GEOL225 Exam 3

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volatiles

gaseous components of magma dissolved in the melt; readily vaporize (from a gas) at surface pressures

lava

magma that reaches Earth's surface

continental volcanic arc

mountains formed in part by igneous activity associated with the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent; examples include the Andes and the Cascades

lahar

mudflows on the slopes of volcanoes that result when unstable layers of ash and debris become saturated and flow downslope, usually following stream channels

gypsum

nonsilicate mineral commonly found in sedimentary rocks used to manufacture and similar building materials

fragmental texture

pyroclastic texture

metaphoric rock

rock formed by the alteration of preexisting rock deep within Earth (but still in the solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluids

detrital sedimentary rock

rock formed from the accumulation of material that originated and was transported in the form of solid particles derived from both mechanical and chemical weathering

fissure

a crack in rock along which there is a distinct separation

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

a 12-point scale developed to evaluate earthquake intensity based on the amount of damage to various structures

augite

a black, opaque silicate mineral of the pyroxene group that is a dominate component of basalt

magma

a body of molten rock found at depth, including any dissolved gasses and crystals

convergent plate boundaries

a boundary in which two plates move together, causing one of the slabs of lithosphere to be consumed into the mantle as it descends beneath an overriding plate

transform plate boundary

a boundary in which two plates slide past one another without creating or destroying lithosphere; also called a transform fault or transform boundary

fault

a break in a rock mass along which movement has occurred

shield volcano

a broad, gently sloping volcano built from fluid basaltic lavas

eruption column

a buoyant plume of hot, ash-laden gases that, can extend thousands of meters into the atmosphere

island arc

a chain of volcanic islands generally located a few hundred kilometers from a trench where there is active subduction of one oceanic plate beneath another

volcanic island arc

a chain of volcanic islands generally located a few hundred kilometers from a trench where there is active subduction of one oceanic plate beneath another; also known simply as an island arc

hot-spot track

a chain of volcanic structures produced as a lithospheric plate moves over a mantle plume

magnetic reversal

a change in the polarity of Earth's magnetic field that occurs over time intervals of roughly 200,000 years

ionic bond

a chemical bond between two oppositely charged ions formed by the transfer of valence electrons from one atom to the other

covalent bond

a chemical bond produced by the sharing of electrons

metallic bonds

a chemical bond that is present in all metals that may be characterized as an extreme type of electron sharing in which the electrons move freely from atom to atom

limestone

a chemical sedimentary rock composed chiefly of calcite; can form by inorganic means or from biochemical processes

coquina

a coarse rock composed of loosely cemented shells and shell fragments

granite

a coarse-grained, igneous rock of approximately 10-20 percent quartz and 50 percent potassium feldspar that forms where large masses of magma solidify at depth; used as a building material

diorite

a coarse-grained, intrusive igneous rock primarily composed of plagioclase feldspar and amphibole minerals

lithospheric plates

a coherent unit of Earth's rigid outer layer that includes the crust and uppermost mantle; also known as a tectonic plate

muscovite

a common member of the mica family of minerals, with excellent cleavage

basaltic composition

a compositional group of igneous rocks in which the rock contains substantial dark silicate minerals and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar

granitic composition

a compositional group of igneous rocks in which the rock is made up almost entirely of light-colored silicates

andesitic composition

a compositional group of igneous rocks, in which the rock contains at least 25 percent dark silicate minerals; the other dominate mineral is plagioclase feldspar

hot spot

a concentration of heat in the mantle that is capable of producing magma, which in turn extrudes onto Earth's surface; the intraplate volcanism that produced the Hawaiian islands is one example

Bowen's reaction series

a concept proposed by N.L. Bowen that illustrates the relationships between magma and the minerals crystallizing from it during the formation of igneous rocks

vent

a conduit that connects a magma chamber to a volcanic crater

volcanic cone

a cone-shaped structure built by successive eruptions of lava and/or pyroclastic materials

rock

a consolidated mixture of minerals

phenocrysts

a conspicuously large crystal embedded in a matrix of finer-grained crystals

oceanic ridge system

a continuous elevated zone on the floor of all the major ocean basins and varying in width from 500 to 5000 kilometers (300-3000 miles); the rifts at the crests of ridges represent divergent plate boundaries

hornblende

a dark green to black mineral of the amphibole group, often found in igneous rocks

garnet

a dark silicate mineral with a glassy luster, lacking cleavage and of varying colors; can be used as a gemstone

biotite

a dark, iron-rich mineral and a member of the mica family with excellent cleavage

gabbro

a dark-green to black intrusive igneous rock composed of dark silicate minerals; makes up a significant percentage of oceanic crust

orderly crystalline structure

a definite chemical composition in which the atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern

solid substance

a family of materials which have a range of compositions and a single crystal structure

basalt

a fine-grained igneous rock of mafic composition

siltstone

a fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of clay-sized sediment mixed with silt-sized grain

seismic wave

a form of elastic energy released during an earthquake that causes vibrations in the materials that transmit them

travertine

a form of limestone (CaCO3) that is deposited by hot springs or as a cave deposit

andesite

a gray, fine-grained igneous rock, primarily of volcanic origin and commonly exhibiting a porphyritic texture

clay minerals

a group of light-colored silicates that typically form as products of chemical weathering of igneous rocks; major components of soil and sedimentary rocks

quartzite

a hard metamorphic rock formed from quartz sandstone

olivine

a high temperature, dark silicate mineral typically found in basalt

nuee ardente

a highly heated mixture, largely of ash and pumice fragments, travelling down the flanks of a volcano or along the surface of the ground

pyroclastic flow

a highly heated mixture, largely of ash and pumice fragments, travelling down the flanks of a volcano or along the surface of the ground

calderas

a large depression typically caused by collapse or ejection of the summit area of a volcano

supercontinent

a large landmass that contains all, or nearly all, of the existing continents

exfoliation dome

a large, dome-shaped structure, usually composed of granite, formed by sheeting

pahoehoe flow

a lava flow with a smooth-to-ropey surface

outer core

a layer beneath the mantle that is about 2200 kilometers (1364 miles) thick and has the properties of a liquid

pumice

a light-colored, glassy vesicular rock that commonly has a granite composition

continental rift

a linear zone along which continental lithosphere stretches and pulls apart; its creation may mark the beginning of a new ocean basin

fracture zone

a linear zone of irregular topography on the deep-ocean floor that follows transform faults and their inactive extensions

subduction zones

a long, narrow zone where one lithosphere plate descends beneath another

reverse polarity

a magnetic field opposite that which exists at present

normal polarity

a magnetic field that is the same as that which exists at present

transform fault

a major strike-slip fault that cuts through the lithosphere and accommodates motion between two plates; also called a transform plate boundary

viscosity

a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow

intensity

a measure of the degree of earthquake shaking at a given locale, based on the amount of damage

sheeting

a mechanical weathering process that is characterized by the splitting off of slab like sheets of rock

slab pull

a mechanism that contributes to plate motion in which cool, dense oceanic crust sinks into the mantle and "pulls" the trailing lithosphere along

ridge push

a mechanism that may contribute to plate motion; it involves the oceanic lithosphere sliding down the oceanic ridge under the pull of gravity

phyllite

a metamorphic rock composed mainly of fine crystals of muscovite, chlorite, or both

nonsilicate

a mineral group that lacks silicas in their mineral structures; accounts for less than 10 percent of Earth's crust

economic minerals

a mineral used extensively in the manufacture of products

rock cycle

a model that illustrates the origin of the three basic rock types and the interrelatedness of Earth materials and processes

moment magnitude

a more precise measure of earthquake magnitude than the Richter scale that is derived from the amount of displacement that occurs along a fault zone

deep-ocean trenches

a narrow, elongated depression on the floor of the ocean

mineral

a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline material that has a unique chemical composition

electrons

a negatively charged subatomic particle that has a negligible mass and is found outside an atom's nucleus

liquefaction

a phenomenon, sometimes associated with earthquakes, in which soils and other unconsolidated materials containing abundant water are turned into a fluidlike mass that is not capable of supporting buildings

conduit

a pipelike opening through which magma moves toward Earth's surface; it terminates at a surface opening called a vent

protons

a positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom

inertia

a property by which objects at rest tend to remain at rest, and objects in motion tend to stay in motion unless either is acted upon by an outside force

Pangaea

a proposed supercontinent that 200 million years ago began to break apart and form the present landmasses

tsunami

a rapidly moving ocean wave generated by earthquake activity that is capable of inflicting heavy damage in coastal regions

cinder cone

a rather small volcano built primarily of pyroclastics ejected from a single vent

scoria cone

a rather small volcano built primarily of pyroclastics ejected from a single vent

seismograms

a record made by a seismograph

rift valley

a region of Earth's crust along which divergence is taking place

divergent plate boundaries

a region where the rigid plates are moving apart, typified by the mid-ocean ridges

spreading center

a region where the rigid plates are moving apart, typified by the mid-ocean ridges

plagioclase feldspar

a relatively hard light silicate mineral containing both sodium and calcium ions that freely substitute for one another depending on the crystallization environment

igneous rock

a rock formed by the crystallization of molten magma

octet rule

a rule which states that atoms combine in order that each may have the electron arrangement of a noble gas--that is, so the outer energy level contains eight neutrons

Richter scale

a scale of earthquake magnitude based on the motion of a seismograph

breccia

a sedimentary rock composed of angular fragments that were lithified

biochemical sedimentary rock

a sedimentary rock composed of material that was extracted from water by organisms to create hard parts such as shells

conglomerate

a sedimentary rock composed of rounded, gravel size particles

coal

a sedimentary rock consisting primarily of organic, matter, formed in stages from accumulations of large quantities of undecayed plant material; used as a fossil fuel

evaporite deposit

a sedimentary rock formed of material deposited from solution by evaporation of the water

S waves

a seismic wave that involves oscillation perpendicular to the direction of propagation

secondary waves

a seismic wave that involves oscillation perpendicular to the direction of propagation

magnetometer

a sensitive instrument used to measure the intensity of Earth's magnetic field

Mohs scale

a series of 10 minerals used as a standard in determining mineral hardness

dark silicate minerals

a silicate mineral that contains ions of iron and/ or magnesium in its structure; it is dark in color and has a higher specific gravity than a light silicate mineral

light silicate minerals

a silicate mineral that lacks iron and/or magnesium; it is generally lighter in color and has a lower specific gravity than a dark silicate mineral

marble

a soft metamorphic rock formed from limestone or dolostone; various colors are used for building stones and monuments

chemical bond

a strong attractive force that exists between atoms in a substance; it involves the transfer or sharing of electrons that allows each atom to attain a full valence shell

silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

a structure composed of four oxygen atoms surrounding a silicon atom that constitutes the basic building block of silicate minerals

neutrons

a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom; is electronically neutral and has a mass approximately that of a proton

asthenosphere

a subdivision of the mantle situated below the lithosphere; this zone of weak material exists below a depth of about 100 kilometers and in some regions extends as deep as 700 kilometers; the rock within this zone is easily deformed

chemical compounds

a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in definite proportions and usually having properties different from those of its constituent elements

vesicular texture

a term applied to fine-grained igneous rocks that contain many small cavities called vesicles, which are openings on the outer portion of a lava flow that were created by escaping gasses

glassy texture

a term used to describe the texture of certain igneous rocks, such as obsidian, that contain no crystals

fine-grained texture

a texture of igneous rocks in which the crystals are too small for individual minerals to be distinguished with the unaided eye

foliation

a texture of metamorphic rocks that gives the rock a linear or layered appearance

continental drift

a theory which originally proposed that the continents are rafted about; it has essentially been replaced by the plate tectonics theory

lava tubes

a tunnel in hardened lava that acts as a horizontal conduit for lava flowing from a volcanic vent; allow fluid lavas to advance great distances

aa flow

a type of lava flow that has a jagged, blocky surface

compaction

a type of lithification in which the weight of overlying material compresses more deeply buried sediment; it is most important in the fine-grained sedimentary rocks such as shale

P waves

a type of seismic wave that involves alternating compression and expansion of the material through which it passes

primary waves

a type of seismic wave that involves alternating compression and expansion of the material through which it passes

fumaroles

a vent in a volcanic area from which fumes or gases escape

slate

a very fine-grained metamorphic rock containing platy minerals and having excellent rock cleavage

parasitic cones

a volcanic cone that forms on the flank of a larger volcano

obsidian

a volcanic glass of felsic composition

composite volcano

a volcano composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material

stratovolcano

a volcano composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material

carbonic acid

a weak acid formed when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water; it plays an important role in chemical weathering

sandstone

an abundant, durable sedimentary rock primarily composed of sand-size grains

potassium felspar

an abundant, relatively hard light silicate mineral containing potassium ions in its structure

periodic table

an arrangement of the elements in which atomic number increases from the left to right and elements with similar properties appear in columns called families or groups

ions

an atom or molecule that possesses an electrical charge

peridotite

an igneous rock of ultramafic composition thought to be abundant in the upper mantle

coarse-grained texture

an igneous rock texture in which the crystals are roughly equal in size and large enough that individual minerals can be identified with the unaided eye

pyroclastic texture

an igneous rock texture resulting from the consolidation of individual rock fragments that are ejected during a violent eruption

porphyritic texture

an igneous texture consisting of large crystals embedded in a matrix of much smaller crystals

seismographs

an instrument that records earthquake waves

seismometers

an instrument that records earthquake waves

seamount

an isolated volcanic peak that rises at least 1000 meters (3000 feet) above the deep-ocean floor

color

an obvious mineral characteristic that is often unreliable as a diagnostic property

intermediate composition

andesitic composition

fracture

any break or rupture in rock along which no appreciable movement has taken place

silicates

any one of numerous minerals that have the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their basic structure

mafic

basaltic composition

pillow lavas

basaltic lava that solidifies in an underwater environment and develops a structure that resembles a pile of pillows

calcite

calcium carbonate (CaCO3), one of the two most common carbonate minerals

dolomite

calcium/magnesium carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2, one of the two most common carbonate minerals

contact metamorphism

changes in rock caused by the heat from a nearby magma body; also known as thermal metamorphism

tenacity

describes a mineral's toughness or resistance to breaking or deforming

nonfoliated

descriptive term for metamorphic rocks that do not exhibit foliation

volcanic rock

extrusive rocks

differential stress

forces that are unequal in different directions

fault creep

gradual displacement along a fault; such activity occurs relatively smoothly and with little noticeable seismic activity

felsic

granite composition

extrusive rock

igneous rock formed when magma solidifies at Earth's surface

intrusive rock

igneous rock that formed below Earth's surface

magnitude

in seismology, the total amount of energy released during an earthquake

plutonic rock

intrusive rocks

generally inorganic

involving neither organic life nor the products created from or by organic life

longer wavelengths have _________ pressure than shorter wavelengths

less

humid air is ________ than dry air

less dense

As one ascends through the atmosphere what is happening to pressure

less pressure (decreases)

gneiss

medium- to coarse-grained banded metamorphic rocks in which granular and elongated minerals dominate

schists

medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rocks having a foliated texture, in which platy minerals dominateme

regional metamorphism

metamorphism associated with large-scale mountain-building processes

definite chemical composition that allows for some variation

mineral

halite

mineral name for common table salt (NaCl); a nonsilicate mineral commonly found in sedimentary rocks

naturally occurring

minerals are found and made in nature, not laboratories

plates

one of numerous rigid sections of the lithosphere that move as a unit over the material of the asthenosphere; also called lithosphere plate, tectonic plate

rock-forming minerals

one of the few dozen most abundant minerals that make up most common rocks; minerals rich in oxygen and silicon (silicate minerals) dominate this group

cementation

one way in which sedimentary rocks are lithified; as material precipitates from water that percolates through the sediment, open spaces are filled and particles are joined into a solid mass

strata

parallel layers of sedimentary rock

sedimentary rock

rock formed from the weathered products of preexisting rocks that have been transported, deposited, and lithified

chemical sedimentary rock

sedimentary rock consisting of material that was precipitated from water by either inorganic or organic means

surface waves

seismic waves that travel along the outer layer of Earth

body waves

seismic waves that travel through Earth's interior

beds

strata

confining pressure

stress that is applied uniformly in all directions

mantle plume

structures that originate at great depth and, upon reaching the crust, spread laterally, creating a localized volcanic zone called a hot spot; a source of some intraplate basaltic magma

ultramafic

term for igneous rocks that consist mostly of olivine and pyroxene

theory of plate tectonics

tested theory proposing that Earth's outer shell consists of individual plates that interact in various ways and thereby produce earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains and the crust itself

mantle

the 2900-kilometer- (1800-mile-) thick layer of Earth located below the crust

luster

the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral

metamorphism

the changes in mineral composition and texture of a rock subjected to high temperatures and pressures within Earth

streak

the color of a mineral in powdered form

habit

the common or characteristic shape of a crystal or aggregate of crystals; also known as crystal shape

crystal shape

the common or characteristic shape of a crystal or aggregate of crystals; also known as habit

crater

the depression at the summit of a volcano, or a depression that is produced by a meteorite impact

crystal settling

the downward movement of minerals during the crystallization of magma; the earlier-formed minerals are denser than the liquid portion and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber

valence electrons

the electrons involved in the bonding process; the electrons occupying the highest principal energy level of an atom

rhyolite

the fine-grained equivalent of the igneous rock granite, composed primarily of the light-colored silicates

magnetic time scale

the history of magnetic reversals through geologic time

core

the innermost layer of Earth, based on composition; it is thought to be largely an iron-nickel alloy, with minor amounts of oxygen, silicon, and sulfur

epicenter

the location on Earth's surface that lies directly above the forces of an earthquake

groundmass

the matrix of smaller crystals within an igneous rock that has porphyritic texture

frost wedging

the mechanical breakup of rock caused by the expansion of freezing water in cracks and crevices

shale

the most common sedimentary rock, consisting of silt- and clay-size particles

Epicycles were used to explain what

the movement of planets (around Earth)

fossil magnetism

the natural remnant magnetism in rock bodies; the permanent magnetization acquired by rock that can be used to determine the location of the magnetic poles and the latitude of the rock at the time it became magnetized

paleomagnetism

the natural remnant magnetism in rock bodies; the permanent magnetization acquired by rock that can be used to determine the location of the magnetic poles and the latitude of the rock at the time it became magnetized

atomic number

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

mechanical weathering

the physical disintegration of rock, resulting in smaller fragments

megathrust fault

the plate boundary separating a subducting slab of oceanic lithosphere and the overlying plate

partial melting

the process by which most igneous rocks melt; since individual minerals have different melting points, most igneous rocks melt over a temperature range of a few hundred degrees; if the liquid is squeezed out after some melting has occurred, a melt with a higher silica content results

chemical weathering

the process by which the internal structure of a mineral is altered by the removal and/or addition of elements

magmatic differentiation

the process of generating more than one rock type from a single magma

seafloor spreading

the process of producing new seafloor between two divergent plates

lithification

the process, generally concentration and/or compaction, of converting sediments to solid rock

specific gravity

the ratio of a substance's weight to the weight of an equal volume of water

fossil

the remains or traces of an organism preserved from the geologic past

lithosphere

the rigid outer layer of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle

texture

the size, shape, and distribution of the particles that collectively constitute a rock

atoms

the smallest particle that exists as an element

inner core

the solid innermost layer of Earth, about 1300 kilometers (800 miles) in radius

seismology

the study of earthquakes and seismic waves

mineralogy

the study of minerals

elastic rebound

the sudden release of stored strain in rocks that results in movement along a fault

curie point

the temperature above which a material loses its magnetization

cleavage

the tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding

convection

the transfer of heat by the movement of a mass or substance; it can take place only in fluids

crust

the very thin outermost layer of Earth

pyroclastic material

the volcanic rock ejected during an eruption, including ash, bombs, and blocks; also called tephra

density

the weight per unit volume of a particular material

circum-pacific belt

the zone of intense seismic activity the encompasses the coastal regions of Chile, Central America, Indonesia, Japan, and Alaska, including the Aleutian islands

hypocenter

the zone within Earth where rock displacement produces an earthquake

focus

the zone within Earth where rock displacement produces and earthquake

sediment

unconsolidated particles created by the weathering and erosion of rock, by chemical precipitation from solution in water, or from the secretions of organisms and transported by water, wind, or glaciers

scoria

vesicular ejecta that is the product of basaltic magma

earthquake

vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy


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