GEOG 1010 Exam 2
The four major types of Earth biomes:
1) forest biome near Dornbirn, Austria; 2) pronghorn antelope on a grassland biome in the Dakotas; 3) desert biome in Arizona; and 4) tundra biome in Alaska.
6 Major Climate Groups
1: Tropical 2: Desert 3: Mesothermal 4: Microthermal 5: Polar and Ice Cap 6: Highland
biological weathering
the breakdown of rocks related to vegetational processes or animal activities.
eccentricity cycle
the change in Earth's orbit from slightly elliptical to more circular, and back to its earlier shape every 100,000 years.
obliquity cycle
the change in the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of the ecliptic over a 41,000-year period.
soil taxonomy
the classification and naming of soils.
paleoclimates
the climatic conditions of the past; typically refers to prehistoric times.
soil texture
the distribution of particle sizes in a soil that give it a distinctive "feel."
matrix
the dominant area of a mosaic (ecosystem supporting a particular plant community) where the major plant in the community is concentrated.
ecotone
the extent of limits on environmental conditions under which an organism can survive (for example: a range of temperature, or a range of annual precipitation).
range of tolerance
the extent of limits on environmental conditions under which an organism can survive (for example: a range of temperature, or a range of annual precipitation).
climax community
the final step in the succession of plant communities that occupy a specific location.
secondary productivity
the formation of new organic matter by heterotrophs, consumers of other life forms.
Pleistocene Epoch
the interval of Earth history immediately before the present (Holocene) epoch that experienced times of glacial advance and lasted from about 2.6 million to 10,000 years ago.
regional base level
the lowest level to which a stream system in a basin of interior drainage can flow.
fan apex
the most upstream point on an alluvial fan; where the fan-forming stream emerges from the mountain canyon.
secondary succession
the reestablishment of an ecosystem in an area after having been destroyed or seriously disrupted.
slip face
the steep, downwind side of a sand dune.
zooplankton
tiny animals that float and drift with currents in water bodies.
phytoplankton
tiny plants, algae and bacteria, that float and drift with currents in water bodies.
savanna
tropical vegetation consisting primarily of coarse grasses, often associated with scattered low-growing trees or patches of bare ground.
falls
type of fast mass wasting characterized by Earth material plummeting downward freely through air.
Debris
unconsolidated slope material with a wide range of grain sizes including at least 20% gravel
oxidation
union of oxygen with other elements to form new chemical compounds.
plant community
variety of individual plants living in harmony with each other and the surrounding physical environment.
heaving
various means by which particles are lifted perpendicular to a sloping surface, then fall straight down by gravity.
xerophytes
vegetation (xerophytes) that is able to withstand extended periods of drought.
natural vegetation
vegetation that has been allowed to develop naturally without obvious interference from or modification by humans.
soil profile
vertical cross-section of a soil that displays the various horizons or soil layers that characterize it; used for classification.
interglacial
warmer period between glacial advances during which continental ice sheets and many valley glaciers retreat and disappear or are greatly reduced in size.
hygroscopic water
water in the soil that adheres to mineral particles.
hydrolysis
water molecules chemically recombining with other substances to form new compounds.
infiltrate
water seeping downward into the soil or other surface materials.
salt crystal growth
weathering by the expansive force of salts growing in cracks in rocks; common in arid and coastal regions.
granular disintegration
weathering feature of coarse crystalline rocks in which visible individual mineral grains fall away from the main rock mass.
Mud
wet, fine-grained sediment, particularly clay and silt sizes.
loess
wind-deposited silt; usually transported in dust storms and derived from arid or glaciated regions.
surface creep
wind-generated transportation consisting of pushing and rolling sediment downwind in continuous contact with the surface.
liana
woody vine found in tropical forests that roots in the forest floor but uses trees for support as it grows upward toward available sunshine.
inceptisol
young soil with weak horizon development.
he water in a soil is not pure, as it contains nutrients dissolved in liquid, a form that can be extracted by vegetation. Plants need air, water, and minerals from the soil to live and grow. Soil is a critical natural resource that functions as an open system
Matter and energy flow in and out, and a soil also holds them in storage. Understanding the flows of inputs and outputs, the components and processes involved, and how they vary among different soils are the keys to appreciating the complexities of soil.
Midwest Savanna For perhaps the first time in two centuries, bison are returning to Illinois
Midwest Savanna Herd of Bison to Graze on Restored Grassland South of Chicago
buttressed trunks
Most common in tropical rainforests, they also occur in some midlatitude and subtropical forests with very wet climates.
The four major components of soil. Soil contains a complex assemblage of inorganic minerals and rocks, along with water, air, and organic matter. The interactions among these components and the proportion of each are important factors in soil development.
Most minerals found in soils are combinations of the common elements of surface rocks: silicon, aluminum, oxygen, and iron.
Which soil horizon can be found above an A horizon?
O
Perhaps as much as nearly 50% of a soil consists of open spaces between soil particles and clumps (aggregates of soil particles).
Perhaps as much as nearly 50% of a soil consists of open spaces between soil particles and clumps (aggregates of soil particles).
Thornthwaite Climate System
Based on potential evapotranspiration (potential ET or PET), which approximates use of water by plants if an unlimited water supply were available
Climographs
Easily recognizable, visual image of temperature and precipitation variations throughout the year for particular location
A mesa typically has smaller surface area than a butte.
False
Although climate greatly influences the natural vegetation of a region, it has little impact upon the soils of a region.
False
Grasslands are mainly located in polar and tundra regions where most of the precipitation accumulates in the winter.
False
In the Köppen classification system, polar climate are assigned the letter D.
False
Loess deposits are typically created by flowing water.
False
Mass wasting is a collective term for the upslope transport of sub-surface materials in direct response to gravity.
False
Plants and animals are generally unimportant to soil formation.
False
Rockfall deposits at the base of cliffs often form into rectangular structures called solifluction.
False
Slumps are earth slides that turn all the slumping sediment completely upside down, like flipping a pancake.
False
Soils with a higher proportion of clay-sized particles tend to be well aerated and allow water to infiltrate the soil quickly.
False
South-facing slopes in the middle and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere have microclimates that are cooler and wetter than those on North-facing exposures.
False
The angle of reposition is the steepest natural slope angle that loose material can maintain before it fails.
False
The climate boundaries in Köppen's classification were designed to correspond closely to global mammal regions.
False
The nonliving environment is not technically part of the ecosystem of a species.
False
The removal of soil components from the topsoil is called illuviation and their deposition in the subsoil is termed eluviation.
False
The topographic effects of differential weathering and erosion tend to be more prominent and obvious in landscapes of humid climates.
False
Tundra vegetation is typically taller in more exposed valleys so that wind can pass around it more easily.
False
Vegetation is not able to stabilize dunes because it is typically not strong enough.
False
Water that percolates down through a soil under the force of gravity is called hygroscopic water.
False
Weather and climate are essentially the same thing.
False
Wind does not have much power to move sediments and so is generally ignored by geomorphologists.
False
Cl, O, R, P, T
Hans Jenny's list of soil formation factors: Climate, Organics, Relief, Parent material, and Time.
Biomes
Largest recognizable subdivision of terrestrial ecosystems, including total assemblage of flora and fauna interactions.
Our definition of an ecosystem is broad and flexible
This area in Grand Tetons National Park, Wyoming, demonstrates the close relationship between living organisms and their nonliving environment. Beavers have dammed a stream to make a pond. Here, there are high mountain, forest, stream, pond, and meadow environments.
A climograph plots temperature and precipitation, among other variables, for particular locations.
True
Climate regions are separated on the Köppen climate classification map as an abrupt line. In reality, these are really zones of transition.
True
Desert pavement is created when wind selectively removes finer-grained sediments from the surface, leaving a close-fitting mosaic of gravel-sized stones on top
True
Ecosystems are open systems.
True
Forests are associations of large, woody, perennial tree species, generally several times the height of a person and with a more or less closed canopy of leaves overhead.
True
In general, loam soils are best suited to support vegetation growth.
True
In general, the more "massive" a rock is, the more resistant it is to weathering.
True
Köppen mainly considered average (mean) monthly temperature and precipitation values in his climate classifications
True
Living things have even found a way to exist in rather inhospitable environments, even some heavily impacted by humans.
True
On a global scale, generalization is necessary in order to distinguish between climate types and regions in a classification system.
True
Organisms are affected less by temperature variations than by the availability of sunlight and water.
True
Pioneer communities invade barren or devastated areas, for example following a volcanic eruption.
True
Plants with mechanisms to combat drought are known as xerophytes.
True
Playa lakes often form in the lowest part of desert basins.
True
Soil erosion, soil depletion, and mismanagement of the land are problems that we should have great concern about today.
True
Soil texture refers to the particle sizes (or distribution of sizes) that make up a soil.
True
Soils contain four major components: inorganic materials, soil water, soil air, and organic matter.
True
Surface and near-surface conditions, which have comparatively low temperature, low pressure, and extensive contact with water, cause rocks to undergo varying amounts of disintegration and decomposition.
True
The Thornthwaite climate classification system concentrates on a local scale, and is most useful for water resources specialists, soil scientists, and agriculturalists.
True
The cliff-forming, resistant, horizontal rock layer that is the top of a sequence of rock units is called a caprock.
True
The distributions of plants and animals are also affected by a diversity of natural processes that are sometimes referred to as catastrophes.
True
The process by which particles bounce along the ground by wind is called saltation.
True
Early Greeks classified three climate zones: Torrid, Temperate, and Frigid - based on relative warmth
Two most common indicators for describing climate: temp. & precip. • Thermometers dates to Galileo (early 1600s) • Sporadic collection began in 1700s • Routinely kept records start mid-1800s
Bergmann's Rule
Within a warm-blooded species, the body size of the subspecies usually increases with the decreasing mean temperature of its habitat.
piedmont alluvial plaina
a plain created by stream deposits at the base of an upland, such as a mountain, a hilly region, or a plateau.
mosaic
a plant community and the ecosystem on which it is based, viewed as a landscape of interlocking parts by ecologists
epiphytes
a plant that grows on another plant, but does not take its nutrients from the host plant.
soil survey
a publication that describes the soil types in an area and includes maps that show their distribution.
climate region
a region defined by the similarity of climatic conditions in the area within its boundaries.
loam
a soil with a texture in which none of the three soil grades (sand, silt, or clay) predominate over the others.
playa lake
a temporary lake that forms on a playa from runoff after a rainstorm or during a wet season.
pioneer community
a vegetation community that is the first to colonize an unvegetated, barren area.
clay (clayey)
a very fine-grained mineral particle with a size less than 0.004 mm (1/256 in), often the product of weathering.
deflation hollow
a wind-eroded depression in an area not dominated by wind-deposited sand.
barchan
crescent-shaped sand dune with arms (horns) pointing downwind.
parabolic dune
crescent-shaped sand dune with arms pointing upwind.
Climate
accumulated and averaged weather patterns of a locality or region; the full description is based on long-term statistics and includes extremes or deviations from the norm.
actual evapotranspiration (actual ET)
actual amount of moisture loss through evapotranspiration measured from a surface.
Soil fertilization
adding nutrients to the soil to meet the conditions that certain plants require.
soil fertilization
adding nutrients to the soil to meet the conditions that certain plants require.
yardang
aerodynamically shaped remnant ridge of wind-eroded bedrock or partly consolidated sediments.
biomass
amount of living material or standing crop in an ecosystem or at a particular trophic level within an ecosystem.
specialist
an animal that can survive only on a single or a very limited food type for its nutrition
herbivore
an animal that eats only living plant material.
herbivores
an animal that eats only living plant material.
zone of transition
an area of gradual change from one region to another.
gap
an area within the territory occupied by a plant community when the climax vegetation has been destroyed or damaged by some natural process, such as a hurricane, forest fire, or landslide.
clay pan
an ephemeral lake bed composed mostly of fine-grained clastic particles.
salt-crust playa (salt flat)
an ephemeral lake bed composed mostly of salt minerals.
wash (arroyo, wadi)
an ephemeral stream channel in an arid climate.
sand sea (erg)
an extensive area covered by sand dunes.
sand sheet
an extensive cover of wind-deposited sand having little or no surface relief.
bajada
an extensive intermediate slope of adjacent, coalescing alluvial fans connecting a steep mountain front with a basin or plain.
plateau
an extensive, flat-topped landform or region characterized by relatively high elevation, but low relief.
glaciation (glacial period)
an interval of glacial activity.
Altithermal
an interval of time about 7000 years ago when the climate was warmer than it is today.
consumer (heterotroph)
an organism that consumes organic material from other life forms, including all animals and parasitic plants.
consumers
an organism that consumes organic material from other life forms, including all animals and parasitic plants.
Omnivores
animal that can feed on both plants and other animals.
omnivore
animal that can feed on both plants and other animals.
carnivore
animal that eats only other animals.
carnivores
animal that eats only other animals.
Which type of soil develops in desert regions?
aridisol
Weather
atmospheric conditions, at a given time, in a specific location.
greenhouse gas
atmospheric gases which hinder the escape of Earth's heat energy.
badlands
barren region of soft rock material intensely eroded into ridges and ravines by numerous gullies and washes.
The total amount of living material in an ecosystem is referred to as its ____.
biomass
A soil rich in organic material will be ____.
black or dark brown
Chemical weathering
breakdown of rock material by chemical reactions that change the rock's mineral composition (decomposition).
Physical weathering
breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments (disintegration) by physical forces without chemical change.
Freeze-thaw weathering
breaking apart of rock by the expansive force of water freezing in cracks; also called frost weathering or ice wedging.
carbonation
carbon dioxide in water chemically combining with other substances to create new compounds.
precession cycle
changes in the time (date) of the year that perihelion occurs; the date is determined on the basis of a major period 21,000 years in length and a secondary period 19,000 years in length.
permeability
characteristic of soil or bedrock that determines the ease with which water moves through Earth material.
porosity
characteristic of soil or bedrock that relates to the amount of pore space between individual peds or soil and rock particles and that determines the water storage capacity of Earth material.
polar climate
climate region that does not have a warm season and is frozen either for much, or all of the year.
microthermal climate
climate regions or conditions with warm or mild summers that have winter months with temperatures averaging below freezing.
tropical climate
climate regions that are warm all year.
hardpan
dense, compacted, clay-rich layer occasionally found in the subsoil (B horizon) that is an end product of excessive illuviation.
Humid subtropical climate
dense, mixed forest with pine, oak, and palm species on a coastal island in Georgia
avalanche
density current of pulverized (powdered) Earth material (including ice and snow) traveling rapidly downslope by the pull of gravity.
illuviation
deposition of fine soil components in the subsoil (B horizon) by gravitational water.
bolson
desert basin, surrounded by mountains, with no drainage outlet.
desert pavement (reg)
desert surface mosaic of close-fitting stones that overlies a deposit of mostly fine-grained sediment.
slope aspect
direction that a slope on a hill or a mountain faces in respect to the sun's rays.
solution
dissolving material in a fluid, such as water, or the liquid containing dissolved material; water transports dissolved load in solution.
stratification
distinct layers within sedimentary rocks, called strata.
soil horizon
distinct soil layer characteristic of vertical zonation in soils; horizons are distinguished by their general appearances and their specific chemical and physical properties.
Overgrazing by _____ animals can seriously harm marginal environments in arid and semi-arid climates.
domesticated
eluviation
downward removal of soil components by water.
playa
dry lake bed in a desert basin; typically fine-grained clastic (clay pan) or saline (salt crust).
deflation
entrainment and removal of loose surface sediment by the wind.
short-grass prairie
environment where the dominant vegetation type is short grasses.
tall-grass prairie
environment where the dominant vegetation type is tall grasses, with a few scattered trees
Chaparral
evergreen shrubs (sclerophylls), grows in many Mediterranean climate regions and is adapted to a regime of dry summers alternating with rainy winters.
debris flow fan
fan-shaped depositional landform, particularly common in arid regions, created where debris flows emerge onto a plain from a mountain canyon.
alluvial fan
fan-shaped depositional landform, particularly common in arid regions, occurring where a stream emerges from a mountain canyon and deposits sediment on a plain.
slides
fast mass wasting in which Earth material moves downslope in continuous contact with a discrete surface below.
mesa
flat-topped, steep-sided erosional remnant reminiscent of a table, broader than tall, and common in arid regions with flat-lying sedimentary rocks.
autotrophs (plant life), followed by the heterotrophs (animal life) that reside within and feed in the plant communities.
flora and fauna must adapt to the new climatic conditions, migrate to areas with favorable conditions, or cease to exist.
pediment
gently sloping surface of eroded bedrock, thinly covered with fluvial sediments, found at the base of an arid-region mountain.
climograph
graphic means of giving information on mean monthly temperature and rainfall for a select location or station.
climographs
graphic means of giving information on mean monthly temperature and rainfall for a select location or station.
fast mass wasting
gravity-induced downslope movement of Earth material that people can witness directly.
mass wasting
gravity-induced downslope movement of Earth material.
Heterotrophs that eat only living plant material are called ____.
herbivores
tundra
high-latitude or high-altitude environments or climate regions that are not able to support tree growth because the growing season is too cold or too short.
corridor
in biogeographic terms, any linear feature that crosses the general vegetation cover in an area (for example, rivers, power line clearings, and roads).
Allen's Rule
in warm-blooded species, the relative size of exposed parts of the body decreases with decreasing mean temperatures.
Plants or animals that people have introduced to a place that is not their native environment, where they outcompete native species and reproduce in great numbers, are called ____.
invasive exotic species
laterite
iron-, aluminum-, and manganese-rich layer in the subsoil (B horizon) that can be an end product of laterization in the wet-dry tropics (tropical savanna climate).
butte
isolated erosional remnant, a hill with a flat summit formed by a caprock and is often bordered by steep-sided escarpments. Buttes are usually found in arid regions of flat-lying sediments and are somewhat taller than they are wide.
galleria forest
jungle-like vegetation extending along and over streams in tropical forest regions.
Near Earth Objects (NEOs)
large celestial bodies, such as comets and asteroids, that might come close enough to collide with Earth.
exfoliation dome
large, smooth, convex (dome-shaped) mass of exposed rock undergoing exfoliation due to weathering by unloading.
soil order
largest classification of soils based on development and composition of soil horizons
landslide
layperson's term for any fast mass wasting; used by some earth scientists for massive slides that involve a variety of Earth materials.
blowout
local, wind-eroded surface depression in an area dominated by wind-deposited sand.
habitat
location within an ecosystem occupied by a particular organism.
gravitational water
meteoric water that passes through the soil under the influence of gravitation.
Which type of soil is most closely associated with grassland regions?
mollisol
sand dune
mound or hill of sand-sized sediment deposited and shaped by the wind.
abiotic
natural, nonliving component of an ecosystem.
soil ped
naturally forming soil aggregate or clump with a distinctive shape that characterizes a soil's structure.
Rockfalls
nearly vertical drop of individual rocks or a rock mass through air pulled downward by the force of gravity.
thermal expansion and contraction
notion that rocks can weather due to expansion and contraction effects of alternating heating and cooling
trophic level
number of feeding steps that a given organism is removed from the autotrophs (e.g., green plant—first level, herbivore—second level, carnivore—third level, etc.).
Global Circulation models (GCMs)
numerical/computer systems for forecasting climatic impacts and shifts resulting from variations in processes and interactions among the atmosphere, oceans, and other climate-related environmental variables.
biome
one of Earth's major terrestrial ecosystems, classified by the vegetation types that dominate the plant communities within the ecosystem.
humus
organic matter found in the surface soil layers that is in various stages of decomposition as a result of bacterial action.
decomposer (detritivore)
organism that promotes decay by feeding on dead plant and animal material and returns mineral nutrients to the soil or water in a form that plants can utilize.
decomposers
organism that promotes decay by feeding on dead plant and animal material and returns mineral nutrients to the soil or water in a form that plants can utilize.
producer (autotroph)
organism that, because it is capable of photosynthesis, is at the foundation of a food web and is considered a basic producer.
producers
organism that, because it is capable of photosynthesis, is at the foundation of a food web and is considered a basic producer.
plankton
passively drifting or weakly swimming marine organisms, including phytoplankton (plants) and zooplankton (animals).
Ice Ages
period of Earth history when large areas of Earth's land surface were covered with massive continental ice sheets and other kinds of glaciers. The most recent ice age occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch.
eolian (aeolian)
pertaining to the land-forming work of the wind.
The process by which sunlight is converted by plants to self-sustaining nourishment is called _____.
photosynthesis
weathering
physical (mechanical) fragmentation and chemical decomposition of rocks and minerals at and near Earth's surface.
unloading .
physical weathering process whereby removal of overlying weight leads to rock expansion and breakage
Which of these is an example of an autotroph (producer)?
plants
Formation of new organic matter through photosynthesis by autotrophs is referred to as ____.
primary production
A pioneer community invades bare substrate during ____.
primary succession
nutrient cycle
process of moving nutrients from the physical environment to living organisms, and their return of nutrients to the physical environment.
nutrient cycles
process of moving nutrients from the physical environment to living organisms, and their return of nutrients to the physical environment.
soil-forming regime
processes that create soils.
succession
progression of natural vegetation from one plant community to the next until a final stage of equilibrium has been reached with the natural environment.
flows
rapid downslope movement of wet unconsolidated Earth material that experiences considerable mixing.
mudflows
rapid mass wasting of wet, fine-grained sediment; may deposit levees and lobate (tongue-shaped) masses.
lahars
rapid, gravity-driven downslope movement of wet, fine-grained volcanic sediment.
Debris flows
rapid, gravity-induced downslope movement of wet, poorly sorted Earth material.
primary productivity
rate at which new organic material is created at a particular trophic level. Primary productivity through photosynthesis by autotrophs is at the first trophic level; secondary productivity is by heterotrophs at subsequent trophic levels.
atmospheric element
refers to the major elements that affect the atmosphere including solar energy, temperature, pressure, winds, and precipitation.
symbiotic relationship
relationship between two organisms that is mutually beneficial to both organisms. liana
inselberg
remnant bedrock hill or mountain rising above a stream-eroded plain or pediment in an arid or semiarid region.
leaching
removal by gravitational water of soluble inorganic soil components from the surface layers of the soil.
parent material
residual (derived from bedrock directly beneath) or transported (by water, wind, or ice) mineral matter from which soil is formed.
ventifact
rock displaying distinctive wind-abraded faces, pits, grooves, and polish.
residual parent material
rock fragments that form a soil and have accumulated in place through weathering.
transported parent material
rock fragments that form a soil and originated elsewhere and then were transported and deposited in the new location.
differential weathering and erosion
rock types vary in resistance to weathering and erosion, causing the processes to occur at different rates and often producing distinctive landform features.
hydration
rock weathering due to substances in cracks swelling and shrinking with the addition and removal of water molecules.
spheroidal weathering
rounded shape of rocks often caused by preferential weathering along joints of cross-jointed rocks.
Climatology
scientific study of climates of Earth and their distribution.
sand (sandy)
sediment particles ranging in size from about 0.05 millimeter to 2.0 millimeters.
silt (silty)
sediment particles with a grain size between 0.002 millimeter and 0.05 millimeter.
food chain
sequence of levels in the feeding pattern of an ecosystem.
talus
slope (sometimes cone-shaped) of angular, broken rocks at the base of a cliff deposited by rockfall.
creep
slow downslope movement of Earth material involving the lifting and falling action of sediment particles.
slow mass wasting
slow mass wasting gravity-induced downslope movement of Earth material occurring so slowly that people cannot observe it directly.
solifluction
slow movement of saturated soil downslope by the pull of gravity; especially common in permafrost areas.
ripple
small (centimeter-scale) wave forms in water or sediment.
aridisol
soil that develops in deserts where precipitation is less than half the potential evaporation.
mollisol
soil that develops in grassland regions.
histosol
soil that develops in poorly drained areas.
spodosol
soil that develops in porous substrates such as glacial drift or beach sand.
vertisol
soil that develops in regions with strong seasonality of precipitation.
andisol
soil that develops on volcanic parent material.
oxisol
soil that develops over a long period of time in tropical regions with high temperatures and heavy annual rainfall.
gelisol
soil that experiences frequent freezing and thawing.
ultisol
soil that has a subsurface clay horizon, is low in bases, and is often red or yellow in color.
Alfisol
soil that has a subsurface clay horizon, is medium to high in bases, and is light colored.
capillary water
soil water that clings to soil peds and individual soil particles as a result of surface tension. Capillary water moves in all directions through the soil from areas of surplus water to areas of deficit.
entisol
soil with little or no development.
laterization
soil-forming process of hot, wet climates. Oxisols, the typical end product of the process, are characterized by the presence of little or no humus, the removal of soluble and most fine soil components, and the heavy accumulation of iron and aluminum compounds.
podzolization
soil-forming process of humid climates with long cold winter seasons. Spodosols, the typical end product of the process, are characterized by the surface accumulation of raw humus, strong acidity, and the leaching or eluviation of soluble bases and iron and aluminum compounds.
salinization
soil-forming process of low-lying areas in desert regions; the resulting soils are characterized by a high concentration of soluble salts as a result of the evaporation of surface water.
gleization
soil-forming process of poorly drained areas in cold, wet climates. The resulting soils have a heavy surface layer of humus with a water-saturated clay horizon directly beneath.
calcification
soil-forming process of subhumid and semiarid climates. Soil types in the mollisol order, the typical end products of the process, are characterized by little leaching or eluviation and by the accumulation of both humus and mineral bases (especially calcium carbonate, ).
generalist
species that can survive on a wide range of food supplies.
meteoroids
stone or iron mass that enters our atmosphere from space, becoming a meteor as it burns up in the atmosphere.
exotic stream
stream that originates in a humid region and has sufficient water volume to flow across a desert region.
Meteorology
study of the patterns and causes associated with short-term changes in the elements of the atmosphere.
krummholz
stunted, and crooked trees, growing low to the ground, under very harsh conditions of cold and wind at the elevational limit of tree growth, the boundary between the subalpine and alpine tundra zones.
exfoliation
successive removal of outer rock sheets or slabs broken from the main rock mass by weathering.
epipedon
surface soil layer that possesses specific characteristics essential to the identification of soils in the National Resources Conservation Service System.
joint set
system of multiple parallel cracks (joints) in rock.
clay minerals
A small (clay-sized) hydrous aluminum silicate material typically created by chemical weathering, especially hydrolysis.
Rock units that dip in the same direction as the topographic slope of the land are especially susceptible to rockslide, as recognized along this stretch of highway in Wyoming.
Debris slides, which contain a poorly sorted mixture of gravel and fine-grained sediment, and mudslides, which are dominated by wet silts and clays, are also common
anthropogenic change
a change in environmental conditions related to or as a direct result of human activities.
oxygen-isotope analysis
a dating method used to reconstruct climate history; it is based on the varying evaporation rates of water molecules containing different oxygen isotopes and the changing ratio between the isotopes.
subsurface horizon
a distinct horizontal soil layer that lies beneath the surface, characteristic of vertical zonation in soils.
soil
a dynamic, natural layer on Earth's surface that is a complex mixture of inorganic minerals, organic materials, microorganisms, water, and air.
patch
a gap or area within a matrix (territory occupied by a dominant plant community) where the dominant vegetation is not supported due to natural causes.
highland climate
a general climate classification for regions of high, yet varying, elevations.
star dune
a large pyramid-shaped sand dune with multiple slip faces resulting from convergent wind directions.
seif
a large, long, somewhat sinuous sand dune elongated parallel to the prevailing wind direction
transverse dune
a linear ridge-like sand dune that is oriented at right angles to the prevailing wind direction.
longitudinal dune
a linear ridge-like sand dune that is oriented parallel to the prevailing wind direction.
climate classification system
a method for determining categories of climate types based on climatic and weather data and characteristics.
Little Ice Age
a period of generally cooler conditions and growth of glaciers from the mid-16th to the mid-19th centuries
benthos
classification of marine organisms that live on the ocean floor.
nekton
classification of marine organisms that swim in the oceans.
What is the correct order from smallest to largest of these soil particles?
clay, silt, sand
The soil-forming factor that has the least effect in differentiating soil at the local level is ____.
climate
microclimate
climate associated with a small area at or near Earth's surface; the area may range from a few inches to 1 mile in size.
global warming
climate change that causes Earth's temperatures to rise.
Thornthwaite system
climate classification based on moisture availability and of greatest use at the local level; climate types are distinguished by examining and comparing potential and actual evapotranspiration.
Köppen system
climate classification based on monthly and annual averages of temperature and precipitation; boundaries between climate classes are designed so that climate types coincide with vegetation regions.
arid climate
climate region or condition where annual potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeds annual precipitation.
mesothermal climate
climate region or condition with hot, warm, or mild summers that do not have any months that average below freezing
To scientifically describe soil _____, one must make use of a standardized system found in Munsell books.
color
ecological niche
combination of role and habitat as represented by a particular species in an ecosystem.
Milankovitch theory (astronomical theory)
the theory that long-term climate change is related to periodic changes in Earth's axis and the planet's motions in space.
active layer
the upper soil zone that thaws in summer in regions underlain by permafrost.
Slumps
thick unit of unconsolidated fine-grained material sliding downslope on a concave, curved slip plane.
earth
thick unit of unconsolidated, predominantly fine-grained slope material.
