Geography Final
Angle of latitude
-Angle is created by drawing lines connecting the position of an object on earth, to the center of the earth, and then to the equator -
Hydrosphere
-Water in oceans, lakes, streams, wetlands, glaciers, groundwater, moisture in soil and clouds -Over 96% of earth's water is salt water in the oceans -Fresh water is in ice caps, glaciers, and groundwater
Microwave
-Weather images and nightly newscasts -Can penetrate clouds and haze providing a clear view of the ground -Can measure height of the sea surface
When do Geographers use DGPS?
-When precision is important -Surveys of changes in the land over timescales of decades or to gauge the erosion effects on a recent hurricane on a shoreline and its communities
Most energy entering Earth's atmosphere is between __________ microns while most of the thermal infrared energy emitted from Earth is between __________ microns.
0.4 and 0.7; 8 and 20
Visible and Near Infrared
Aerial photographs typically record visible light reflected off an area, but some photos and satellite images also record adjacent bands of infrared energy.
What happens to the concentration of gas molecules with increasing height in the atmosphere?
The concentration decreases very rapidly with height.
The most likely and direct consequence of a reduced rate of "burial" of sediment in the rock cycle would be
The delayed rate of formation of rock
Relief
The height of a feature above an adjacent valley. The difference in elevation of one feature relative to another is topographic relief. Flatter areas=lower relief, taller areas=higher relief
Elevation
The height of a feature above sea level
When we say that "attenuation increases with latitude," we mean that
There is a reduction in the amount of energy reaching Earth's surface because it has to travel farther and through more atmosphere.
Most of the shortwave energy entering Earth's atmosphere is:
Used to heat either the atmosphere or the ground surface.
Insolation striking land
-Small specific heat, limited mixing, limited latent heat, can be converted to sensible heat -Temperatures get higher than water
Causes of flooding
-Snowmelt -Local heavy rainfall -Regional heavy rainfall -Ice dam -Volcanic eruption -Dam failure -Urbanization
Reflection
-Some atmospheric components can reflect incoming insolation -Reflected energy can be returned directly into space or can interact with other atmospheric components and remain in the atmosphere -E.g. snowflake
Sandstone expression in landscape
-Some layers are resistant to erosion - Most layers differ from one another in color, grain size, or composition of grains
Volcanic rocks expression in landscape
-Some sort of layers -Can be gray, green, brown, tan, and cream
Factors impacting severity of air pollution
-Source -Atmospheric conditions -Topography
Composite volcano
-Steep slopes -Crater at top -Smaller than shield volcanoes -Consist of andesite, a fine-grained, gray, volcanic rock -1km wide -Lava domes and flows -Highly viscous -Landslides and mudflows -Pyroclastic flows
Slope affecting weathering: Steepness
-Steep slopes: rainfall runs off faster and weathering products may be quickly washed away -Soil and other lose materials can move down as well -Chemical weathering is slower
What could cause this stream to deposit sediment?
-Subsidence of the land, producing slopes that are less steep -A rise in base level, such as a rise in sea level -Both a rise in base level or subsidence of the land -All correct
June Solstice
-Sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer -North pole faces the sun to its max amount -Northern hemisphere receives most amount of insolation -Souther hemisphere receives least amount
Ozone pollution
-Sunlight and volatile organic compounds can react NOx, to form secondary pollutants, including OZONE (O3)
How does hail form
-Supercell thunderstorms and cumulonimbus clouds have strong updrafts that lifts raindrops and chunks of ice -Higher parts of the storm are below freezing, creating ice -Ice and raindrops can rise and fall several times, causing melting and coatings of more ice
Lithosphere
-The crust and upper mantle form lithosphere -100km in thickness
December Solstice
-The noon sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn -Sun angle is 66.5 -Southern hemisphere receives the max amount of insolation they get all year -Northern hemisphere receives lowest insolation
Thermosphere
-The uppermost layer of the atmosphere -Temperature increases as altitude increases (reverse gradient) -Shortest and most energetic forms of EM radiation from sun (X-rays and gamma rays) are intercepted by nitrogen and oxygen in the thermosphere -Greatest # of interceptions occurs causing the thermosphere to heat up -Greatest amount of absorption occurs near top=warmer, not as much lower= cooler
Five examples of physical weathering
-Thermal expansion -Frost wedging -Mineral wedging -Root wedging -Burrowing animals
Which of the following is true of metamorphic landscapes?
-They commonly have a shiny appearance, if their minerals reflect light -They are often found near granite and other igneous rocks -They commonly have platy, jagged outcrops -ALL CORRECT
Which of the following factors caused some high peaks of the Cascade Mountains of the Pacific Northwest to have high potential for slope failure?
-They may contain loose volcanic ash and other volcanic materials -They are volcanoes with steep slopes -They experience heavy rainfall -All of these are correct
Continental crust
-Thin -Light gray layer -Averages 35-40km in thickness -Similar to granite
Ocean-Ocean Convergent Boundary
-Two oceanic plates move toward one another -One plate goes below the other (subduction) -Oceanic trench forms when one plate moves down -Creates magma -> erupted lava and exploded volcanic fragments construct an island arc
How do streams change over time?
-Uplifted mountains increase sediment -Change precipitation patterns (rain shadow) -Melting ice releases water and weight, causing uplift -
Urban Heat Island
-Urban/city area becomes warmer than its surroundings When cities are built, buildings, concrete, sidewalks, and glass windows replace whatever was there before which have different albedos and thermal properties
Which of the following influences whether a flood occurs?
-Urbanization (replacing farms or natural land with buildings) -The width of the channel -The height of levees -The amount of discharge -All correct
Characteristics of volcanoes
-Vent where magma erupted -Crater -Commonly have lava flows -Volcanic rocks
Arctic/Antarctic air mass (A)
-Very cold and dry -Formed near N/S poles
How do volcanoes cause earthquakes?
-Volcanoes generate seismic waves -Movement along faults -Movement of magma -Slope failure -Explosive eruption
Warm fronts
-Warm air displaces colder air -Warm air rides over cold air, forming stratiform clouds and precipitation
Continental tropical (cT)
-Warm and dry -Form over land
Maritime tropical (mT)
-Warm and moist -Form over warm ocean regions
Conditions that strengthen a tropical cyclone
-Warm water strengthens -Moist air strengthens
Which of the following is true about how weathering affects fractured rocks?
-Weathering attacks corners from three sides and so these are preferentially removed -Preferential weathering along fractures can cause blocks to become rounded -Weathering affects rocks from the outside in, forming an outer weathered zone or rind -All correct
Slope affecting weathering: Slope aspect
-What way a slope faces: one side could have different climates -Sunny slopes have less soil, plants, and chemical weathering -More physical weathering
Principle of Superposition
-When a layer of sediment or volcanic rock is deposited, it must fall on an older rock -Newer rocks on top!
How Do Volcanic Domes Collapse or Be Destroyed?
-When steep flanks collapse -Explosion from buildup of gases -Destruction from dome collapse,
How flooding shows age
-When streams flood they often spill out onto their floodplain -Larger, more ancient floods have covered higher stream terraces
Which of the following does NOT influence whether sediment is picked up by a stream?
-Whether the stream flows north-south or east-west
Wind transportation
-Wind can move sand and finer sediment -Wind-blown material accumulates by active sand dunes, wind streaks, stabilized dunes, and loess
Damage with Tropical Cyclones
-Wind damage -Wave erosion -Flooding from rain -Storm surge: Low pressure and wind form mound of water that is pushed onshore, flooding low-lying coastal areas
Slope affecting weathering
-Windward slopes -Slope aspect -Shaded slopes -Steepness
Mantle convection
-a recurring current in the mantle that occurs when hotter, less dense material rises, cools, and then sinks again
Continental hot spots are typically marked by:
-abundant volcanism. -continental rifting -high elevations -All correct
What is the atmospheric window?
A band of energy between 8 and 13 µm that passes through the atmosphere without much loss
Which feature is interpreted to be in the Yellowstone region (1)?
A continental hot spot
Oceanic fracture zone
A crack or step across the seafloor mostly at right angles to the mid ocean ridges
Which of the following is a condition favoring deposition of sediment?
A decrease in gradient of the stream
Syncline
A fold in rock that bends downward to form a V or U shape
Artic Circle
A line of latitude 66.5 degrees North of the equator
Transform boundary
A plate boundary where two plates move past each other in opposite directions
Which of the following is referring to a ridge push?
A plate sliding away from the topographically high ridge and pushing the plate outward
Force
A push or pull, expressed as amount of acceleration experienced by a mass
If you were designing a rock that resisted weathering, which of the following characteristics would it have?
A quartz-rich rock
Thrust fault
A reverse fault with a gentle dip
What is a point bar?
A sandbar deposited along the inside of stream meanders due to lower velocity
Low sinuosity streams
A single channel that is gently curved
Which of the following sites is most likely to be flooded if all other factors are held constant?
A site on the floodplain instead of a site on an older terrace
Relatively, how much carbon dioxide is in the atmosphere compared to other gases?
A small amount
Island arc
A string of islands formed by the volcanoes along a deep ocean trench
Sedimentary rock
A type of rock that forms from loose sediment deposited by moving water, air, or ice
Conduction
A water filled pan on a burner gets hot as thermal energy is transferred by direct contact between burner and pan, and the pan and the water
Which area(s) on this world map is (are) likely to be near a plate boundary?
A, B, C
Climate change involves
All of these choices are correct
Community
All the different populations (different species) that live together in an area
Which of the following is not true about the interaction of sunlight with Earth?
All these are true about the interaction of sunlight with Earth
One major source of air pollution
Automobile exhaust
On the accompanying figure, what type of feature is in the area of letter B?
B
On this map of South America, where is subduction occurring?
B
On this map, identify which letter is over the Atlantic Ocean
B
Where are the strongest winds and most severe thunderstorms in a hurricane?
B
Hail
Ball of ice
The lowest level to which a stream can erode
Base level
Normal fault
Block above the fault moves down relative to block below fault
Which of the following is the best description of what the lithosphere contains?
Both types of crust and the uppermost mantle
Boundary between Mesozoic and Paleozoic
Boundary based on major mass extinction called the Great Dying
Boundary between Cenozoic and Mesozoic
Boundary based on mass extinction (dinos and others)
Boundary between Paleozoic and Precambrian
Boundary based on widespread appearance of hard-shelled organisms called the Cambrian explosion
Drainage divide
Boundary between basins
Contour lines are more ________ spaced when the land surface is relatively steep
Closely
Occluded Front
Cold front catches up with warm front as it rotates around low; traps warm air over cold and cool air
Which of the following is true of igneous landscapes?
Columnar jointing is common in basaltic lava flows.
Koppen climate classification system
Developed by Wladimir Koppen, a system for classifying the world's climates based on temperature, precipitation, and seasonality -Koppen was interested in distribution of vegetation
What is the most important data for studying the potential for flooding along a river for several decades into the future?
Discharge data from stream gauges
Closed system
Does not exchange matter or energy with its surroundings. The earth is a closed system for matter, but open for energy
0° of latitude is found at the _________, and 90° of latitude is found at the _________.
Equator; North and South Poles
How does the amount of solar radiation received vary on Earth?
Equatorial locations receive about half the solar constant, and the amount decreases with latitude.
Aside from limestone, which other kinds of rock types produce karst terrain?
Evaporite rocks and areas underlain by salt, but not sandstone
Index contours
Every fifth contour line on a topographic map that is printed bolder for reference
Lowest thunderstorm frequency in the U.S.
Fewest along West Coast: cold water offshore; away from main tracks of mid-latitude cyclones
Heterotroph (first level and second level)
First level: eat corn Second level: cow eats corn, we eat cow
What is the most important geologic agent in eroding, transporting, and depositing sediment?
Flowing water
Monocline
Fold in rock: nearly flat layers bend down and then flatten out again
Which of the following is not a required criterion for a substance to be classified as a mineral?
Human-made
Other large sources of air pollution
Industrial activities: power-generating stations, factories, petroleum refineries, waste-water treatment plants, and mining
Insolation from directly overhead is concentrated in a smaller area than if striking a surface at angle because
Insolation at lower angle also has to pass through more atmosphere, so reduced
Burial and lithification
Once disposited, sediment can be buried and compacted by the weight of overlying material. Chemicals in groundwater can coat sedimentary grains with minerals and deposit natural cements that bind adjacent grains (lithification)
What is hummocky topography?
Randomly bumpy land surfaces with pits
Which color portion of the visible spectrum emits the lowest amount of energy?
Red
Isostasy
Relationship between crustal thickness and elevation
What would happen if the ice in this area melted away?
Rivers could change direction and flow away from the area once covered by ice.
Melting
Rock exposed to high temperatures may melt and produce magma; occurs in great depth of the earth
Rotational slides (slumps)
Rock layers and other materials slide backwards; move along one or more curved slip surfaces
Erosion and transport
Rock pieces loosened or dissolved by weathering can be stripped away by erosion and moved away from their source. Glaciers, flowing water, wind, gravity on hills can transport eroded material away
Weathering
Rocks can be mechanically or chemically weathered --> weathering creates sediment which ranges from fine clay to large boulders
Metamorphic rocks
Rocks changed by temperatures, pressures, or deformation
Farther rocks are transported from their source means they will be
Rounder and smaller
Types of materials at sand dunes
Sand
Remote sensing
Techniques used to collect data or images from a distance, including the processing of such data, and the construction of maps using these techniques.
Which of the following is true about internal and external processes?
Tectonics is an internal process, and erosion is an external process
Koppen: C
Temperate mid-latitude climates
Tornado Alley is a region in the United States including
Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska
Of the areas listed, which has the highest net primary productivity overall?
The Amazon basin
Which of the following regions received the most damage from Hurricane Sandy?
The Atlantic coast, especially near New Jersey
What did the USGS discover when they studied the Slumgullion feature?
The USGS discovered all these features and processes
Stress
The amount of force divided by the area where force is applied
Which of the following does not describe storm surges associated with tropical cyclones?
The amount of water in a surge decreases with strong winds blowing toward the coast
Fronts
The narrow zone separating two air masses
Weather is controlled by large-scale motions in the atmosphere. Below are listed some features of these motions. Choose the one that is incorrect.
The northeast trade winds flow from the equator toward 30° North
Physical weathering
The physical breaking apart of rocks, soils, and other materials that are exposed to the environment
Which of the following is true of a 100-year flood?
The probability of a 100-year flood occurring on any given year is 1:100.
Scientists can use isotopes from collected __________ to help understand past climate changes.
all of these choices are correct
The Sun angle is measured by drawing a line
along to ground to an observer's feet and then to the Sun.
NOx reacts with __________ in the formation and intensification of particulate matter, which is linked to haze, decreasing visibility, and respiratory ailments.
ammonia (NH3)
Cooling occurs when
an object loses energy
Warming occurs when
an objects GAINS energy from its surroundings
Isotopes that decay slowly are used to date
ancient rock
Propagation Direction
any of the ways in which waves travel
Using the Köppen classification system, a climate classified as a BW (Bw) would have
arid, dry winter.
In September, the highest concentrations of ozone are over ___________ latitudes in the _______________ hemisphere
high; southern
Thick blocks ________ than thin blocks; Dense materials (like a denser wood) are __________
higher; lower
Water has _________ heat capacity (can hold more heat), so warms and cools more _______ than land
higher; slowly
Asthenosphere
hot and weak; mostly solid
The red dots that coincide with volcanically active island chains shown on the map are called:
hot spots
Ecology is the study of
how organisms interact with each other and the nonliving environment
A type of rock that forms directly from precipitates of hot water is called a(n)
hydrothermal rock
Earthquake is generated in the
hypocenter or focus
The condition in which O2 is lacking in an aquatic ecosystem is:
hypoxia
Biotic components
living things, wastes, decaying remains
While studying, you sip on a cold glass of iced tea. Your warm hand touches the glass and __________.
loses energy, making your hand feel cold
Insolation strikes polar regions at _______ angle, so is spread out (less)
low
Land heats and cools more rapidly than the ocean because of its
lower specific heat when compared to the ocean
Landscape surface younger than rocks on________________________
which it is carved
2011 Töhuku (Japan) Earthquake
•9 EQ -The large Tohuku earthquake occurred beneath the eastern edge of Japan, recording slip on the subduction zone where the Pacific plate is subducted beneath Asia •The earthquake displaced the seafloor, unleashing a huge tsunami that swept inland many kilometers, destroying entire towns and the Fukushima nuclear reactor, which suffered a core meltdown due to the failure of coolant pumps and backup generators •The earthquake also caused destruction on land from ground shaking
Where do landslides occur?
•Mountainous areas •Areas along west coast (earthquake, coastal erosion, and heavy rain) •Areas along some rivers, like Mississippi •Specific geologic units (like in Colorado Plateau, the Dakotas, and Texas)
Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964
•Numerous large landslides, land subsidence, and uplift occurred during the movement •A tsunami generated by the earthquake sped down the west coast killing people from Alaska to California
Which of the following is true of meridians?
Meridians always follow great circles
Headwaters
Where a stream starts
Which of the following is NOT an important difference between continent crust and ocean crust?
Whether it is part of the lithosphere
Thermal Infrared
Objects also emit energy, either from the internal heat of an object or from heat initially gained from the sun.
Which layer in Earth is similar in composition to basalt, a dark lava rock?
Oceanic crust
Days with equal amounts of daylight and darkness occur
On March 21st and June 21st
Which of the following is not true about protecting biodiversity?
Once a species is lost from an area, it isn't typically re-introduced because doing so would endanger other species in that ecosystem
The Pacific Coast receives a lot of rain but thunderstorms are relatively rare. Why?
There is a slight difference in the temperature of air masses that meet, discouraging uplift.
Which of the following processes is not considered to be chemical weathering?
Thermal expansion
Primary producers
These derive energy from sunlight, through process of photosynthesis (plants, algae, archaea)
What is the current understanding scientists have about ocean oscillations and climate change?
They may be either a cause or an effect of climate change
What defines the boundaries between each of the three eras in the geologic timescale?
Two great mass extinctions
Anticline
Type of rock fold: If rock layers arch upward forming an A shape
What type of UV preferentially breaks apart bonded oxygen atoms in the atmosphere, freeing up individual atoms to form ozone?
UV-C
Debris slides
Unconsolidated but detaches along some interface
Which of these is a greenhouse gas created in the production of petroleum and in the digestive processes of livestock?
VOC
Depth
Vertical distance below sea level
Equatorial (E)
Very warm and moist
How a cluster of volcanic islands and seamounts are formed
When a plate it not moving or is moving slowly over a hot spot
Strike-slip fault
When rocks along a fault move with a side to side motion parallel to the fault surface
__________ energetic when fewer sunspots
Less
Sun angle
Measures angle between Sun and horizontal
Abiotic components
Not directly produced by an organism: air, rocks, soil, water
Koppen: E
Polar climates
Which of the following is generally a light-colored silicate mineral?
Quartz
In this figure of Japan, what do the offshore trenches indicate?
Subduction of oceanic crust
The amount of insolation reaching the surface is lowest in the ______________
high latitudes (near the poles)
Lowest amount of outgoing longwave radiation occurs in the ______________
high latitudes (poles)
All the following will enhance the formation of hail except
little temperature contrast between fronts
Troposphere
-Lowest layer of atmosphere -Normal temperature gradient -Presence of various sublayers of air and influence of clouds
Which of the following represents the correct charge sequence to create lightning?
A - positive, B - negative, C - positive
Characteristics of karst topography
-Sinkholes and pits formed by the collapse of caves -Stream drainages that are captured by pits: disappearing streams (lack of drainage system)
What forces control slope stability
-Angle of repose -Amount of water: addition of minor amounts of water strengthens soil -fractures, cleavage and bedding reduce strength
Internal processes
-Arise within the earth -Volcanism, earthquakes, deformation, mountain building -Largely driven by planet's internal heat
Sulfur dioxide
-(SO2) pollution from burning fossil fuels (coal) and from metal smelters -High-emissions areas mostly from coal-fired generation of electricity
Lines of longitude: 0-180
-0: On the Prime Meridian in Greenwich, England -180: International Date Line, an imaginary line that runs through the Pacific Ocean
Continental-Continental convergent boundary/Continental collision
-2 continents collide and create an elevated region -E.g. Mount Everest
Maximum concentration in the ozone layer
-6-8 ppm
Haiti 2010 Earthquake
-7EQ •Caused the deaths of approximately 200,000 people, mostly due to the widespread collapse of buildings near the capital city of Port-au-Prince •Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, accounting for some of the poor construction of houses and buildings •The earthquake was caused by movement on a fault along a complex part of the boundary between the Caribbean plate and the North American plate. The zone has strike slip and convergence
Ozone
-A form of oxygen that has three oxygen atoms in each molecule instead of the usual two -More than 90% of ozone is in the stratosphere, but some is in the mesosphere and the troposphere -Ozone is produced naturally by lightning due to the ionization of oxygen gas molecules
Continental rift
-A linear belt along which continental lithosphere stretches and pulls apart -Occurs when a divergent boundary forms on a continent -Can lead to seafloor spreading and new ocean basin
Small scale map
-A map that shows a larger area without much detail -Smaller representative fraction
Divergent boundary
-A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other -Magma fills space between them -Most divergent boundaries are along mid ocean ridges on the seafloor
Convergent boundary
-A plate boundary where two plates move toward each other and one plate typically slides under the other -Can occur between 2 oceanic plates, and oceanic and continental plate, or 2 continental plates
Which of the following is true about rocks and minerals?
-A rock can contain more than one mineral -A single rock can include more than one mineral -A mineral is composed of chemical elements -ALL ARE CORRECT
Dike
-A slab of volcanic rock formed when magma forces itself across rock layers -Cuts across horizontally
How does climate influence weather?
-Abundant precipitation and higher temperatures can cause chemical weathering to occur faster -Warm and humid climates have more weathered rocks then cold and dry climates
Interaction between Atmosphere and Lithosphere
-Active volcanoes emit gases into the atmosphere, and major eruptions release huge quantities of steam, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and volcanic ash -Weathering of rocks removes gas and moisture from the atmosphere
Deformation and metamorphism
-After a rock forms, strong forces can squeeze the rock and fold its layers= deformation -If buried deeply enough, a rock can be heated and deformed to produce a metamorphic rock
Still
-An intrusion that is parallel to the host rock -Gently inclined and form by pushing adjacent rocks upward rather than sideways
Acid rain
-Atmospheric water can react with SO2 or NOx to produce precipitation that is acidic (low pH) -Humid climates in industrial areas are more prone to acid rain
Origin and distribution of tropical cyclones
-Begin in tropics: warm and moist air -Move west (within belts of trade winds) -Turn as they enter zones of westerlies -Fewer in Southern Hemisphere -None to very few along Equator (no Coriolis effect)
Stationary fronts
-Boundary between warm and cold air, but not moving for hours or days -Warm air overlies cold air, forming clouds and precipitation
Factors causing Urban Heat Island
-Buildings, windows, asphalt -Roads, gutters, and storm drains -Industrial/domestic/transportation sources: cars, furnaces, and electrical devices
Absorption
-Can absorb the energy, converting the incoming electromagnetic energy into kinetic energy expressed as motions of the molecule -E.g. a gas molecule
Scattering
-Can be scattered which sends energy off in different directions -E.g. sky color: as insolation enters the atmosphere, blue and violet light are scattered preferentially by gasses and the scattered light causes us to see blue in the sky. The remaining light that passes, gives the sun a yellow color. When sunlight passes through at a low angle (sunrise/sunset), orange and red colors are the only ones that don't scatter.
Factors affecting climate change
-Changes in Earth's orbit and in tilt of spin axis -Changes in energy from Sun, as either measured directly or estimated from sunspots -Ocean oscillations, such as ENSO, Pacific Decadal Oscillation, and North Atlantic Oscillation
Factors controlling how materials weather
-Chemical bonding: weaker bonds =more soluble, stronger bonds=less soluble -Reactivity
What processes erode materials in streams?
-Clasts can be picked up by turbulence and low pressure caused by moving water -Moving clasts collide with other clasts and obstacles, chipping away or launching pieces -Turbulence loosens and lifts pieces of streambed -Soluble material is dissolved and removed
Multi-Cell Thunderstorm
-Clusters of single-cell thunderstorms that clump together -Downdraft from one storm can cause an updraft and another storm in front= strengthening other storms
The 1993 Mississippi Flood
-Cold air and warm air collide, causing persistent thunderstorms -Discharge higher than normal for months
Cold fronts
-Cold air moves and displaces the warmer, moister air -Cold air lifts the warm air, forming cumuliform clouds and precipitation
Continental polar (cP)
-Cold and dry -Located further from the poles in locations like northern Canada, Siberia, Mongolia, and north-central Europe
Weather systems that produce tornadoes
-Cold fronts, including squall lines -Single-cell thunderstorms, and more organized and powerful thunderstorms -Tropical cyclones -Tornadoes can have distinctive wall clouds
Conditions that weaken a tropical cyclone
-Cold water weakens -Dry air weakens -Land weakens, especially mountains -Wind shear weakens (spreads out latent heat)
Upper mantle
-Composed of green mineral olivine
How do rock characteristics affect weathering?
-Composition: Quartz=hard to erode, fine-grained rocks=easily eroded -Variation in composition: some outcrops have different parts with large contrasts in susceptibility to weathering -Surface area: more broken=more surface area for weathering -Discontinuities: highly jointed weather faster than less joints
Cinder/Scoria cone
-Cone shaped hills several hundred meters high -Contain loose black/red, pebble sized volcanic cinders, larger volcanic bombs, most cinder is a type of basalt -Some of these volcanoes appear next to shield or composite volcanoes -50m wide -Lava fountain and lava flow
Air pollution
-Consists of gasses, liquids, and solids introduced into the atmosphere by human activities and is deemed detrimental to humans, animals, and plants -Solid and liquid particles are called aerosols. Aerosols and gaseous pollutants interact with sunlight, so they can decrease air quality and have the potential to influence climate.
Lower mantle
-Contains minerals formed at high pressures
Features of continental hot spots
-Continental hot spots are volcanically active areas away from plate boundaries
Maritime polar (mP)
-Cool and moist -Seattle and Western Europe
Process of meandering stream
-Current is fastest in center and slowest along banks -Sediment can be deposited along the banks where the velocity is lowest -Erosion can occur in middle where the velocity is highest
Basaltic lava flows expression in landscape
-Dark -Spread out easily -Distinct layers -Have redish zones -Columnar fractures=columnar joints
Solctices
-December 21st and June 21st -Winter and summer solstice - One of the poles is most exposed to the sun
Ocean trenches
-Deepest part of the ocean floor -Follow edges of continents
Ocean-Continental Convergent Boundary
-Denser oceanic plate subducts below the less dense continental plate -Overlying mantle melted -Magma rises; some solidifies in crust -Trench forms -Volcanoes, solidified magma in crust, and deformation form mountain belt
Types of chemical weathering
-Dissolution -Oxidation -Hydrolysis -Biological reactions
Volcanic dome
-Domes -Consist of solidified lava, volcanic ash, rock fragments -50m
Protecting yourself from lightning
-Don't be in open areas (athletic fields) -Avoid windows, doors, plumbing and electrical equipment, tall trees or objects -Avoid concrete walls that could have metal reinforcing bars -Basements are safe -Cars are safe -Crouch down with your weight on your toes and feet close together, lower head and get as low as possible without touching your hands or knees to the ground -Do not lie down!
Shale expression in landscape
-Easily eroded -Form soft slops covered by small loose chips -Form badlands: soft, rounded appearance
Convection
-Energy is conducted through the base of the pot and into the lowest layer of water contacting the pot -The cooler denser water displaces the warmer less dense water
Shortwave radiation converted to sensible heat
-Energy strikes earth's surface is absorbed by molecules, increasing their temperature and sensible heat -Warming the surface, which warms the air
Radiation
-Energy transfer by electromagnetic waves -Example: a hot burner on a stove can warm your hands a short distance away --> heat radiates through the air
Lava dome
-Eruption of highly viscous lava that resists flowing -Viscosity causes it to pile up in a dome
Factors of slope failure
-Excessive rain -Load on the surface exceeds the loads ability to resist movement -Modification of a slopes steepness by humans or natural causes -Volcanic eruptions -Sudden shake from an earthquake -Too steep -Landslide -Avalanche
Oceanic crust
-Exists beneath the oceans -Composition is similar to basalt -Dark lava rock -Average thickness 7km
How to express longitude and latitude
-Expressed in degrees -Minutes indicated by ' -Seconds indicated by " -E.g. 9° 43' 48"
Mantle
-Extends from the base of the crust down to a depth of 2, 900 km
How earthquakes show age
-Fault scrap: earthquakes leave evidence by rupturing the ground and forming a steep slope
Earthquakes along mid-ocean ridges
-Faulting on transforms: strike-slip fault along a plate boundary -Faulting near rift: shallow, medium-sized earthquakes occur along axis of ridge where normal faults downdrop blocks -Faulting near rift: shallow, medium-sized earthquakes occur along axis of ridge where normal faults downdrop blocks
How granite weathers
-Feldspar: largest mineral in granite; weathers by hydrolysis to clay minerals -Clay minerals accumulate in soil or muddy environments -Quartz is very resistant to chemical and physical weathering -Quartz grains become quartz sand
What can follow an earthquake
-Fire -Subsidence and Flooding -Flooding from water expelled during earthquake -Dam failure
Cumulus stage (Stages of a single-cell thunderstorm)
-First stage -Initial build-up from heating of land and updraft -If the air is humid, cumulus clouds form
The 1976 Big Thompson Flood
-Flash flood (30 cm/12 inches in a few hours in a small drainage basin) -Flash flood killed campers and destroyed buildings -Stationary thunderstorm
Flood
-Flood if overflows channel and spills onto floodplain -More water enters channel that can be held -Not called a flood if water stays within channel, unless flow within channel causes much erosion (and destruction)
How streams affect people
-Flooding -Agriculture -Water supply -Flat places to live
Dissipating stage (Stages of a single-cell thunderstorm)
-Sinking air and rainfall cools conditions -Clouds begin to disappear
Continental drift: fossils
-Fossils of land creatures found on continents now separated by oceans -Continents were joined so creatures could walk from one place to another
How does fracturing a rock affect weathering?
-Fracturing doubles the exposed surface area, providing more surfaces for weathering to act on -Rock will weather faster
Slope affecting weathering: Gentle slope
-Gentle slopes retain soil and moisture and accumulate material from higher -Higher weathering rates
Continental drift: glaciers
-Glacial features indicate glaciers coming from directions that are now oceans -When continents restored, ice sheets moved in predictable directions, away from center
Agents of erosion
-Gravity -Glaciers -Wind -Water -Waves
Ground level ozone
-Harmful air pollutant, produced by sunlight striking hydrocarbons such as, car exhaust in the air -Ozone is a component of smog
Regional metamorphism
-Heating is accompanied by enough force to cause deformation -Forces can result from tectonics and burial
Hot spots
-High temperature regions in the deep crust and upper mantle -Seamounts, linear chains of islands, and island clusters were formed near hot spots
Debris avalanche
-High velocity flows of soil, sediment, and rock that cause the collapse of steep mountain slopes
How do we recognize prehistoric slope failures?
-Hummocky topography -Prehistoric deposits -Broken, angular rocks -Landslide scarp
What could cause this stream to begin carving into the landscape?
-If base level is lowered, such as a drop in sea level -If the land is uplifted relative to the sea -If a change in climate weathers and weakens the rocks -All correct
Types of materials at glaciers
-Incorporate rock debris into their flowing, icy masses -Carry a variety of sediment: large angular boulders to fine powder rocks
Components of an ecosystem
-Individual of a species -Population -Community -Biotic components -Abiotic components -Energy
Insolation in mid-latitude regions
-Intermediate variability in insolation -Distinct seasons -Summer= more daylight hours and higher sun angels -Winter= fewer daylight hours and lower sun angels
How volcanic eruptions show age
-Knowing when a volcano last erupted and which volcanic units are most recent may help geoscientists evaluate hazard of future eruptions -Determine age of flows
Insolation striking water
-Large specific heat, partial transparency, ability to mix vertically -Temperatures do not get as high as water
Insolation in equatorial regions
-Least variation in insolation -Do not experience summer vs winter -Length of daylight is always around 12 hrs -Sun is directly overhead at noon in March and September
What surface and upper-level conditions form mid-latitude cyclones?
-Leeward side of mountains: air diverges vertically, so low pressure -Offshore of cold land: rising air over ocean forms low pressure -Polar front jet stream and Rossby waves: Air speeds up and diverges after trough in Rossby wave, forms low pressure at surface
Proxy evidence/proxy data
-Length of glaciers: melting shows temp change -Fossils of plants and animals: Climate zones have certain characteristics of plants and animals, if we find fossils we can tell that the region was once a different climate -Measurements of tree rings: width of the tree and isotopes in rings -Isotope formations in caves -Measurements in ice cores -Isotope of marine fossils, including microscopic ones
Energy expressed by the motion of atoms and molecules
-Less motion=cooler -More motion=warmer
Younger rocks and features can cause changes along contacts with older rocks
-Magma comes into contact with preexisting rocks when it erupts onto the surface or solidifies at depth. In either setting, magma may locally bake adjacent rocks, or fluids from the magma may chemically alter nearby rocks -Contact effects
Solidification
-Magma cools and will solidify -Crystals can form during solidification=crystallization
Granite expression in landscape
-Makes up bulk of the continental crust -Fractures speed up weathering
Equinoxes
-March 21st and September 21st -Earth's axis is pointing sideways relative to the sun -Neither hemisphere gets more insolation than the other -Hours of daylight and darkness are equal
hich of the following can we use to recognize prehistoric slope failures?
-Masses of rock fragments that are unusual for an area -Sedimentary deposits -Orientation of beds and other geologic structures -Hummocky topography -All are correct
Insolation in polar regions
-Maximum variation in insolation -During summer= 24 hrs of sunlight -During winter= no sunlight -Low sun angels and lots of darkness= cold
Implications of climate change
-Melt snow and ice -Increase runoff and decrease salinity of ocean -Affect vegetation, perhaps causing desertification or changing CO2 in atmosphere -Change evaporation, ocean currents, and oscillations -Affect the formation of sea ice, ocean salinity, and thermohaline circulation -Change albedo of surface -Change amount of clouds, precipitation or severe storms
Shortwave radiation converted to latent heat
-Melting and evaporation
Where do volcanoes occur?
-Mid ocean ridges -Mountain belts next to trenches -Oceanic islands -Island arcs next to trenches -Near plate boundaries -Convergent Boundaries -Divergent Boundaries -Hot Spots
Tornado frequency in the U.S.
-Most common in central U.S. (Tornado Alley): mid-latitude cyclones and subdued topography -Common along Gulf Coast and inland (Dixie Alley)
Tornado frequency worldwide
-Most common in central U.S. and southern south America -Some in Europe and south Africa -Few in Asia Some in Australia
Where/when does hail occur in the U.S.
-Most in the central U.S., along tracks of mid-latitude cyclones -Few along West Coast and in western U.S. -Most in the afternoon, after warming of land promotes instability
What causes ozone depletion and form the ozone hole
-Most ozone is destroyed by human activities, especially the production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals released from aerosol cans, refrigerators, AC units, and polystyrene -CFCs contain halogens, elements like chlorine and bromine that pull oxygen atoms away, forming a new molecule
Seamounts
-Most underwater mountains on the seafloor that don't reach sea level -Highest of which form islands (Hawaii)
Types of materials in deeper water
-Mud -Floor closer to land has more sand and sediment from land
New Zealand 2010 and 2011 Earthquakes
-Mw 7.1 (2010) EQ similar size to Haiti but minor damage and no deaths -Mw 6.3 (2011) EQ smaller but more damage and killed 200 people; closer to city, and buildings had been damaged by 2010 EQ
Mineral
-Naturally occurring -Inorganic solid -Ordered internal (crystalline) structure -Relatively consistent chemical composition
Types of physical weathering
-Near surface fracturing -Frost and mineral wedging -Thermal expansion -Biological expansion
Nitrogen oxides
-Nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides (NOx) -Includes NO2 and NO3 -Concentrations of nitrogen oxides is highest in cities (automobiles)
What causes earthquakes?
-Normal faults: common along divergent boundaries, such as spreading centers and continental rifts -Reverse and thrust faults: formed by compressional forces like subduction and continental collisions -Strike-slip faults: along plate boundaries, like the San Andreas fault in California
External processes
-Occur on or near the surface -Mostly driven by gravity, energy from the sun, and the resulting movement of air and moisture -Weathering and erosion
Oceanic divergent boundaries
-Oceanic plates move apart at mid-ocean ridges (seafloor spreading) -Forms new oceanic crust
Subduction zones
-Oceanic plates moves toward the trench, it is bent and stretched, causing earthquakes in trench -Largest earthquakes produced along the megathrust boundary -Thrust faults -Deep slab
Thunderstorms are most common
-On land rather than ocean -Coastlines -Near mountains -In tropics (ITCZ) -More in warm water than cold -Very few near the poles -In the hemisphere that is having summer
How to asses an area for potential slope failure?
-Past failures -Known problems -Steep slopes -Changes in slope -Conditions of material -Potential triggers
Where do earthquakes occur?
-Plate boundaries -Mid ocean ridges -Volcanically active areas -Trenches -Mountain belts -Convergent boundaries (subduction zones)
Zig zag patterns on mid ocean ridges/transform boundaries
-Plates move horizontally past one another on transform boundaries -Transforms link other types of plate boundaries -Transforms link spreading segments in mid-ocean ridges
How lightning forms
-Positive, negative, positive -Clouds are positive, bottom of cloud is negatively charged and ground is positively charged, causing a charge imbalance
Original horizontality
-Principle stating that sedimentary rocks are deposited in horizontal or nearly horizontal layers -If rocks are not horizontal an event happened like deformation
Karst topography
-Produced by weathering and erosion of soluble rocks (Limestone or dolomite) -Sinkholes, disappearing streams, depressions, gray rocks that look like they are dissolving into the ground, and exotic pillars
Volcano risk factors
-Proximity: Biggest factor -Valleys: Lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and mudflows channeled into valleys -Wind direction: volcanic ash and pumice and thrown into the wind -Particulars
Lava fountain
-Pyroclastic eruption -Sends lava into air -High gas content in less viscous lava
Types of common minerals
-Quartz -Feldspar -Mica -Mafic -Carbonate minerals -Oxide minerals -Salt minerals -Sulfide minerals
Limestone expression in landscape
-Resistant to erosion -Light/dark gray cliffs -Steep slopes -Visible layers -Limestone is soluble so in wet climates it weathers easily
How thunder is formed
-Results from rapid heating and expansion of the air along the path of the lightning bolt -After lightning strike, air rushes from all sides and collides creating the sound of thunder
Contact metamorphism
-Rising magma efficiently brings thermal energy higher into the crust, heating the wall rocks -Occurs near contacts (boundaries) of magma -Deformation may or may not occur
Uplift
-Rock may be uplifted to the surface where it is again exposed to weathering -Commonly occurs in mountains
A younger rock or feature can cut across any older rock or feature
-Rocks are crosscut by fractures (joints and faults) so the rocks were there before the fractures formed -Veins and sheetlike body of magma can also invade preexisting
Which of the following is a way slopes fail?
-Rocks, soil, sediment, and ice slides down steep hillsides -Large blocks fall from cliffs -Soil and other loose material can flow rapidly down slopes, forming debris flows -Pieces of loose rock accumulate on talus slopes until the angle becomes too steep -All correct
Types of materials in stream channels
-Sand -Bigger pebbles and cobbles
Types of materials at beaches
-Sand -Broken shells -Well-worn stones
Satellite evidence of temperature changes
-Satellite measurements also record times of warming, cooling, and little change in temperature -Some of these changes correlate with various types of events, such as volcanic eruptions and ENSO
Mesosphere
-Second highest part of atmosphere -Normal temperature gradient (decreases upward) -No properties to intercept wavelengths of insolation
Stratosphere
-Second lowest layer of the atmosphere -High concentrations of ozone which absorbs UV effectively -Interceptions make it warm -Reverse temperature gradient -Greatest amount of absorption occurs near top=warmer, not as much lower= cooler
Mature stage (Stages of a single-cell thunderstorm)
-Second stage -Rain and downdrafts -Lightning
Slope affecting weathering: Shaded slope
-Shaded slopes have more soil and plants -Promote chemical weathering
Curve of meandering stream
-Shallower -Water velocity is lower -Sediment deposits on the inside of a crescent shaped deposit of loose sediment= POINT BAR -Outside of bend: water is deeper and flows faster -Outside bend eroded into a steep stream bank called a cutbank
How can we assess the danger posed by a volcano
-Shape: Steep slopes, like composite volcanoes, can be more dangerous because they involve potentially explosive, viscous magma, and prone to landslides -Type of volcanic material: Dangerous if it contains deposits formed by pyroclastic flows -Age and history: Age=may be dormant, can learn about volcanoes history
Evidence of continental drift
-Shapes of continents fit together -Fossils -Glaciers
Continental drift: shapes of continents
-Shapes of continents match across Atlantic Ocean -Continents fit back together because once joined and later moved apart (Continental Drift hypothesis)
Metamorphic rocks expression in landscape
-Shiny -Mineral filled fractures called veins -Layers that form platy, jagged outcrops, and tabular slabs of rock
Shortwave radiation absorbed and re-emitted as longwave radiation
-Shortwave is converted into longwave radiation -Some goes back into space
Supercell thunderstorm
-flat-topped, anvil shape, point of anvil generally shows the direction it's going -Intense rain and hail form within -Lightning and thunder present -Rotating vortex called mesocyclone -20-50km in diameter
Stratospheric ozone
-good ozone, produces oxygen molecules to interact with UV radiation and prevent 95% of it from reaching the surface -Protects us from UV-C and UV-B radiation
How Are Volcanic Domes Formed?
-grow from inside as magma is injected into interior of dome, grow as magma breaks through surface
Caldera
-large basin-shaped volcanic depression, more or less circular, the diameter of which is many times greater than that of the included vent(s) -Central depression surrounded by steep walls -Small mountains inside caldera are domes -Low areas that collect sediment and ash
Bedrock and sediment in a stream are most susceptible to erosion if they are:
-located in a turbulent part of the river
Levee
-raised embankment; natural levees created by the river and humans construct them to prevent floods -During a flood, water spills out and deposits sediment
Solar constant
-the rate at which radiant solar energy is received at the outer layer of the earth's atmosphere -Average amount of insolation: 341 watts/m2
Comparing these two curves on this hydrograph, the solid curve could record:
-the response of the stream to urbanization -a shorter but more intense precipitation event -a more rapid spring snowmelt -All correct
Some rocks and minerals are not stable at the surface because:
-they are exposed to oxygen -hey formed in high-temperature environments -they are exposed to water -they formed in high-pressure environments -All correct
Fall Line
-waterfalls at boundary of hard and soft rock -Early settlements along Fall Line in part because good sites for water-driven mills
Earth/Mud flow
-weak, with matrix of fine-grained materials (mud and soil); moves like wet concrete
Biotic weathering
-weathering caused by living organisms -root breaking apart rocks and plant-derived acids attacking materials in soil
Shield volcano
-wide, gently sloping mountain -Can be small or form large mountains -Contain a crater, a line of craters, and have fissures on the summit -Lava flows of basalt, with smaller amounts of cinder and volcanic ash -10km wide -Low viscosity lava
What is the approximate concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
0.04%
In the last 200 years, sea level has risen approximately
0.2 m
Visible light
0.4-0.7 um
Which locations contain rocks that are in place (part of the bedrock)?
1 and 2
Which of these four numbered features on the surface or in a cave can be formed by the dissolution or collapse of limestone?
1 and 2
Plates move ____-____ cm per year
1-15
How are entrenched meanders formed?
1.) A meandering river winds its way down through a floodplain of soft sediment 2.) Tectonic uplift raises the land or base level drops causing the river to erode downward 3.) Over time the canyon incises deeper
How a volcanic island is formed
1.) At hot spot, hot mantle rises and melts as the decrease in pressure occurs forming magma that ascends into the overlying plate 2.) Magma may solidify at depth or form a volcanic mountain 3.)If the volcano grows above sea level it becomes a volcanic island
How clastic sediment becomes lithified into clastic sedimentary rock
1.) Burial and compaction of sand grains 2.) Decrease the amount of pore space between grains 3.) Add natural cements to pore spaces: cementation 4.) Common cements: carbonate minerals, silicates, iron oxides
How are stream terraces formed?
1.) Deposition of sediment 2.) Early stream level with floodplain 3.) Downcutting forms new, lower floodplain, stranding terrace 4.) Downcutting leaves series of terraces 5.) High terrace oldest, followed by each lower terrace
How does a caldera form?
1.) Felsic magma accumulates in magma chambers 2.) •Magma reaches the surface and erupts •Roof of magma chamber subsides as magma chamber is evacuated •Circular fractures form 3.)•Eruption of felsic magma forms eruption columns and pyroclastic flows •Much falls back into caldera •Landslides off steep walls •Some tephra escapes and covers surrounding area 4.) •Magma rises through fractures along edge and interior, forming domes
How do limestone caves form?
1.) Limestone made mainly of calcium carbonate which is very soluble in acidic water 2.) Groundwater dissolves material 3.) Above water table, cave may be dry 4.) Below water table water further dissolves material 5.) Features widen into cavities and caves 6.) Roof collapse can form sinkhole on surface 7.) Dripping water evaporates, precipitates calcite
Scientific steps to evaluate a possible explanation critically
1.) Observations 2.) Questions from observations 3.) Hypotheses 4.) Results of investigation 5.) Conclusions
How do plateaus form?
1.) Rising mantle plume at hot spot 2.) Submarine flood basalts pour onto seafloor 3.) Plateau forms over several million years
What factors influence stream profiles
1.) Rock type 2.) Tectonics 3.) Sea level 4.) Climate 5.) Stability of conditions
What happens during an earthquake?
1.) Seismic waves radiate outward from hypocenter 2.) Seismic stations: waves arrive at closer seismic stations before farther stations
How Rocks Respond to Force and Stress
1.) Unchanged 2.) Displacement 3.) Rotation 4.) Strain
How tornadoes form
1.) Vertical wind shear forms rotating vortex 2.) Updraft uplifts and bends vortex 3.)One part merges with updraft (counterclockwise in N. Hemisphere)
Sun has _____ year cycles of activity
11
Evidence of climate change: Increase in global average air and sea surface temperature began in the ________
1970's and 80's
Tilt of Earth's axis
23.5 degrees
Which location(s) have loose, angular rocks?
3
In this diagram, which layer(s) correspond to the mantle?
3 and 4
Which of the following locations would most likely contain a high percentage of sand?
3 and 4
The specific heat of water is ________ times that of most rocks and materials. Means that it takes _______ times more energy to heat water. Land will increase ____ degrees for every degree the water heats.
4
Which of the four numbered features on this figure is the youngest?
4
Based on the accompanying hydrograph, what was the stream discharge when the data period shown in the graph ended?
4 cubic meters per second
What is a stream's discharge rate if it has a width of 10 meters, a depth of 2 meters, and a velocity of 2 meters per second?
40 cubic meters per second
Using the data in this table, determine the age of the dike (unit D on this table).
40,000,000
The sound of thunder travels a mile in _____ seconds
5
On the December Solstice, what is the sun angle at the equator?
66.5°
On the accompanying figure, which letter is over the oldest oceanic crust?
A
What type of climate group does Indonesia represent?
A
Which area(s) on this world map is (are) likely to have volcanoes above sea level?
A
Which layer on this figure is the continental crust?
A
Using the Köppen classification system, what classification would you assign to a region that is wet year round and has monthly mean temperatures that never dip below 18°C?
Af
Peak discharge for streams
After winter, beginning of spring when snow melts
Which of the following is not used to classify slope failures?
Age of failure
Who proposed continental drift?
Alfred Wegener in 1912
The highest surface on this figure is a river terrace. This terrace
All correct
Which of the following is a typical way in which shale is expressed in the landscape?
All of the choices are correct
Open system
Allows matter and energy to move in and out of the system. E.g. a tree takes in water and soil derived nutrients, extracting carbon dioxide from the air to make carbon rich wood and leaves, shedding leaves during the winter and expelling oxygen as a by product of photosynthesis, fueled by externally derived energy from the sun
What is the primary cause of movement in the Slumgullion landslide?
Alteration of volcanic rocks into clays
Discharge
Amount of water flowing in a given time, represented by cubic meters per second and calculated by stream depth x stream width x average stream velocity
Risk
An assessment of the extent to which the hazard might impact society: through loss of life, damage to property, loss of employment, damage to forests
Active remote sensing
An energy source, usually on the same platform as the sensor, directs a beam of energy downward or sideways towards an area of interest. Energy can include radar, microwaves, or laser light.
Disaster
An event that occurred, often suddenly, resulting in sever injury, loss of lives, and damage to property
A decrease in ozone occurs over ______________, especially during the winter when there is little sunlight to produce ozone
Antarctica
On June 21st which location will be receiving 24 hours of daylight?
Arctic circle
Continental shelves
Areas where continental surfaces extend under the shallow ocean water for km and create benches
Koppen: B
Arid climates
Where are the oldest rocks in the column of sedimentary rocks shown in the diagram?
At the bottom
Less industrial human activities that cause air pollution
Burning forests and other vegetation and introducing gasses, especially carbon dioxide and solid particulates into the air
What type of climate group does the Mediterranean Basin represent?
C
Which area on this world map is likely to have abundant earthquakes but little to absent volcanic activity?
C
On this map of South America, which features are not on a plate boundary?
C and D
Which of the following pollutants act as greenhouse gases?
CO2, CH4
In comparing the distribution of acid rain and ozone pollution
California suffers from the highest levels of ozone pollution but not the highest levels of acid rain.
Damage from earthquake: rupture
Can happen along parts of the fault; cracks can destroy buildings and roads
Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes)
Categorized by low atmospheric pressure
Tropical locations (A)
Central America, Caribbean, Amazon, Congo, Indonesia
Chemical weathering
Chemical reactions that break down minerals, causing new minerals to form, or by removing soluble material from the rock
What important constituent of soil is created through the hydrolysis of potassium feldspar?
Clay
Common clastic sedimentary rocks
Conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale
Which layer in Earth is similar to the composition of granite?
Continental crust
Which layer in Earth is similar in composition to an iron-nickel meteorite?
Core
On this map of the South Atlantic, which letter is on an oceanic fracture zone?
D
Which feature on this figure is formed by melting of mantle above the slab?
D
What ideas brought a renewed interest to the idea of continental drift?
Data that a submarine mountain chain lies on the ocean floor in the middle of the Atlantic
The monsoon that followed the 416 Fire of 2018 near Durango, Colorado, led to
Debris flows
Relationship between drought, wildfires, and debris flow
Drought causes lower rainfall and higher temperatures --> makes the trees and soil dry out --> more susceptible to insect damage --> weak trees are more likely to burn --> increases the odds of damaging debris flow
Koppen: s
Dry summer
Koppen: w
Dry winter
The meanings of elevation and relief imply that
Elevation cannot be smaller than relief except when comparing areas below sea level.
The 416 Fire of 2018 near Durango, Colorado likely started due to
Embers from a coal-burning train
Electromagnetic Radiation
Energy radiated in the form of a wave, resulting from the motion of electric charges and the magnetic fields they produce.
Types of air pollution: Gas
Gasses: gasses can combine with other chemical compounds to produce smog; most gaseous air pollution consists of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Geographical approach
Geographers think spatially, emphasizing things such as location, when addressing problems and holistically, integrating ideas from a wide variety of natural and social sciences.
What is the name of the supercontinent Alfred Wegner proposed broke and drifted apart in pieces?
Gondwana
Common types of igneous rocks
Granite, andesite, rhyolite, basalt
Ridge push
Gravitational force that causes a plate to move away from the crest of an ocean ridge, and push the plate outward
What is the main force involved in the stability of slopes?
Gravity
The most important greenhouse gas for retaining a variety of outgoing longwave radiation is
H2O
Sediment thickens away from ridge
Had more time to accumulate
Which of the following statements is true regarding U.S. hail seasonality?
Hail occurs later in the calendar year in northern states than southern states.
Koppen: D
Harsh mid-latitude climates
The profile of most stream systems is steep in the _________ and gradually becoming less steep towards the ___________
Headwaters; mouth
Which of the following is NOT a typical environment in which a sedimentary rock forms?
Heating next to a magma
Amplitude
Height of a wave (the difference in height from the top to the bottom of the wave)
f the following does not correctly represent net primary productivity (NPP)?
High latitudes have the highest NPP
Ice cores show climate change
Ice core data shows the increase in CO2, CH4, and N20 have increased since the industrial revolution in the 18th century
Which of the following is properly called a flood?
If water spreads out over the floodplain
Rock formed from magma
Igneous rock
Why would a geologist create a sketch such as this while studying a rock outcrop in the field?
In order to visualize the different components and their relationship to each other
Deepest layer
Iron-nickel core (molten outer core; solid inner core)
Curving island chains across the seafloor that are mainly volcanic in origin are called:
Island arcs
How does stratospheric ozone protect us from sunburn and skin cancer?
It absorbs UV-B.
What is the dry line when discussing thunderstorms?
It is the boundary between a cT air mass and a mT air mass.
Of the tectonic plates listed, which is the smallest?
Juan de Fuca
For the U.S. as a whole, thunderstorm activity is most intense in
July
This figure shows the geologic timescale. Which period listed below would be part of the Mesozoic?
Jurassic
Other causes of earthquakes
Landslides and explosions
Types of materials at steep mountains
Large angular rocks that broke away from bedrock
Rock/debris fall
Large blocks or smaller pieces of bedrock detach from a cliff face and fall
Which of the following locations would contain a wide variety of sediment, from large angular blocks to fine rock powder, produced from grinding of the rocks?
Location 1, along the margins of a glacier
Which of the following best indicates a location where sediment is deposited but not eroded?
Location 3
Which of the following locations would most likely contain large, angular rocks?
Locations 1 and 2
When molecules move slower...
Longer wavelengths, lower frequencies, and less energy
Laccolith
Magma injects as a sill at shallow levels and forms magma chamber that pushes up overlying layers
Which of the following is not true about rivers?
Major rivers, such as the upper Mississippi near the Great Lakes, must be relatively old rivers
The asthenosphere is part of the:
Mantle
Thickest layer
Mantle
How geographers approach questions
Method: 1.) Observation: in the fields, maps, satellite images, aerial photo 2.) Analysis: field work, labs, computer modeling, quantitative analysis surveys 3.)Interpretation and synthesis: Conclusions based on data Concept: Location Natural environment Human environment Changes over time Impacts on other aspects of the natural/human environment
Koppen: m
Monsoon
Oceanic crust is _______ dense than the continental crust
More
__________ energetic when more sunspots
More
Which of the following is a correct example of global warming creating a negative feedback?
More water evaporating will create more low level clouds causing the surface to cool
Highest thunderstorm frequency in the U.S.
Most along Gulf Coast, close to warm water, and where moist air flows north
How do we use GPS in Geography?
Mostly field work: -Mapping the location of landscape features -Determining the location of water and soil samples -Tracking populations of plants and animals
Advection
Moving a pan full of hot water away from the stove also transfers heat from one place to another
Non-point source
Multiple sources
If a researcher wanted to identify and map healthy vegetation using remote sensing, she would be most likely to use data that detects what type of energy?
Near-infrared
Problem with continental drift
No viable mechanism for continents to "plow through" seafloor as they moved
Ozone is less of a problem in ______________ Hemisphere because more complex atmospheric circulation patterns lead to more mixing of gases
Northern
Polar (E)
Northern Alaska, Greenland, Arctic, Antarctica
This figure shows a northwest-southeast line of islands and seamounts near Hawaii. If location 3 has the oldest rocks and Hawaii (1) has the youngest rocks, which way is the plate moving with respect to the hot spot?
Northwest
Autotrophs
Organisms that make their own food (corn)
Slope affecting weathering: Windward slopes
Orographic lifting: precipitation only occurs on one side of the mountain
In ridges, contours bend ________ higher terrain, forming _______________ shapes
Out; convex
Where in the United States is the difference between frontal boundaries so slight that the uplift necessary to create thunderstorms is lacking?
Pacific Northwest
How a seamount is formed
Plate subsides as cools, so islands become seamounts
A snowball that rolls down a hill, gradually gaining more and more mass and rolling faster and faster as it continues, is an example of a(n)
Positive feedback system
Deposition
Process in which sediment is laid down in new locations.
Which of the following is NOT composed of calcium carbonate?
Pyrite
Which of the following minerals is a sulfide and commonly forms cube-shaped crystals?
Pyrite
Topographic map
Shows the elevation of a surface with a series of lines called contours. Depicts the shape of the land but doesn't give any specific information about what lies beneath.
Point source
Single, relatively localized site, such as a single smokestack
What moves plates?
Slab pull, Ridge push, Mantle convection
Gradient
Slope, change in elevation for a given horizontal distance
Creep and solifluction
Slow, continuous movement in weak materials; occurs on most slopes but at different rates Solifluction: a type of creep at high elevations
Types of air pollution: Solids
Solid particles including dust and soot
Which of the following is NOT a typical environment in which a metamorphic rock forms?
Solidification of lava
Squall line thunderstorms
Some form lines of storms ahead of a cold front (i.e., in warm sector), forming squall lines
Temperate mid-latitude (C)
Southeast U.S., NE Argentina, Mediterranean basin, Japan
Harsh mid-latitude (D)
Southern Canada, eastern Europe, Siberia
Arid locations (B)
Southwest U.S., Sahara, Arabia, Tibet, central Australia
Slab pull
Subducting oceanic lithosphere is more dense than asthenosphere, so gravity pulls the plate downward into the asthenosphere
Reverse fault
The block above the fault moves up, relative to the block below the fault
Which of the following is NOT a possible reason why a region is higher in elevation than adjacent regions?
The crust is more dense
Which of these correctly describes Earth's atmosphere?
The different layers are defined by temperature, pressure, and gas composition trends.
Wavelength
The distance between two corresponding parts of a wave
If a storm can survive the west side of an easterly wave, there is a chance it can intensify into a hurricane. Which of the following is correct regarding an easterly wave?
The east side of the wave has rising, unstable air
What is the result of the absorption, reflection, and scattering of shortwave radiation caused by pollution in the atmosphere?
The environmental lapse rate decreases, the atmosphere is more stable, and precipitation is less likely.
Hazard
The existence of a potentially dangerous situation or event, like a landslide or lava from an eruption
Pyroclastic flow
The expulsion of ash, cinders, bombs, and gases during an explosive volcanic eruption
Why do the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere have greater variability in temperatures than the same area in the Southern Hemisphere?
The higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere have a lot more land.
Where is the oldest layer in this tilted sequence of sedimentary rocks?
The layers on the lower left part of the photograph
Why is the Appalachian Mountains area at high risk for landslides?
The rocks are folded, faulted, and weathered
What is the most common way in which sinkholes form?
The roof of a cave collapses
Passive remote sensing
The sensor points at the area of interest and records whatever light, heat, or other energy is naturally coming from that region. Made to collect specific types of wavelengths of energy: infrared, visible, and ultraviolet. Ariel photography and satellite images.
What is the angle of repose?
The steepest angle at which loose material remains stable
Interaction between Atmosphere and Hydrosphere
The sun's energy evaporates water from the ocean and other parts of the hydrosphere, moving the water molecules into the atmosphere. The water vapor can remain in the atmosphere or can form clouds by condensing into tiny drops of water forming ice crystals. Under certain conditions, water returns to the surface as precipitation.
In looking only at the steepness of a slope, which of the following would a geographer be able to determine about that area?
The type of rock that might be present to form the soil
Types of air pollution: Liquid
Tiny drops of liquid in steam and noxious liquids derived from sulfur dioxide SO2
Drainage basin
Topographic high points, diverting all runoff to a single major outlet
Koppen: A
Tropical
Which of the following helps hurricanes to grow and be sustained?
Warm surface water evaporates into warm rising water vapor, which condenses.
Which of the following is a correct example of global warming creating a positive feedback?
Warming oceans release more water vapor, a potent greenhouse gas which absorbs long-wave radiation, further increasing temperature
Which state would be the safest if you wanted to avoid death by lightning?
Washington
Which of the following does not physically loosen rocks on the surface?
Water contracting as it freezes
South America is lopsided
Western margin is mountainous, while the eastern side has much more relief
Koppen: f
Wet year-round
Debris flows
Wet, loose slurries of mud, soil, rocks, volcanic ash -Can move rapidly -Thick and more dense than water so can move boulders
When conditions such as climate remain stable, a stream may approach a dynamic equilibrium state. The stream would then be considered:
a graded stream
Abyssal plain
a large, flat, almost level area of the deep-ocean basin
The lethal limit of a "eury" species is likely to have:
a larger range than that of a "steno" species
An oceanic transform plate boundary is most likely associated with:
a mid-ocean ridge
If owls begin migrating to an area to feed on a mouse species, but the mice have ingested a toxin (to owls) that begins to keep the owl population in check, which then causes the mouse population to increase, until more owls move into the area, and so on, this is an example of:
a negative feedback system
A tropical cyclone will be strengthened by
a path over warm water
Plateaus
a raised area of land, such as a hill or mountain, with a flat top
Rock slide
a slab of relatively intact rock detaches from bedrock along a bedding surface, preexisting fault, joint, or other discontinuity
Which of these is a point source of atmospheric pollution?
a smokestack from an industrial facility emitting SO2
In March, the highest concentrations of ozone are over ___________ latitudes in the _______________ hemisphere
high; northern
What type of feedback would be created due to more clouds resulting from evaporation of a warmer ocean?
both the positive and negative feedbacks described above
The movement of air that is a hurricane comes from
both the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis effect.
Dendritic drainage pattern
branching and tree-like, with smaller tributaries feeding into larger ones
Damage from earthquake: Bridge failure on weak materials
bridge can be too rigid or can be built on unconsolidated sediment
Stresses that form joints
burial and tectonic forces, cooling and contraction, unloading
Human activities have added CO2 into atmosphere from ______________________
burning forests and fossil fuels
The SO2 emissions displayed in this map derive mainly from the
burning of coal from point sources
The asthenosphere is beneath the:
lithosphere.
Cold fronts are usually associated with...
cP, but can also occur along the leading edge of an A or mP air mass
This very common carbonate mineral shown here that is a clear to light-gray color is
calcite
Damage from earthquake: Tsunami
can cause damage along shorelines thousands of kilometers away
In the diagram below, the dashed horizontal line represents the exponential growth coefficient:
carrying capacity
The orientation of Earth's axis __________ and the tilt __________.
changes; varies between 22.5° - 24.5°
What line or region best corresponds with the location of "C" climates?
coastal locations in the mid-latitudes
The weather system most likely to produce the strongest tornadoes is generally associated with
cold fronts
Based on data collected in Hawaii, since about 1960 the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has
consistently increased, except for yearly variations
Convergence of two ocean plates forms an ocean-ocean:
convergent boundary
A tropical cyclone in the northern hemisphere rotates __________ and has a storm track turning __________.
counterclockwise; north and northeast
Joint
crack where rock pulled apart
The principle that can be used to determine the rocks shown in the photograph have not been deformed since they were deposited is the principle of
cross-cutting relations
Which of the following conditions are not associated with a hurricane?
high atmospheric pressure
Damage from earthquake: Structural damage
damage depends on type of construction; concrete and masonry are rigid and so more susceptible to damage
Detritivores eat
decaying plants and/or animals in the soil
The size of sediment a river carries _________ further it moves down the river
decreases
As one approaches the poles from lower latitudes, the Sun angle __________ and atmosphere attenuation __________.
decreases; increases
Secondary succession would begin to take place after an ecosystem is disrupted by:
deforestation
When lava is more viscous
difficult to flow and traps gas, so more explosive
This globe, from the opening two-page spread of the Climate chapter, shows average annual precipitation (blue and green are highest; tan is lowest). What is the main factor causing northern Africa to have very low amounts of precipitation?
downward flow of dry air in subtropics
A air masses are
dry and cold
One of the reasons why tornado frequency is lower in Europe than in North America is
east-west trending mountains inhibit the clash of warm and cold air
At higher velocities or near obstacles, flow becomes more chaotic (turbulent), forming a swirl called an
eddy
Earthquake occurs when
energy stored in rocks is suddenly released
The main way new oceanic crust is created is by:
eruption of lavas and solidification of magmas at depth
The letter m used to classify a climate means that it
experiences a monsoon
Differential GPS is more useful than a handheld GPS when
extremely precise measurements are needed
Mesa
flat topped hill has a cap of volcanic rocks but is not a volcano
Radial drainage pattern
flow outward in all directions, like off a circular mountain
When lava is less viscous
flows easier and gas can escape, so less explosive
Structurally controlled drainage pattern
follow tilted or folded layers, faults, joint patterns
Stress =
force per area
Earth's atmosphere is kept in place by __________ and an upward buoyancy force.
gravity
The force behind a river's flow is:
gravity
Population
group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area
To say that a landscape is denuded means that it
has been worn down through erosion
Because shales are easily eroded, the areas where they are exposed typically
have soft slopes and soil cover
Greenhouse gases, like water vapor and carbon dioxide (CO2), absorb __________________________, warming the planet
heat radiated from the Earth
All the following is true regarding shortwave radiation that reaches Earth's surface except
heating of the atmosphere by insolation is more effective than heating of the atmosphere by land and water.
Which sequence best describes thunder formation?
heating, expansion, air filling the vacuum
Annual U.S. hail frequency is greatest
in southern High Plains states such as Oklahoma and Kansas
Larger hypoxic zones, as indicated in this chart, are created in the Gulf of Mexico:
in wetter years
The concept of overlay in geographic information systems (GIS) refers to the
incorporation of multiple types of digital spatial data (maps) in answering research questions.
Which of the following is NOT likely to be a consequence of climate change?
increased stability in temperatures
Velocity of water _______ downstream
increases
Downstream, the channel _________ in size
increases (width and depth)
At higher temperatures the amount of energy emitted ___________. At lower temperatures the amount of energy emitted _____________.
increases; decreases
Mid-latitude regions receive an _________________ amount of insolation
intermediate
Once a hypothesis is rejected
it can be revisited in future studies
Viscosity (resistance to flow) and surface tension act to
keep water smooth, as in slow-moving water
Nitrogen oxide concentrations are typically most pronounced in
large metropolises with heavy automobile use
Landscape surface older than rocks deposited on top______________
like this lava flow
Pollutants that are aerosols consist of
liquids and solids
Each of the following is a wise strategy when lightning is sighted EXCEPT
lying down outdoors to minimize ground contact.
Which of the following air masses pictured here is typically unstable, with cold air overlying warm air? The westerlies often push this cool, damp wind of this air mass eastward.
mP
Warm fronts are usually associated with...
mT or cT air masses
A tropical cyclone will be weakened by
making landfall.
Force=
mass x acceleration
Which stage in thunderstorm formation is characterized by updrafts accompanied by downdrafts induced by falling precipitation?
mature stage
Equatorial parts of atmosphere receive ____________ insolation
maximum
Less-jointed areas are ________ resistant to weathering than highly jointed noes
more
All the following are true regarding sunspot activity except
more sunspot activity means less overall energy emitted from the Sun.
More time =
more weathering
An object that has a relatively warm temperature will emit __________ compared to a cooler object.
more, higher-frequency EMR
Harry Hess and Robert Dietz proposed that the oceanic crust in the Atlantic Ocean was spreading apart at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and that this process moved the continents apart from one another. They called this process:
seafloor spreading
Damage from earthquake: Landslide
mountainous regions can experience landslides, rock falls, and other earth movements
The relationship between mountains and precipitation can be generalized by saying
mountaintops generally experience more precipitation than the surrounding lowlands
High above base level= _______ erosion and Closer to base level=________ erosion
much; less
Youngest volcanic rocks in oceanic crust are located
near the ridge
Enormous mountain belts and high plateaus can be formed when two continental plates collide and:
neither is subducted
Braided streams
network of interweaving channels
Atmospheric temperatures are influenced by all the following gases except
nitrogen
Which of the following regions has the lowest annual frequency of tornadoes?
northeast coast
Most Atlantic tropical cyclones originate in
northwest Africa
Land heats and cools more rapidly than oceans because
of the lack of mixing in soil or rock layers.
A surface with well-developed soil is ____________ than one with a less developed soil
older
Most river terraces formed before streams were eroded making the terrance _________
older
The rock cycle was conceived by James Hutton in an attempt to explain how
older rocks become new sediment
Perihelion
orbital point nearest the sun (147 km)
Ecology is the study of how
organisms and populations of organisms interact with one another and with the nonliving components of their environment
Basin slope
overall slope of a drainage basin; helps determine how fast water in the basin empties after heavy rain
Most earthquakes occur along
plate boundaries
Aphelion
point in a planet's orbit that is farthest from the sun (150 km)
epicenter of an earthquake
point on surface directly above the focus/hypocenter of an earthquake
Algae are
primary producers
The image shows the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a submarine volcanic mountain belt that is a key location in the process of:
seafloor spreading
A mineral that is light-colored, transparent, and fractures rather than cleaves is
quartz
Pacific Ring of Fire
region around the Pacific Ocean where most of the volcanoes and earthquakes on Earth occur regularly
The difference between a rock and a mineral is that
rocks are composed of minerals
Fault
rocks have slipped past one another
The hypoxia problem in the Gulf of Mexico is primarily caused by:
runoff of nutrient-rich fertilizers into the Mississippi River
River transportation: At high velocity
sand and smaller particles carried in suspension
River transportation: At low velocity
sand dropped but silt and clay remain in suspension
All the following are proxy data for measuring global warming except
sea-surface temperatures
River transportation: At moderate velocity
silt and clay remain suspended but sand moves as bed load (rolls, etc.)
Compared to a gentle slope, a steep slope will have a:
slower rate of soil formation and less soil
Aftershocks
smaller quakes produced after a major quake caused by movement on smaller faults during the earthquake
Tributaries
smaller streams and rivers that flow into a main river
Quartz, like in quartzite, has _____________ bonds and is less soluble
stronger
Slab pull refers to:
subducting lithosphere
The process of one plate sliding beneath another plate is called:
subduction
Highest amount of outgoing longwave radiation occurs in the ______________
subtropics
The amount of insolation reaching the surface is highest in the ______________
subtropics
Lowest amount of rainfall/precipitation in....
subtropics and high latitudes
Ozone pollution is more prevalent in
sunny climates during the summer when volatile organic compounds can react with NO.
An organism that is within the stress zone of environmental limits will:
survive but not prosper
The main National Academy of Science conclusion on global warming since the mid-1800s is that
temperatures have risen around 1/2°C
Principle: a younger sediment or rock can contain pieces of an older rock
thats it
Energy
the ability to do work
Tectonic plates are commonly named for:
the continent or ocean they are located with
Outtermost layer is
the crust -2 types: continental and oceanic
Mass wasting
the downslope movement of soil and rock due to gravity; occurs to some degree on all slopes
What line or region best corresponds with the location of "A" climates?
the equator
Ozone concentrations are relatively low over ___________________, and relatively high over ____________________.
the equator; mid and high lattitudes
If the time between a flash of lightning and the sound of thunder is 30 seconds apart.....
the lightning is close enough to hit you, you should stay inside for 30 minutes
Stream load
the materials carried by a stream
The Sun's wavelengths are concentrated at 5 μm, which is
the middle of the visible light spectrum.
Hot spots form linear island chains because:
the plate moves relative to the underlying hot spot
In this diagram, the second law of thermodynamics is responsible for the processes depicted by:
the purple squiggly lines and the brown arrows
The electrical and magnetic components of EMR have
the same wavelength and the same frequency.
The term hundred-year flood signifies
the size of a flood that is predicted to have a 1 in 100 probability of occurring in a given year
Lava flow
the spread of lava as it pours out of a vent
Angle of repose
the steepest angle at which loose material remains stationary without sliding downslope
The Stefan-Boltzman Law relates
the temperature of an object to the amount of EMR it emits.
Highest amount of rainfall/precipitation in....
the tropics
In this diagram, the first law of thermodynamics is responsible for the processes depicted by:
the yellow squiggly lines and the black arrows
The __________ experiences a temperature __________ with elevation primarily due to the absorption of __________.
thermosphere; increase; gamma rays and x-rays
When molecules move faster...
they emit shorter wavelengths with higher frequencies and greater energies
One of the ways to stay safe from the danger of lightning is to know how far away the approaching storm is. If you see a flash of lightning and then hear thunder approximately 15 seconds later, the lightning is...
three miles from your location.
When water's velocity increases, the water becomes more
turbulent, often appearing white and foaming due to entrapped bubbles of air
Damage from earthquake: Liquefaction of fill
unconsolidated, water-saturated sediment will lose strength and begin to flow during an earthquake
The stages associated with continental rifting are, in order from earliest to latest:
uplift, continental rift, narrow ocean basin, wide ocean basin
A factor that can influence Earth's temperature but not be influenced by humans is
variations in solar radiance
Köppen's intent in developing his climatic classification system was to correlate temperature and precipitation with
vegetation
Meandering streams
very curved; high sinuosity
Kudzu is a type of invasive:
vine in the southeastern United States
Eruption column
volcanic ash, pumice, rock fragments ejected into air
Calcite, like in limestone, has __________ bonds, so it is soluble in water and can dissolve
weaker
The joints in the photograph mimic topography, indicating that they formed:
when the weight of overlying rocks was unloaded, allowing expansion along the joints
How Weathering Makes the Oceans Salty
•Rock, sediment, and soil on and near Earth's surface are exposed to water and to oxygen in the atmosphere •Some water infiltrates into the subsurface, where it may chemically react with the materials •During weathering, hydrolysis reactions commonly produce clay minerals and drive out positive ions •The dissolved cations, along with negative ions like chlorine, are carried by moving water, much of which finds its way to the oceans •Modern oceans contain about 3.5% dissolved salt •When seawater in the oceans evaporates, the dissolved salts remain in the seawater, increasing salinity
Human impact: Urban activities (lighting/heating)
-Atmosphere: Warms the atmosphere because many urban materials like asphalt, capture heat more than an open space. Heat is also released from car exhausts and industrial smokestacks. -Hydrosphere: Non-natural draining systems cause rapid removal and channeling of water -Biosphere/Lithosphere: Development infringes on natural plant and animal communities, disturbs soil, and alters erosion rates
Human impact: Clearing Forests
-Biosphere: loss of food, lumber, and loss of habitat for plants and animals -Atmosphere: reduces amount of CO2 that can be extracted from the atmosphere -Hydrosphere: creates runoff -Lithosphere: enhances soil erosion
Calculations GIS can do
-Calculate distance and angles between points -Spatial interpolation: Estimating a data value of an area if we have data for nearby areas (E.g. Amount of rainfall measured at 4 weather stations, can find rainfall for an area without weather station) -Identifying buffer zones: buffer zones show what areas will be affected by natural disasters/ shows where not to build
Interaction between Hydrosphere and Lithosphere
-Channels within a stream generally bend back and forth as water flows downhill -In faster/more energetic parts of the stream, it erodes faster into the riverbank and streambed -In less energetic sections, sediment is deposited in the bed
Multispectral
-Collect data from multiple wavelengths of energy -Used to study natural hazards, inventorying plant communities, tracking forest fires, and observing landscapes of other planets
GIS
-Geographic Information System: Computer database that combine a variety information efficiently to examine relationships among different features -Maps from aerial photos, satellite imagery, and field observations can be stored -Represents data as layers
GPS
-Global Positioning System: determines location through satellite signals -How it works: U.S. government has a series of 24 satellites orbiting in 6 different planes --> send radio signals to ground based receivers
Human impact: Dams
-Hydrosphere: Alter the local water balance by interrupting the normal seasonal variations in flows of water by capturing silt, sand, wood, and other materials -Biosphere: Construction disrupts ecosystems and threatens to destroy animal and plant communities
Biosphere
-Includes all types of life including humans, animals, and plants -Extends 10km up to the atmosphere, to the bottom of the deepest oceans, and into the tiny cracks and spaces of the subsurface
Longitude
-Indicates position east-west -Vertical lines running north-south -(0-180)
Latitude
-Indicates position north or south of the equator -Parallels that encircle the globe east-west -Horizontal line -(-90 -+90)
Radar, Sonar, and Lidar
-Involve emitting waves of a certain wavelength and then measuring how much is reflected back to the sensor and the time required for the various beams to return -Allows to make things like volcanic features
Parallels
-Lines of latitude -Draw lines that have the same distance between each other from the north or south pole -Lines are parallel to imaginary cuts through the earth, perpendicular to earth's spin axis -The parallel that is halfway between the north and south poles is the equator
Meridians
-Lines of longitude -Meridians do not stay the same distance apart and are not parallel -Meridians are widest at the equator and converge at the poles -Most direct path from the north and south pole
Large scale map
-Maps that cover smaller areas with greater detail -Large representative fraction
Transfer of momentum in the atmosphere
-Mass x velocity -Moving air masses
Atmosphere
-Mixture of mostly nitrogen and oxygen gas that surrounds earth's surface -Range of 100 km -Contains clouds, precipitation, and solid particles like dust and volcanic ash -About 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, less than 1% argon, carbon dioxide, and other gases and less than 4% is water vapor
Interaction between Hydrosphere and Biosphere
-Oceans contain a diversity of life: animals, plants, other living organisms
Which of the following is true of parallels?
-Parallels run from north to south -Parallels always follow great circles -The highest degree label for meridians is 180 degrees ALL ARE CORRECT
Small circles
-Plane not through the center -All parallels oriented east-west are small circles, except for the equator
Great circles
-Plane passing through the center of a sphere -Represents the shortest distance between 2 points and is the path airplanes travel -Splits the earth into 2 equal halves: the equator is a great circle that separates the northern and southern hemisphere -A north-south oriented great circle separates the western/eastern hemispheres
Interaction between Atmosphere and Biosphere
-Plants and animals utilize rain from the atmosphere -Broad-scale circulation patterns in the atmosphere are a major factor impacting an area's climate
Interaction between Lithosphere and Biosphere
-Plants and soils: type of soil determines if a plant will grow, plants remove nutrients from the soil but return material back to the soil through roots, annual leaf fall, plant death, and decay
Lithosphere
-Solid upper part of the earth, including the crust and uppermost mantle -Water, air, and life extend down into the lithosphere, so the boundary between the solid earth and the other spheres is not distinct, and the 4 spheres overlap
Transfer of energy in the atmosphere
-Storage and transfer of energy are the drivers of the earth's weather and climate -Can be moved by air currents associated with storms -Energy is released or extracted when water changes from one form to another
Representative fraction
-Tells the scale of a map as a ratio between distance on a map to distance in the real world -E.g. 1: 24,000 --> 1 cm on the map= 24,000 on the surface
Antartic Circle
A line of latitude 66.5 degrees South of the equator
Tropic of Cancer
A line of latitude about 23.5 degrees North of the equator
Tropic of Capricorn
A line of latitude about 23.5 degrees South of the equator
Geography is
Both a natural and a social science.
DGPS
Differential Global Positioning System -Same as GPS but with correction signal added to improve precision and accuracy -Accuracy of less than 7 meters
Shaded relief map
Emphasizes the shape of the land by simulating light and dark shading on the hills and valleys. Depicts the shape of the land but doesn't give any specific information about what lies beneath.
The zero line of latitude is the ____________
Equator
Qualitative data
Includes descriptive words, labels, sketches, or other images,
In a valley, contours bend ________ higher terrain, forming _______________ shapes
Into; concave (V)
Quantitative data
Numerical data that usually analyzed using data tables, calculations, equations, and graphs
Contour lines are more ________ spaced when the land surface is relatively flat
Widely
Transfer of matter in the atmosphere
Wind and water vapor
The number of degrees of latitude that a place has is derived from the angle formed by the place's location on Earth surface
the center of Earth, and the equator.
The spectrum of EMR that reaches Earth's surface is __________ that reaches the top of the atmosphere.
varies in details from that