the wet-dry tropics (tropical savanna climate).

butte

isolated erosional remnant, a hill with a flat summit formed by a caprock and is often bordered by steep-sided escarpments. Buttes are usually found in arid regions of flat-lying sediments and are somewhat taller than they are wide.

galleria forest

jungle-like vegetation extending along and over streams in tropical forest regions.

Near Earth Objects (NEOs)

large celestial bodies, such as comets and asteroids, that might come close enough to collide with Earth.

exfoliation dome

large, smooth, convex (dome-shaped) mass of exposed rock undergoing exfoliation due to weathering by unloading.

soil order

largest classification of soils based on development and composition of soil horizons

landslide

layperson's term for any fast mass wasting; used by some earth scientists for massive slides that involve a variety of Earth materials.

blowout

local, wind-eroded surface depression in an area dominated by wind-deposited sand.

habitat

location within an ecosystem occupied by a particular organism.

gravitational water

meteoric water that passes through the soil under the influence of gravitation.

Which type of soil is most closely associated with grassland regions?

mollisol

sand dune

mound or hill of sand-sized sediment deposited and shaped by the wind.

abiotic

natural, nonliving component of an ecosystem.

soil ped

naturally forming soil aggregate or clump with a distinctive shape that characterizes a soil's structure.

Rockfalls

nearly vertical drop of individual rocks or a rock mass through air pulled downward by the force of gravity.

thermal expansion and contraction

notion that rocks can weather due to expansion and contraction effects of alternating heating and cooling

trophic level

number of feeding steps that a given organism is removed from the autotrophs (e.g., green plant—first level, herbivore—second level, carnivore—third level, etc.).

Global Circulation models (GCMs)

numerical/computer systems for forecasting climatic impacts and shifts resulting from variations in processes and interactions among the atmosphere, oceans, and other climate-related environmental variables.

biome

one of Earth's major terrestrial ecosystems, classified by the vegetation types that dominate the plant communities within the ecosystem.

humus

organic matter found in the surface soil layers that is in various stages of decomposition as a result of bacterial action.

decomposer (detritivore)

organism that promotes decay by feeding on dead plant and animal material and returns mineral nutrients to the soil or water in a form that plants can utilize.

decomposers

organism that promotes decay by feeding on dead plant and animal material and returns mineral nutrients to the soil or water in a form that plants can utilize.

producer (autotroph)

organism that, because it is capable of photosynthesis, is at the foundation of a food web and is considered a basic producer.

producers

organism that, because it is capable of photosynthesis, is at the foundation of a food web and is considered a basic producer.

plankton

passively drifting or weakly swimming marine organisms, including phytoplankton (plants) and zooplankton (animals).

Ice Ages

period of Earth history when large areas of Earth's land surface were covered with massive continental ice sheets and other kinds of glaciers. The most recent ice age occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch.

eolian (aeolian)

pertaining to the land-forming work of the wind.

The process by which sunlight is converted by plants to self-sustaining nourishment is called _____.

photosynthesis

weathering

physical (mechanical) fragmentation and chemical decomposition of rocks and minerals at and near Earth's surface.

unloading .

physical weathering process whereby removal of overlying weight leads to rock expansion and breakage

Which of these is an example of an autotroph (producer)?

plants

Formation of new organic matter through photosynthesis by autotrophs is referred to as ____.

primary production

A pioneer community invades bare substrate during ____.

primary succession

nutrient cycle

process of moving nutrients from the physical environment to living organisms, and their return of nutrients to the physical environment.

nutrient cycles

process of moving nutrients from the physical environment to living organisms, and their return of nutrients to the physical environment.

soil-forming regime

processes that create soils.

succession

progression of natural vegetation from one plant community to the next until a final stage of equilibrium has been reached with the natural environment.

flows

rapid downslope movement of wet unconsolidated Earth material that experiences considerable mixing.

mudflows

rapid mass wasting of wet, fine-grained sediment; may deposit levees and lobate (tongue-shaped) masses.

lahars

rapid, gravity-driven downslope movement of wet, fine-grained volcanic sediment.

Debris flows

rapid, gravity-induced downslope movement of wet, poorly sorted Earth material.

primary productivity

rate at which new organic material is created at a particular trophic level. Primary productivity through photosynthesis by autotrophs is at the first trophic level; secondary productivity is by heterotrophs at subsequent trophic levels.

atmospheric element

refers to the major elements that affect the atmosphere including solar energy, temperature, pressure, winds, and precipitation.

symbiotic relationship

relationship between two organisms that is mutually beneficial to both organisms. liana

inselberg

remnant bedrock hill or mountain rising above a stream-eroded plain or pediment in an arid or semiarid region.

leaching

removal by gravitational water of soluble inorganic soil components from the surface layers of the soil.

parent material

residual (derived from bedrock directly beneath) or transported (by water, wind, or ice) mineral matter from which soil is formed.

ventifact

rock displaying distinctive wind-abraded faces, pits, grooves, and polish.

residual parent material

rock fragments that form a soil and have accumulated in place through weathering.

transported parent material

rock fragments that form a soil and originated elsewhere and then were transported and deposited in the new location.

differential weathering and erosion

rock types vary in resistance to weathering and erosion, causing the processes to occur at different rates and often producing distinctive landform features.

hydration

rock weathering due to substances in cracks swelling and shrinking with the addition and removal of water molecules.

spheroidal weathering

rounded shape of rocks often caused by preferential weathering along joints of cross-jointed rocks.

Climatology

scientific study of climates of Earth and their distribution.

sand (sandy)

sediment particles ranging in size from about 0.05 millimeter to 2.0 millimeters.

silt (silty)

sediment particles with a grain size between 0.002 millimeter and 0.05 millimeter.

food chain

sequence of levels in the feeding pattern of an ecosystem.

talus

slope (sometimes cone-shaped) of angular, broken rocks at the base of a cliff deposited by rockfall.

creep

slow downslope movement of Earth material involving the lifting and falling action of sediment particles.

slow mass wasting

slow mass wasting gravity-induced downslope movement of Earth material occurring so slowly that people cannot observe it directly.

solifluction

slow movement of saturated soil downslope by the pull of gravity; especially common in permafrost areas.

ripple

small (centimeter-scale) wave forms in water or sediment.

aridisol

soil that develops in deserts where precipitation is less than half the potential evaporation.

mollisol

soil that develops in grassland regions.

histosol

soil that develops in poorly drained areas.

spodosol

soil that develops in porous substrates such as glacial drift or beach sand.

vertisol

soil that develops in regions with strong seasonality of precipitation.

andisol

soil that develops on volcanic parent material.

oxisol

soil that develops over a long period of time in tropical regions with high temperatures and heavy annual rainfall.

gelisol

soil that experiences frequent freezing and thawing.

ultisol

soil that has a subsurface clay horizon, is low in bases, and is often red or yellow in color.

Alfisol

soil that has a subsurface clay horizon, is medium to high in bases, and is light colored.

capillary water

soil water that clings to soil peds and individual soil particles as a result of surface tension. Capillary water moves in all directions through the soil from areas of surplus water to areas of deficit.

entisol

soil with little or no development.

laterization

soil-forming process of hot, wet climates. Oxisols, the typical end product of the process, are characterized by the presence of little or no humus, the removal of soluble and most fine soil components, and the heavy accumulation of iron and aluminum compounds.

podzolization

soil-forming process of humid climates with long cold winter seasons. Spodosols, the typical end product of the process, are characterized by the surface accumulation of raw humus, strong acidity, and the leaching or eluviation of soluble bases and iron and aluminum compounds.

salinization

soil-forming process of low-lying areas in desert regions; the resulting soils are characterized by a high concentration of soluble salts as a result of the evaporation of surface water.

gleization

soil-forming process of poorly drained areas in cold, wet climates. The resulting soils have a heavy surface layer of humus with a water-saturated clay horizon directly beneath.

calcification

soil-forming process of subhumid and semiarid climates. Soil types in the mollisol order, the typical end products of the process, are characterized by little leaching or eluviation and by the accumulation of both humus and mineral bases (especially calcium carbonate, ).

generalist

species that can survive on a wide range of food supplies.

meteoroids

stone or iron mass that enters our atmosphere from space, becoming a meteor as it burns up in the atmosphere.

exotic stream

stream that originates in a humid region and has sufficient water volume to flow across a desert region.

Meteorology

study of the patterns and causes associated with short-term changes in the elements of the atmosphere.

krummholz

stunted, and crooked trees, growing low to the ground, under very harsh conditions of cold and wind at the elevational limit of tree growth, the boundary between the subalpine and alpine tundra zones.

exfoliation

successive removal of outer rock sheets or slabs broken from the main rock mass by weathering.

epipedon

surface soil layer that possesses specific characteristics essential to the identification of soils in the National Resources Conservation Service System.

joint set

system of multiple parallel cracks (joints) in rock.

clay minerals

A small (clay-sized) hydrous aluminum silicate material typically created by chemical weathering, especially hydrolysis.

Rock units that dip in the same direction as the topographic slope of the land are especially susceptible to rockslide, as recognized along this stretch of highway in Wyoming.

Debris slides, which contain a poorly sorted mixture of gravel and fine-grained sediment, and mudslides, which are dominated by wet silts and clays, are also common

anthropogenic change

a change in environmental conditions related to or as a direct result of human activities.

oxygen-isotope analysis

a dating method used to reconstruct climate history; it is based on the varying evaporation rates of water molecules containing different oxygen isotopes and the changing ratio between the isotopes.

subsurface horizon

a distinct horizontal soil layer that lies beneath the surface, characteristic of vertical zonation in soils.

soil

a dynamic, natural layer on Earth's surface that is a complex mixture of inorganic minerals, organic materials, microorganisms, water, and air.

patch

a gap or area within a matrix (territory occupied by a dominant plant community) where the dominant vegetation is not supported due to natural causes.

highland climate

a general climate classification for regions of high, yet varying, elevations.

star dune

a large pyramid-shaped sand dune with multiple slip faces resulting from convergent wind directions.

seif

a large, long, somewhat sinuous sand dune elongated parallel to the prevailing wind direction

transverse dune

a linear ridge-like sand dune that is oriented at right angles to the prevailing wind direction.

longitudinal dune

a linear ridge-like sand dune that is oriented parallel to the prevailing wind direction.

climate classification system

a method for determining categories of climate types based on climatic and weather data and characteristics.

Little Ice Age

a period of generally cooler conditions and growth of glaciers from the mid-16th to the mid-19th centuries

benthos

classification of marine organisms that live on the ocean floor.

nekton

classification of marine organisms that swim in the oceans.

What is the correct order from smallest to largest of these soil particles?

clay, silt, sand

The soil-forming factor that has the least effect in differentiating soil at the local level is ____.

climate

microclimate

climate associated with a small area at or near Earth's surface; the area may range from a few inches to 1 mile in size.

global warming

climate change that causes Earth's temperatures to rise.

Thornthwaite system

climate classification based on moisture availability and of greatest use at the local level; climate types are distinguished by examining and comparing potential and actual evapotranspiration.

Köppen system

climate classification based on monthly and annual averages of temperature and precipitation; boundaries between climate classes are designed so that climate types coincide with vegetation regions.

arid climate

climate region or condition where annual potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeds annual precipitation.

mesothermal climate

climate region or condition with hot, warm, or mild summers that do not have any months that average below freezing

To scientifically describe soil _____, one must make use of a standardized system found in Munsell books.

color

ecological niche

combination of role and habitat as represented by a particular species in an ecosystem.

Milankovitch theory (astronomical theory)

the theory that long-term climate change is related to periodic changes in Earth's axis and the planet's motions in space.

active layer

the upper soil zone that thaws in summer in regions underlain by permafrost.

Slumps

thick unit of unconsolidated fine-grained material sliding downslope on a concave, curved slip plane.

earth

thick unit of unconsolidated, predominantly fine-grained slope material.