good fruits

Elder berry

Elderberry is the name of a several similar types of shrubs that produce fruit that is also called elderberries. The plant can be found in swampy habitats and other areas that provide enough water. Black Elderberry has been found to be effective against the H5N1 strain of Avian Flu (Zakay-Rones et al 1995). Black Elderberry contains a unique compound called Antivirin® that can help protect healthy cells and inactivate infectious viruses. When given to patients, scientists have found the Black Elderberry, has the ability to ward off flu infections quickly (Zakay-Rones 2004). Black Elderberries are rich in anthocyanins which are a type of flavonoid - anthocyanins are antioxidants that may protect cells from free radicals and support your body's immune system. Black Elderberries have almost 5 times as many anthocyanins as Blueberries and twice the overall antioxidant capability of cranberries Black Elderberry has a more potent antiviral effect than Echinacea. At sites in Switzerland and Italy, researchers have uncovered evidence that the black elderberry may have been cultivated by prehistoric man, and there are recipes for elderberry-based medications in the records dating as far back as Ancient Egypt. Historians, however, generally trace the tradition of the elderberry's healing power back to Hippocrates, the ancient Greek known as the "father of medicine," who described this plant as his "medicine chest" for the wide variety of ailments it seemed to cure. Over the centuries, elderberry has been used to treat colds, flu, fever, burns, cuts, and more than 70 other maladies, from a toothache to the plague. In the 17th century, John Evelyn, a British researcher, declared, "If the medicinal properties of its leaves, bark, and berries were fully known, I cannot tell what our countryman could ail for which he might not fetch a remedy [from the elderberry], either for sickness or wounds." If you dye elderberries they make the color violet. Some neat facts are

Coracobrachialis

Flexes and adducts the humerus

quandary

a puzzling situation; a dilemma

paper

a thing it is made from trees it tastes weird i dont suggest you eat it

lamps

a thing that often uses lightbulbs often has a switch for off and on

dewberries

dew berries they taste weird

banana

elongated crescent-shaped yellow fruit with soft sweet flesh

apple

fruit with red or yellow or green skin and sweet to tart crisp whitish flesh

cloudberry

golden and yellow fruit has a tart taste

shirts

hirt is a cloth garment for the upper body (from the neck to the waist). Originally an undergarment worn exclusively by men, it has become, in American English, a catch-all term for a broad variety of upper-body garments and undergarments. In British English, a shirt is more specifically a garment with a collar, sleeves with cuffs, and a full vertical opening with buttons or snaps (North Americans would call that a "dress shirt", a specific type of "collared shirt"). A shirt can also be worn with a necktie under the shirt collar. Contents 1 History 2 Types 3 Parts of shirt 3.1 Shoulders and arms 3.1.1 Sleeves 3.1.2 Cuffs 3.2 Lower hem 3.3 Body 3.4 Neck 3.5 Other features 4 Measures and sizes 4.1 Sizes 5 Types of fabric 6 Shirts and politics 7 Industrial production 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History The world's oldest preserved garment, discovered by Flinders Petrie, is a "highly sophisticated" linen shirt from a First Dynasty Egyptian tomb at Tarkan, dated to c. 3000 BC: "the shoulders and sleeves have been finely pleated to give form-fitting trimness while allowing the wearer room to move. The small fringe formed during weaving along one edge of the cloth has been placed by the designer to decorate the neck opening and side seam."[1] The shirt was an item of clothing that only men could wear as underwear, until the twentieth century.[2] Although the women's chemise was a closely related garment to the men's, it is the men's garment that became the modern shirt.[3] In the Middle Ages, it was a plain, undyed garment worn next to the skin and under regular garments. In medieval artworks, the shirt is only visible (uncovered) on humble characters, such as shepherds, prisoners, and penitents.[4] In the seventeenth century, men's shirts were allowed to show, with much the same erotic import as visible underwear today.[5] In the eighteenth century, instead of underpants, men "relied on the long tails of shirts ... to serve the function of drawers.[6] Eighteenth-century costume historian Joseph Strutt believed that men who did not wear shirts to bed were indecent.[7] Even as late as 1879, a visible shirt with nothing over it was considered improper.[2] The shirt sometimes had frills at the neck or cuffs. In the sixteenth century, men's shirts often had embroidery, and sometimes frills or lace at the neck and cuffs and through the eighteenth century long neck frills, or jabots, were fashionable.[8][9] Coloured shirts began to appear in the early nineteenth century, as can be seen in the paintings of George Caleb Bingham. They were considered casual wear, for lower-class workers only, until the twentieth century. For a gentleman, "to wear a sky-blue shirt was unthinkable in 1860 but had become standard by 1920 and, in 1980, constituted the most commonplace event."[10] European and American women began wearing shirts in 1860, when the Garibaldi shirt, a red shirt as worn by the freedom fighters under Giuseppe Garibaldi, was popularized by Empress Eugénie of France.[11][12] At the end of the nineteenth century, the Century Dictionary described an ordinary shirt as "of cotton, with linen bosom, wristbands and cuffs prepared for stiffening with starch, the collar and wristbands being usually separate and adjustable". The first documented appearance of the expression "To give the shirt off one's back", happened in 1771 as an idiom that indicates extreme desperation or generosity and is still in common usage. In 1827 Hannah Montague, a housewife in upstate New York, invents the detachable collar. Tired of constantly washing her husband's entire shirt when only the collar needed it, she cut off his collars and devised a way of attaching them to the neckband after washing. It wasn't until the 1930s that collar stays became popular, although these early accessories resembled tie clips more than the small collar stiffeners available today. They connected the collar points to the necktie, keeping them in place [13][better source needed] Types Three types of shirt Camp shirt - a loose, straight-cut, short sleeved shirt or blouse with a simple placket front-opening and a "camp collar". Dress shirt - shirt with a formal (somewhat stiff) collar, a full-length opening at the front from the collar to the hem (usually buttoned), and sleeves with cuffs White shirt - usually dress shirt which its colour is white Dinner shirt - a shirt specifically made to be worn with male evening wear, e.g. a black tie or white tie. Guayabera - an embroidered dress shirt with four pockets. Poet shirt - a loose-fitting shirt or blouse with full bishop sleeves, usually with large frills on the front and on the cuffs. T-shirt - also "tee shirt", a casual shirt without a collar or buttons, made of a stretchy, finely knit fabric, usually cotton, and usually short-sleeved. Originally worn under other shirts, it is now a common shirt for everyday wear in some countries. Long-sleeved T-shirt - a T-shirt with long sleeves that extend to cover the arms. Ringer T-shirt - tee with a separate piece of fabric sewn on as the collar and sleeve hems Halfshirt - a high-hemmed T-shirt Sleeveless shirt - a shirt manufactured without sleeves, or one whose sleeves have been cut off, also called a tank top A-shirt or vest or singlet (in British English) - essentially a sleeveless shirt with large armholes and a large neck hole, often worn by labourers or athletes for increased movability. Camisole - woman's undershirt with narrow straps, or a similar garment worn alone (often with bra). Also referred to as a cami, shelf top, spaghetti straps or strappy top Polo shirt (also tennis shirt or golf shirt) - a pullover soft collar short-sleeved shirt with an abbreviated button placket at the neck and a longer back than front (the "tennis tail"). Rugby shirt - a long-sleeved polo shirt, traditionally of rugged construction in thick cotton or wool, but often softer today Henley shirt - a collarless polo shirt Baseball shirt (jersey) - usually distinguished by a three quarters sleeve, team insignia, and flat waist seam Sweatshirt - long-sleeved athletic shirt of heavier material, with or without hood Tunic - primitive shirt, distinguished by two-piece construction. Initially a men's garment, is normally seen in modern times being worn by women Shirtwaist - historically (circa. 1890-1920) a woman's tailored shirt (also called a "tailored waist") cut like a man's dress shirt;[14] in contemporary usage, a woman's dress cut like a men's dress shirt to the waist, then extended into dress length at the bottom Nightshirt - often oversized, ruined or inexpensive light cloth undergarment shirt for sleeping. Halter top - a shoulderless, sleeveless garment for women. It is mechanically analogous to an apron with a string around the back of the neck and across the lower back holding it in place. Top shirt - a long-sleeved collarless polo shirt Heavy shirt - a shirt with the heavy size that covers up under the neck Onesie or diaper shirt - a shirt for infants which includes a long back that is wrapped between the legs and buttoned to the front of the shirt Tube top (in American English) or boob tube (in British English) - a shoulderless, sleeveless "tube" that wraps the torso not reaching higher than the armpit, staying in place by elasticity or by a single strap that is attached to the front of the tube Punishment shirts were special shirts made for the condemned, either those cursed supernaturally, such as the poisoned shirt that killed Creusa (daughter of Creon), the Shirt of Nessus used to kill Hercules, those used to execute people in ancient Rome, such as the Tunica molesta, and those used in church heresy trials, such as the Shirt of Flame, or the Sanbenito Parts of shirt Many terms are used to describe and differentiate types of shirts (and upper-body garments in general) and their construction. The smallest differences may have significance to a cultural or occupational group. Recently, (late twentieth century, into the twenty-first century) it has become common to use tops as a form of advertisement. Many of these distinctions apply to other upper-body garments, such as coats and sweaters. Shoulders and arms Sleeves Main article: sleeves Shirts may: have no covering of the shoulders or arms - a tube top (not reaching higher than the armpits, staying in place by elasticity) have only shoulder straps, such as spaghetti straps cover the shoulders, but without sleeves have shoulderless sleeves, short or long, with or without shoulder straps, that expose the shoulders, but cover the rest of the arm from the biceps and triceps down to at least the elbow have short sleeves, varying from cap sleeves (covering only the shoulder and not extending below the armpit) to half sleeves (elbow length), with some having quarter-length sleeves (reaching to a point that covers half of the biceps and triceps area) have three-quarter-length sleeves (reaching to a point between the elbow and the wrist) have long sleeves (reaching a point to the wrist to a little beyond wrist) Cuffs Main article: cuff Shirts with long sleeves may further be distinguished by the cuffs: no buttons - a closed placket cuff buttons (or analogous fasteners such as snaps) - single or multiple. A single button or pair aligned parallel with the cuff hem is considered a button cuff. Multiple buttons aligned perpendicular to the cuff hem, or parallel to the placket constitute a barrel cuff. buttonholes designed for cufflinks a French cuff, where the end half of the cuff is folded over the cuff itself and fastened with a cufflink. This type of cuff has four buttons and a short placket. more formally, a link cuff - fastened like a French cuff, except is not folded over, but instead hemmed, at the edge of the sleeve. asymmetrical designs, such as one-shoulder, one-sleeve or with sleeves of different lengths. Lower hem hanging to the waist leaving the belly button area bare (much more common for women than for men). See halfshirt. covering the crotch covering part of the legs (essentially this is a dress; however, a piece of clothing is perceived either as a shirt (worn with trousers) or as a dress (in Western culture mainly worn by women)). going to the floor (as a pajama shirt) Body vertical opening on the front side, all the way down, with buttons or zipper. When fastened with buttons, this opening is often called the placket front. similar opening, but in back. left and right front side not separable, put on over the head; with regard to upper front side opening: V-shaped permanent opening on the top of the front side no opening at the upper front side vertical opening on the upper front side with buttons or zipper men's shirts are often buttoned on the right whereas women's are often buttoned on the left. Neck with polo-neck with "scoop" neck with v-neck but no collar with plunging neck with open or tassel neck with collar windsor collar or spread collar - a dressier collar designed with a wide distance between points (the spread) to accommodate the windsor knot tie. The standard business collar. tab collar - a collar with two small fabric tabs that fasten together behind a tie to maintain collar spread. wing collar - best suited for the bow tie, often only worn for very formal occasions. straight collar - or point collar, a version of the windsor collar that is distinguished by a narrower spread to better accommodate the four-in-hand knot, pratt knot, and the half-windsor knot. A moderate dress collar. button-down collar - A collar with buttons that fasten the points or tips to a shirt. The most casual of collars worn with a tie. band collar - essentially the lower part of a normal collar, first used as the original collar to which a separate collarpiece was attached. Rarely seen in modern fashion. Also casual. turtle neck collar - A collar that covers most of the throat. without collar V-neck no collar - The neckline protrudes down the chest and to a point, creating a "V" looking neck line. Other features pockets - how many (if any), where, and with regard to closure: not closable, just a flap, or with a button or zipper. with or without hood Some combinations are not applicable, e.g. a tube top cannot have a collar. Measures and sizes The main measures for a jacket are: Shoulders Bust Waist Hip Sleeve Length, from the neck to the waist or hip. Sizes Asia Size M = US/EU Size XS. Asia Size L = US/EU Size S. Asia Size XL = US/EU Size M. Asia Size XXL = US/EU Size L. Asia Size XXXL = US/EU Size XL. Asia Size XXXXL = US/EU Size XXL. Types of fabric There are two main categories of fibres used: natural fibre and man-made fibre (synthetics or petroleum based). Some natural fibres are linen, the first used historically, hemp, cotton, the most used, ramie, wool, silk and more recently bamboo or soya. Some synthetic fibres are polyester, tencel, viscose, etc. Polyester mixed with cotton (poly-cotton) is often used. Fabrics for shirts are called shirtings. The four main weaves for shirtings are plain weave, oxford, twill and satin. Broadcloth, poplin and end-on-end are variations of the plain weave. After weaving, finishing can be applied to the fabric. Shirts and politics See also: Political colour In the 1920s and 1930s, fascists wore different coloured shirts: Black shirts were used by the Italian fascists, and in Britain, Finland and Germany and Croatia. The party leaders of Dravidar Kazhagam in India wear only black shirts to symbolise atheism. Brownshirts were worn by German Nazis of the SA. The Blueshirts was a fascist movement in Ireland and Canada, and the colour of the Portuguese Nacional Sindicalistas, the Spanish Falange Española, the French Solidarité Française, and the Chinese Blue Shirts Society. Green shirts were used in Hungary, Ireland, Romania, Brazil and Portugal. Camisas Doradas (golden shirts) were used in Mexico. Red shirts were worn by the racist and antisemitic Bulgarian Ratniks. Silver Shirts were worn in the United States of America. Grey shirts were worn by members of the Fatherland League in Norway. In addition, red shirts have been used to symbolize a variety of different political groups, including Garibaldi's Italian revolutionaries, nineteenth century American street gangs, and socialist militias in Spain and Mexico during the 1930s. Different colored shirts signified the major opposing sides that featured prominently in the 2008 Thai political crisis, with red having been worn by the supporters of the populist People's Power Party (PPP), and yellow being worn by the supporters of the royalist and anti-Thaksin Shinawatra movement the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD). Each side is commonly referred to as the 'red shirts' and 'yellow shirts' respectively, though the later opponents of the later Thaksin supporting groups have largely ceased wearing yellow shirts to protest rallies. In the UK, the Social Credit movement of the thirties wore green shirts. Industrial production Shirt production line Factory sewing Shirts on a conveyor Shirts awaiting finishing Kids shirts for quality checking Manufacturer and buyer reviewing product Dress shirt See also Cardigan (sweater) Descamisado Jermyn Street, home of the oldest English shirtmakers References Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1994). Women's Work. The first 20,000 Years, p.135.Norton & Company, New York. ISBN 0-393-31348-4 William L. Brown III, "Some Thoughts on Men's Shirts in America, 1750-1900", Thomas Publications, Gettysburg, PA 1999. ISBN 1-57747-048-6, p. 7 Dorothy K. Burnham, "Cut My Cote", Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario 1973. ISBN 0-88854-046-9, p. 14 C. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, The History of Underclothes, Dover Publications Inc., New York 1992. ISBN 0-486-27124-2 pp. 23-25 C. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, The History of Underclothes, Dover Publications Inc., New York 1992. ISBN 0-486-27124-2 pp. 54 Linda Baumgarten, "What Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, Virginia, in association with the Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut 2002, ISBN 0-300-09580-5, p. 27 Linda Baumgarten, "What Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, Virginia, in association with the Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut 2002, ISBN 0-300-09580-5, pp. 20-22 C. Willet and Phillis Cunnington, "The History of Underclothes", Dover Publications Inc., New York 1992. ISBN 0-486-27124-2 pp. 36-39 C. Willet and Phillis Cunnington, "The History of Underclothes", Dover Publications Inc., New York 1992. ISBN 0-486-27124-2 pp. 73 Michel Pastoureau and Jody Gladding (translator), "The Devil's Cloth: A History of Stripes", Columbia University Press, New York 2001 ISBN 0-7434-5326-3, p. 65 Anne Buck, "Victorian Costume", Ruth Bean Publishers, Carlton, Bedford, England 1984. ISBN 0-903585-17-0 Young, Julia Ditto, "The Rise of the Shirt Waist", Good Housekeeping, May 1902, pp. 354-357 "History Of The Shirt :: Shirt Guide". Gant US. Retrieved 2016-09-29. For example, see Laura I. Baldt, A.M., Clothing for Women: Selection, Design and Construction, J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, PA 1924 (second edition), p. 312 External links Look up shirt in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shirts. "Introduction to 18th-century fashion". Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories. Victoria and Albert Museum. "Introduction to 19th-century fashion". Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories. Victoria and Albert Museum. vte Clothing Categories: ShirtsHistory of clothingHistory of clothing (Europe)History of clothing (Western fashion) Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Русский Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 中文 72 more Edit links This page was last edited on 28 March 2019, at 16:43 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

August

majestic

pens

or other uses, see Pen (disambiguation). "Ink pen" redirects here. For the comic, see Ink Pen. A luxury pen A pen is a writing instrument used to apply ink to a surface, usually paper, for writing or drawing.[1] Historically, reed pens, quill pens, and dip pens were used, with a nib dipped in ink. Ruling pens allow precise adjustment of line width, and still find a few specialized uses, but technical pens such as the Rapidograph are more commonly used. Modern types include ballpoint, rollerball, fountain and felt or ceramic tip pens.[2] Contents 1 Types 1.1 Modern 1.2 Historic 2 History 3 See also 4 Notes and references 5 External links Types Modern The main modern types of pens can be categorized by the kind of writing tip or point on the pen: An inexpensive Bic Cristal ballpoint pen A ballpoint pen dispenses an oil-based ink by rolling a small hard sphere, usually 0.5-1.2 mm and made of brass, steel, or tungsten carbide.[3] The ink dries almost immediately on contact with paper. The ballpoint pen is usually reliable and comes in both inexpensive and expensive types. It has replaced the fountain pen as the most common tool for everyday writing. (There are certain ballpoint pens combining multiple colours in a single barrel; the writer or artist may depress the tip with the desired colour.) A luxury ballpoint pen A rollerball pen dispenses a water-based liquid or gel ink through a ball tip similar to that of a ballpoint pen. The less-viscous ink is more easily absorbed by paper than oil-based ink, and the pen moves more easily across a writing surface. The rollerball pen was initially designed to combine the convenience of a ballpoint pen with the smooth "wet ink" effect of a fountain pen. Gel inks are available in a range of colors, including metallic paint colors, glitter effects, neon, blurred effects, saturated colors, pastel tones, vibrant shades, shady colors, invisible ink, see-through effect, shiny colors, and glow-in-the-dark effects. Refillable rollerball pens have recently become available using cartridges of fountain pen ink. A fountain pen uses water-based liquid ink delivered through a nib. The ink flows from a reservoir through a "feed" to the nib, then through the nib, due to capillary action and gravity. The nib has no moving parts and delivers ink through a thin slit to the writing surface. A fountain pen reservoir can be refillable or disposable; the disposable type is called an ink cartridge. A pen with a refillable reservoir may have a mechanism, such as a piston, to draw ink from a bottle through the nib, or it may require refilling with an eyedropper. Refill reservoirs, also known as cartridge converters, are available for some pens which use disposable cartridges. A fountain pen can be used with permanent or non-permanent inks. A Marker pen or felt-tip pen, has a porous tip of fibrous material. The smallest, finest-tipped felt-tip pens are used for writing on paper. Medium-tipped felt-tips are often used by children for coloring and drawing. Larger types, often called "markers", are used for writing in larger sizes, often on other surfaces such as corrugated boxes, whiteboards and for chalkboards, often called "liquid chalk" or "chalkboard markers". Markers with wide tips and bright but transparent ink, called highlighters, are used to highlight text that has already been written or printed. Pens designed for children or for temporary writing (as with a whiteboard or overhead projector) typically use non-permanent inks. Large markers used to label shipping cases or other packages are usually permanent markers. A gel pen uses ink in which pigment is suspended in a water-based gel.[4] Because the ink is thick and opaque, it shows up more clearly on dark or slick surfaces than the typical inks used in ballpoint or felt tip pens. Gel pens can be used for many types of writing and illustration. Gel pens often come in bright or neon colors. A stylus pen, plural styli or styluses,[5] is a writing utensil or a small tool for some other form of marking or shaping, for example, in pottery. It can also be a computer accessory that is used to assist in navigating or providing more precision when using touchscreens. It usually refers to a narrow elongated staff, similar to a modern ballpoint pen. Pens exist which contain a ballpoint tip on one end and this sort of touchscreen stylus on the other. A ruling pen, a drawing tool with adjustable line thickness. A technical pen, derivative of ruling pen for technical drawings. A fudepen, a fountain pen version of ink brush. A Skin pen, used to create images on skin. A digital pen, is a digital input device. Historic These historic types of pens are no longer in common use as writing instruments, but may be used by calligraphers and other artists: A dip pen A dip pen (or nib pen) consists of a metal nib with capillary channels, like that of a fountain pen, mounted on a handle or holder, often made of wood. A dip pen usually has no ink reservoir and must be repeatedly recharged with ink while drawing or writing. The dip pen has certain advantages over a fountain pen. It can use waterproof pigmented (particle-and-binder-based) inks, such as India ink, drawing ink, or acrylic inks, which would destroy a fountain pen by clogging, as well as the traditional iron gall ink, which can cause corrosion in a fountain pen. Dip pens are now mainly used in illustration, calligraphy, and comics. A particularly fine-pointed type of dip pen known as a crowquill is a favorite instrument of artists, such as David Stone Martin and Jay Lynch, because its flexible metal point can create a variety of delicate lines, textures and tones with slight pressures while drawing. The ink brush is the traditional writing implement in East Asian calligraphy. The body of the brush can be made from either bamboo, or rarer materials such as red sandalwood, glass, ivory, silver, and gold. The head of the brush can be made from the hair (or feathers) of a wide variety of animals, including the weasel, rabbit, deer, chicken, duck, goat, pig, tiger, etc. There is also a tradition in both China and Japan of making a brush using the hair of a newborn, as a once-in-a-lifetime souvenir for the child. This practice is associated with the legend of an ancient Chinese scholar who scored first in the Imperial examinations by using such a personalized brush. Calligraphy brushes are widely considered an extension of the calligrapher's arm. Today, calligraphy may also be done using a pen, but pen calligraphy does not enjoy the same prestige as traditional brush calligraphy. A quill is a pen made from a flight feather of a large bird, most often a goose. Quills were used as instruments for writing with ink before the metal dip pen, the fountain pen, and eventually the ballpoint pen came into use. Quill pens were used in medieval times to write on parchment or paper. The quill eventually replaced the reed pen. A reed pen is cut from a reed or bamboo, with a slit in a narrow tip. Its mechanism is essentially similar to that of a quill. The reed pen has almost disappeared but it is still used by young school students in some parts of India and Pakistan, who learn to write with them on small timber boards known as "Takhti". History M. Klein and Henry W. Wynne received US patent#68445 in 1867 for an ink chamber and delivery system in the handle of the fountain pen. Ancient Egyptians had developed writing on papyrus scrolls when scribes used thin reed brushes or reed pens from the Juncus maritimus or sea rush.[6] In his book A History of Writing, Steven Roger Fischer suggests that on the basis of finds at Saqqara, the reed pen might well have been used for writing on parchment as long ago as the First Dynasty or about 3000 BC. Reed pens continued to be used until the Middle Ages, but were slowly replaced by quills from about the 7th century. The reed pen, generally made from bamboo, is still used in some parts of Pakistan by young students and is used to write on small wooden boards.[7] Historic pens The reed pen survived until papyrus was replaced as a writing surface by animal skins, vellum and parchment. The smoother surface of skin allowed finer, smaller writing with a quill pen, derived from the flight feather.[8] The quill pen was used in Qumran, Judea to write some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which date back to around 100 BC. The scrolls were written in Hebrew dialects with bird feathers or quills. There is a specific reference to quills in the writings of St. Isidore of Seville in the 7th century.[9] Quill pens were still widely used in the eighteenth century, and were used to write and sign the Constitution of the United States in 1787. A copper nib was found in the ruins of Pompeii, showing that metal nibs were used in the year 79.[10] There is also a reference to 'a silver pen to carry ink in', in Samuel Pepys' diary for August 1663.[11] 'New invented' metal pens are advertised in The Times in 1792.[12] A metal pen point was patented in 1803, but the patent was not commercially exploited. A patent for the manufacture of metal pens was advertised for sale by Bryan Donkin in 1811.[13] John Mitchell of Birmingham started to mass-produce pens with metal nibs in 1822, and after that, the quality of steel nibs improved enough so that dip pens with metal nibs came into general use.[14] Deliciae physico-mathematicae, 1636 The earliest historical record of a pen with a reservoir dates back to the 10th century AD. In 953, Ma'ād al-Mu'izz, the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib.[15] This pen may have been a fountain pen, but its mechanism remains unknown, and only one record mentioning it has been found. A later reservoir pen was developed in 1636. In his Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae (1636), German inventor Daniel Schwenter described a pen made from two quills. One quill served as a reservoir for ink inside the other quill. The ink was sealed inside the quill with cork. Ink was squeezed through a small hole to the writing point. In 1809, Bartholomew Folsch received a patent in England for a pen with an ink reservoir.[15] While a student in Paris, Romanian Petrache Poenaru invented the fountain pen, which the French Government patented in May 1827. Fountain pen patents and production then increased in the 1850s. The first patent on a ballpoint pen was issued on October 30, 1888, to John J Loud.[16] In 1938, László Bíró, a Hungarian newspaper editor, with the help of his brother George, a chemist, began to design new types of pens, including one with a tiny ball in its tip that was free to turn in a socket. As the pen moved along the paper, the ball rotated, picking up ink from the ink cartridge and leaving it on the paper. Bíró filed a British patent on June 15, 1938. In 1940 the Bíró brothers and a friend, Juan Jorge Meyne, moved to Argentina fleeing Nazi Germany. On June 10 they filed another patent, and formed "Bíró Pens of Argentina". By the summer of 1943 the first commercial models were available.[17] Erasable ballpoint pens were introduced by Papermate in 1979 when the Erasermate was put on the market. 1915 advertisement for "Vulcan" Ink Pencils Slavoljub Eduard Penkala, a naturalized Croatian engineer and inventor of Polish-Dutch origin from the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia in Austria-Hungary, became renowned for further development of the mechanical pencil (1906) - then called an "automatic pencil" - and the first solid-ink fountain pen (1907). Collaborating with an entrepreneur by the name of Edmund Moster, he started the Penkala-Moster Company and built a pen-and-pencil factory that was one of the biggest in the world at the time. This company, now called TOZ-Penkala, still exists today. "TOZ" stands for "Tvornica olovaka Zagreb", meaning "Zagreb Pencil Factory". Modern marker pens In the 1960s, the fiber or felt-tipped pen was invented by Yukio Horie of the Tokyo Stationery Company, Japan.[18] Paper Mate's Flair was among the first felt-tip pens to hit the U.S. market in the 1960s, and it has been the leader ever since. Marker pens and highlighters, both similar to felt pens, have become popular in recent times. Rollerball pens were introduced in the early 1970s. They use a mobile ball and liquid ink to produce a smoother line. Technological advances during the late 1980s and early 1990s have improved the roller ball's overall performance. A porous point pen contains a point made of some porous material such as felt or ceramic. A high quality drafting pen will usually have a ceramic tip, since this wears well and does not broaden when pressure is applied while writing. Although the invention of the typewriter and personal computer with the keyboard input method has offered another way to write, the pen is still the main means of writing.[19] Many people like to use expensive types and brands of pens, including fountain pens, and these are sometimes regarded as a status symbol.[20] Another manufacturer emerged from the depths of marketing with "Bic pens" in 1953, named Michael Bich. He introduced new ballpoint pens to the American marketplace in the 1950s, and became successful in selling his Bic pens in the 1960s when he published his campaign slogan,"Writes The First Time, Every Time!". The era of the 1940s-1960s was a competitive era for every manufacture manufacturing [pens] at this period of time. See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to pens. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Pens Wikiversity has learning resources about History of the Pen Active pen Calligraphy Counterfeit banknote detection pen Digital pen Gel pen Ink List of pen types, brands and companies Pen spinning Pencil Retractable pen Ruling pen Space Pen Stylus Technical pen Notes and references Pen. Merriam-Webster Dictionary "pen." Word Histories and Mysteries. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004. Credo Reference. Web. 13 September 2007. "How does a ballpoint pen work?". Engineering. HowStuffWorks. 1998-2007. Retrieved 2007-11-16. Schwartz, Debra A. (September 2001). "The Last Word: Just for the gel of it". Chemical Innovation. 31 (9): IBC. "Stylus - Define Stylus at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com. Egyptian reed pen Archived 2007-02-21 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved March 16, 2007. "Evolution of pen - From Reed Pen to 3Doodler - Spinfold". www.spinfold.com. April 2013. Retrieved 2017-11-30. "pen." The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather guide. Abington: Helicon, 2010. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012 The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville, Cambridge Catalogue Retrieved March 11, 2007. Arnold Wagner - Dip Pens. Retrieved March 11, 2007. 'This evening came a letter about business from Mr Coventry, and with it a silver pen to carry inke in, which is very necessary.' Diary of Samuel Pepys, 5 August 1663:http://www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1663/08/ The advertisement implies metal nibs had been in use for some years, but had not been generally accepted due to lack of flexibility and tendency to rust. It refers to 'Ivory Handles' with 'Gold Silver or Steel Pens to each', and says that 'new pens may be fitted in at pleasure', indicating that only the nibs were metal. It also claims the pens have 'well-tempered Elasticity' and that the 'Steel Points' are treated to be rustproof, rust being 'a circumstance that has been long and universally complained of in this article'."The Times". 8 June 1792: 4. He offered the patent, which had an unexpired term of 11 years, for sale together with the 'utensils peculiarly adapted to the manufacturing' of the metal pens:"The Times". 15 August 1811: 4. In 1832 a woman accused of stealing a silver pen from a London shop said in her defence that she had 'one of the common metal pens' with her:"The Times". 15 September 1832: 3. Bosworth, C. E. (Autumn 1981), "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?", Journal of Semitic Studies, XXVI (i) GB Patent No. 15630, October 30, 1888 The Ballpoint Pen Archived 2007-04-17 at the Wayback Machine, Quido Magazin. Retrieved March 11, 2007. History of Pens & Writing Instruments, About Inventors site. Retrieved March 11, 2007. "Losing touch with paper and pen". Rediff.com. 2003-05-05. Retrieved 2013-05-03. Guilfoil, John M. (August 17, 2008) The power of the pen. Boston.com External links Look up pen in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Writing Instrument Manufacturers Association vte Pens Types Active pen Ballpoint/biro Demonstrator Digital Dip Fountain Fudepen Gel Ink brush Light Marker pen Qalam Quill Rastrum Reed Rollerball Ruling Skin Stylus Technical (rapidograph) Markers Dry erase Highlighter Paint Permanent UV Parts and tools Blotting paper Ink blotter Inkwell Nib (Flex nib) Penknife Pounce Pen inks Alizarine Fountain pen India/Indian Iron gall Stark's Other Ballpoint pen drawing Ballpoint pen knife Counterfeit banknote detection pen Birmingham pen trade Pen Museum Kalamos Pen computing Penmanship Pen painting Pen spinning Retipping Related Calligraphy Cartooning Pencil Mechanical pencil Narayam List-Class article List of pen types, brands and companies Nuvola apps kmessedwords.pngWriting portalPortal-puzzle.svgPens portal Categories: PensStationeryDomestic implements Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Deutsch Español Français 한국어 Italiano Русский Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 中文 69 more Edit links This page was last edited on 26 March 2019, at 13:37 (UTC). 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Photosynthesis

process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches

light bulb

An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to such a high temperature that it glows with visible light (incandescence). The filament is protected from oxidation with a glass or fused quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or a vacuum. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is slowed by a chemical process that redeposits metal vapor onto the filament, thereby extending its life. The light bulb is supplied with electric current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support and electrical connections. Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, and work equally well on either alternating current or direct current. As a result, the incandescent bulb is widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising lighting. Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than other types of electric lighting; incandescent bulbs convert less than 5% of the energy they use into visible light,[1] with standard light bulbs averaging about 2.2%.[2] The remaining energy is converted into heat. The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb for 120 V operation is 16 lumens per watt, compared with 60 lm/W for a compact fluorescent bulb or 150 lm/W for some white LED lamps.[3] Some applications of the incandescent bulb (such as heat lamps) deliberately use the heat generated by the filament. Such applications include incubators, brooding boxes for poultry,[4] heat lights for reptile tanks,[5] infrared heating for industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy. Incandescent bulbs typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around 1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact fluorescents and 30,000 hours for lighting LEDs. Incandescent bulbs have been replaced in many applications by other types of electric light, such as fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), high-intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting diode lamps (LED). Some jurisdictions, such as the European Union, China, Canada and United States, are in the process[needs update] of phasing out the use of incandescent light bulbs while others, including Colombia,[6] Mexico, Cuba, Argentina and Brazil,[7] have prohibited them already. Contents 1 History 1.1 Early pre-commercial research 1.2 Commercialization 1.2.1 Dominance of carbon filament and vacuum 1.2.2 Revolution of the tungsten filament, inert gas, and the coiled coil 2 Efficacy, efficiency, and environmental impact 2.1 Cost of lighting 2.2 Measures to ban use 2.3 Efforts to improve efficiency 3 Construction 3.1 Gas fill 4 Manufacturing 5 Filament 5.1 Coiled coil filament 5.2 Reducing filament evaporation 5.3 Bulb blackening 5.4 Halogen lamps 5.5 Incandescent arc lamps 6 Electrical characteristics 6.1 Power 6.2 Current and resistance 7 Physical characteristics 7.1 Bulb shapes 7.1.1 Examples 7.2 Common shape codes 7.3 Lamp bases 8 Light output and lifetime 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links History In addressing the question of who invented the incandescent lamp, historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison.[8] They conclude that Edison's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of three factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve (by use of the Sprengel pump) and a high resistance that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable. Historian Thomas Hughes has attributed Edison's success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting. The lamp was a small component in his system of electric lighting, and no more critical to its effective functioning than the Edison Jumbo generator, the Edison main and feeder, and the parallel-distribution system. Other inventors with generators and incandescent lamps, and with comparable ingenuity and excellence, have long been forgotten because their creators did not preside over their introduction in a system of lighting. — Thomas P. Hughes, In Technology at the Turning Point, edited by W. B. Pickett[9][10] Timeline of the early evolution of the light bulb[11] Early pre-commercial research Original carbon-filament bulb from Thomas Edison's shop in Menlo Park In 1761 Ebenezer Kinnersley demonstrated heating a wire to incandescence.[12] In 1802, Humphry Davy used what he described as "a battery of immense size",[13] consisting of 2,000 cells housed in the basement of the Royal Institution of Great Britain,[14] to create an incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of platinum, chosen because the metal had an extremely high melting point. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years.[15] Over the first three-quarters of the 19th century, many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, and evacuated or semi-evacuated enclosures. Many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented.[16] In 1835, James Bowman Lindsay demonstrated a constant electric light at a public meeting in Dundee, Scotland. He stated that he could "read a book at a distance of one and a half feet". Lindsay, a lecturer at the Watt Institution in Dundee, Scotland, at the time, had developed a light that was not combustible, created no smoke or smell and was less expensive to produce than Davy's platinum-dependent bulb.[17] However, having perfected the device to his own satisfaction, he turned to the problem of wireless telegraphy and did not develop the electric light any further. His claims are not well documented, although he is credited in Challoner et al. with being the inventor of the "Incandescent Light Bulb".[17] In 1838, Belgian lithographer Marcellin Jobard invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament.[18] In 1840, British scientist Warren de la Rue enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a vacuum tube and passed an electric current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although a workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use. In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, with a design using platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. He also used carbon.[19][20] In 1845, American John W. Starr acquired a patent for his incandescent light bulb involving the use of carbon filaments.[21][22] He died shortly after obtaining the patent, and his invention was never produced commercially. Little else is known about him.[23] In 1851, Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on display in the museum of the Château de Blois.[a] In 1859, Moses G. Farmer built an electric incandescent light bulb using a platinum filament.[24] He later patented a light bulb which was purchased by Thomas Edison.[citation needed] Alexander Lodygin on 1951 Soviet postal stamp In 1872, Russian Alexander Lodygin invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had been consumed.[25] Later he lived in the US, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having chromium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, molybdenum and tungsten filaments,[26] and a bulb using a molybdenum filament was demonstrated at the world fair of 1900 in Paris.[27] On 24 July 1874, a Canadian patent was filed by Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans for a lamp consisting of carbon rods mounted in a nitrogen-filled glass cylinder. They were unsuccessful at commercializing their lamp, and sold rights to their patent (U.S. Patent 0,181,613) to Thomas Edison in 1879.[28][29] Heinrich Göbel in 1893 claimed he had designed the first incandescent light bulb in 1854, with a thin carbonized bamboo filament of high resistance, platinum lead-in wires in an all-glass envelope, and a high vacuum. Judges of four courts raised doubts about the alleged Göbel anticipation, but there was never a decision in a final hearing due to the expiry date of Edison's patent. A research work published 2007 concluded that the story of the Göbel lamps in the 1850s is a legend.[30] Commercialization Dominance of carbon filament and vacuum Carbon filament lamps, showing darkening of bulb Sir Joseph Wilson Swan Joseph Swan (1828-1914) was a British physicist and chemist. In 1850, he began working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient source of light. By the mid-1870s better pumps became available, and Swan returned to his experiments.[31] Historical plaque at Underhill, the first house to be lit by electric lights With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880.[32][dubious - discuss] On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne on 3 February 1879.[33] These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead-in wires. This bulb lasted about 40 hours.[33] Swan then turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce 'parchmentised thread' in the early 1880s and obtained British Patent 4933 that same year.[32] From this year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house, Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb and also the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectric power. In 1878 the home of Lord Armstrong at Cragside was also among the first houses to be lit by electricity. In the early 1880s he had started his company.[34] In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity.[35] The first street in the world to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. It was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879.[36][37] Edison carbon filament lamps, early 1880s Thomas Alva Edison Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement In Electric Lights" on 14 October 1878.[38] After many experiments, first with carbon in the early 1880s and then with platinum and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament.[39] The first successful test was on 22 October 1879,[40][41] and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected ... to platina contact wires."[42] Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways,"[42] Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours.[43] In 1880, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company steamer, Columbia, became the first application for Edison's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to use a dynamo).[44][45][46] Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started Electro-Dynamic Light Company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer.[47][48] Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized.[47][48][49] This company didn't make their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880 at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the Columbia. Hiram S. Maxim was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company.[50] Lewis Latimer, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat-treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M" shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons", an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company.[51] Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.[52] In Britain, the Edison and Swan companies merged into the Edison and Swan United Electric Company (later known as Ediswan, and ultimately incorporated into Thorn Lighting Ltd). Edison was initially against this combination, but after Swan sued him and won, Edison was eventually forced to cooperate, and the merger was made. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan's interest in the company. Swan sold his US patent rights to the Brush Electric Company in June 1882. U.S. Patent 0,223,898 by Thomas Edison for an improved electric lamp, 27 January 1880 The United States Patent Office gave a ruling 8 October 1883, that Edison's patents were based on the prior art of William Sawyer and were invalid. Litigation continued for a number of years. Eventually on 6 October 1889, a judge ruled that Edison's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance" was valid.[53] In 1896 Italian inventor Arturo Malignani (1865-1939) patented an evacuation method for mass production, which allowed obtaining economic bulbs lasting 800 hours. The patent was acquired by Edison in 1898.[31] In 1897, German physicist and chemist Walther Nernst developed the Nernst lamp, a form of incandescent lamp that used a ceramic globar and did not require enclosure in a vacuum or inert gas.[54][55] Twice as efficient as carbon filament lamps, Nernst lamps were briefly popular until overtaken by lamps using metal filaments. Revolution of the tungsten filament, inert gas, and the coiled coil Hanaman (left) and Dr. Just (right), the inventors of the tungsten bulbs Hungarian advertising of the Tungsram-bulb from 1906. This was the first light bulb that used a filament made from tungsten instead of carbon. The inscription reads: wire lamp with a drawn wire - indestructible. Spectrum of an incandescent lamp at 2200K, showing most of its emission as invisible infrared light. On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a tungsten filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament.[31] Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the Hungarian company Tungsram in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram-bulbs in many European countries.[56] Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen slows down the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater efficacy with less reduction in filament life.[57] In 1906, William D. Coolidge developed a method of making "ductile tungsten" from sintered tungsten which could be made into filaments while working for General Electric Company. By 1911 General Electric began selling incandescent light bulbs with ductile tungsten wire. In 1913, Irving Langmuir found that filling a lamp with inert gas instead of a vacuum resulted in twice the luminous efficacy and reduction of bulb blackening. In 1917, Burnie Lee Benbow was granted a patent for inventing the coiled coil filament.[58] In 1921, Junichi Miura created the first double-coil bulb using a coiled coil tungsten filament while working for Hakunetsusha (a predecessor of Toshiba). At the time, machinery to mass-produce coiled coil filaments did not exist. Hakunetsusha developed a method to mass-produce coiled coil filaments by 1936.[59] Between 1924 and the outbreak of the Second World War, the Phoebus cartel attempted to fix prices and sales quotas for bulb manufacturers outside of North America. In 1925, Marvin Pipkin, an American chemist, patented a process for frosting the inside of lamp bulbs without weakening them, and in 1947, he patented a process for coating the inside of lamps with silica. In 1930, Hungarian Imre Bródy filled lamps with krypton gas rather than argon, and designed a process to obtain krypton from air. Production of krypton filled lamps based on his invention started at Ajka in 1937, in a factory co-designed by Polányi and Hungarian-born physicist Egon Orowan.[60] By 1964, improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty, compared with the cost at introduction of Edison's lighting system.[61] Consumption of incandescent light bulbs grew rapidly in the US. In 1885, an estimated 300,000 general lighting service lamps were sold, all with carbon filaments. When tungsten filaments were introduced, about 50 million lamp sockets existed in the US. In 1914, 88.5 million lamps were used, (only 15% with carbon filaments), and by 1945, annual sales of lamps were 795 million (more than 5 lamps per person per year).[62] Efficacy, efficiency, and environmental impact Xenon halogen lamp with an E27 base, which can replace a non-halogen bulb Of the power consumed by typical incandescent light bulbs, 95% or more is converted into heat rather than visible light.[1] Other electrical light sources are more effective. Luminous efficacy of a light source may be defined in two ways. The radiant luminous efficacy (LER) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power radiated over all wavelengths. The source luminous efficacy (LES) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power input to the source, such as a lamp.[63] Visible light is measured in lumens, a unit which is defined in part by the differing sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light. Not all wavelengths of visible electromagnetic energy are equally effective at stimulating the human eye; the luminous efficacy of radiant energy (LER) is a measure of how well the distribution of energy matches the perception of the eye. The units of luminous efficacy are "lumens per watt" (lpw). The maximum LER possible is 683 lm/W for monochromatic green light at 555 nanometers wavelength, the peak sensitivity of the human eye. The luminous efficiency is defined as the ratio of the luminous efficacy to the theoretical maximum luminous efficacy of 683 lpw, and, as for luminous efficacy, is of two types, radiant luminous efficiency (LFR) and source luminous efficacy (LFS).[64][65] The chart below lists values of overall luminous efficacy and efficiency for several types of general service, 120-volt, 1000-hour lifespan incandescent bulb, and several idealized light sources. The values for the incandescent bulbs are source efficiencies and efficacies. The values for the ideal sources are radiant efficiencies and efficacies. A similar chart in the article on luminous efficacy compares a broader array of light sources to one another. Type Overall luminous efficiency Overall luminous efficacy (lm/W) 40 W tungsten incandescent 1.9% 12.6[1] 60 W tungsten incandescent 2.1% 14.5[1] 100 W tungsten incandescent 2.6% 17.5[1] glass halogen 2.3% 16 quartz halogen 3.5% 24 photographic and projection lamps with very high filament temperatures and short lifetimes 5.1% 35[66] ideal black-body radiator at 4000 K (or a class K star like Arcturus) 7.0% 47.5 ideal black-body radiator at 7000 K (or a class F star like Procyon) 14% 95 ideal monochromatic 555 nm (green) source 100% 683[b] The spectrum emitted by a blackbody radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye. Most of the radiation is not in the range of wavelengths to which the eye is sensitive. Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain solid - below 3,695 K (3,422 °C; 6,191 °F). Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around 6,300 °C (6,600 K; 11,400 °F). Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficacy (LER) is 95 lumens per watt."[66] No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun's surface. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy (LER) is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.[61] Although inefficient, incandescent light bulbs have an advantage in applications where accurate color reproduction is important, since the continuous blackbody spectrum emitted from an incandescent light-bulb filament yields near-perfect color rendition, with a color rendering index of 100 (the best possible).[67] White-balancing is still required to avoid too "warm" or "cool" colors, but this is a simple process that requires only the color temperature in kelvins as input for modern, digital visual reproduction equipment such as video or still cameras unless it is completely automated. The color-rendering performance of incandescent lights cannot be matched by LEDs or fluorescent lights, although they can offer satisfactory performance for non-critical applications such as home lighting.[68][69] White-balancing such lights is therefore more complicated, requiring additional adjustments to reduce for example green-magenta color casts, and even when properly white-balanced, the color reproduction will not be perfect. Thermal image of an incandescent bulb. 71-347 °F = 22-175 °C. Spectral power distribution of a 25 W incandescent light bulb. For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb produces more heat (and thus consumes more power) than a fluorescent lamp. In buildings where air conditioning is used, incandescent lamps' heat output increases load on the air conditioning system.[70] While heat from lights will reduce the need for running a building's heating system, in general a heating system can provide the same amount of heat at a lower cost than incandescent lights. Halogen incandescent lamps have higher efficacy, which will allow a halogen light to use less power to produce the same amount of light compared to a non-halogen incandescent light. Halogen lights produce a more constant light-output over time, without much dimming.[71] There are many non-incandescent light sources, such as the fluorescent lamp, high-intensity discharge lamps and LED lamps, which have higher luminous efficiency, and some have been designed to be retrofitted in fixtures for incandescent lights. These devices produce light by luminescence. These lamps produce discrete spectral lines and do not have the broad "tail" of invisible infrared emissions. By careful selection of which electron energy level transitions are used, and fluorescent coatings which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different color temperatures of white light. Due to the discrete spectral lines rather than a continuous spectrum, the light is not ideal for applications such as photography and cinematography.[68][69] Cost of lighting See also: Architectural lighting design The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent, emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building's air conditioning system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted,[72] although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.[73] Measures to ban use Main article: Phase-out of incandescent light bulbs Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as CFLs and LED lamps, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. In the Europe the EC has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO2 emission reductions of 15 million tonnes.[74] In the US, federal law has scheduled the most common incandescent light bulbs to be phased out by 2014, to be replaced with more energy-efficient light bulbs.[75] Traditional incandescent light bulbs were phased out in Australia in November 2009.[76] Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps.[77] Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production.[78] LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost effectiveness and robustness.[79] Efforts to improve efficiency Some research has been carried out to improve the efficacy of commercial incandescent lamps. In 2007, the consumer lighting division of General Electric announced a "high efficiency incandescent" (HEI) lamp project, which they claimed would ultimately be as much as four times more efficient than current incandescents, although their initial production goal was to be approximately twice as efficient.[80][81] The HEI program was terminated in 2008 due to slow progress.[82][83] US Department of Energy research at Sandia National Laboratories initially indicated the potential for dramatically improved efficiency from a photonic lattice filament.[80] However, later work indicated that initially promising results were in error.[84] Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency, new "hybrid" incandescent bulbs have been introduced by Philips. The "Halogena Energy Saver" incandescents can produce about 23 lm/W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which it can be re-emitted as visible light.[77] This concept was pioneered by Duro-Test in 1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm/W.[85][86] More advanced reflectors based on interference filters or photonic crystals can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm/W (40% of the maximum efficacy possible).[87] Laboratory proof-of-concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm/W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.[87][88] Construction This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Incandescent light bulb" - news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires. An electric current heats the filament to typically 2,000 to 3,300 K (3,140 to 5,480 °F), well below tungsten's melting point of 3,695 K (6,191 °F). Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn. The heated filament emits light that approximates a continuous spectrum. The useful part of the emitted energy is visible light, but most energy is given off as heat in the near-infrared wavelengths. Three-way light bulbs have two filaments and three conducting contacts in their bases. The filaments share a common ground, and can be lit separately or together. Common wattages include 30-70-100, 50-100-150, and 100-200-300, with the first two numbers referring to the individual filaments, and the third giving the combined wattage. Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. The coated glass bulbs have a white powdery substance on the inside called kaolin. Kaolin, or kaolinite, is a white, chalky clay in a very fine powder form, that is blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. It diffuses the light emitted from the filament, producing a more gentle and evenly distributed light. Manufacturers may add pigments to the kaolin to adjust the characteristics of the final light emitted from the bulb. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs", Christmas tree lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by coloring the glass with a dopant; which is often a metal like cobalt (blue) or chromium (green).[89] Neodymium-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural-appearing light. Incandescent light bulb.svg Outline of Glass bulb Low pressure inert gas (argon, nitrogen, krypton, xenon) Tungsten filament Contact wire (goes out of stem) Contact wire (goes into stem) Support wires (one end embedded in stem; conduct no current) Stem (glass mount) Contact wire (goes out of stem) Cap (sleeve) Insulation (vitrite) Electrical contact Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used. Large lamps may have a screw base (one or more contacts at the tip, one at the shell) or a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base, shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support). Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts. The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between 200 and 260 °C (392 and 500 °F). Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have envelopes made of hard glass or fused quartz.[61] Further information: Lightbulb socket Gas fill Most modern bulbs are filled with an inert gas to reduce evaporation of the filament and prevent its oxidation. The gas is at a pressure of about 70 kPa (0.7 atm).[90] The role of the gas is to prevent evaporation of the filament, but the fill must be chosen carefully to avoid introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament,[citation needed] reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). On the other hand, the presence of the gas leads to heat loss from the filament—and therefore efficiency loss due to reduced incandescence—by heat conduction and heat convection. Early lamps, and some small modern lamps used only a vacuum to protect the filament from oxygen. The vacuum increases evaporation of the filament but eliminates two modes of heat loss. The most commonly used fills are:[91] Vacuum, used in small lamps. Provides best thermal insulation of the filament but does not protect against its evaporation. Used also in larger lamps where the outer bulb surface temperature has to be limited. Argon (93%) and nitrogen (7%), where argon is used for its inertness, low thermal conductivity and low cost, and the nitrogen is added to increase the breakdown voltage and prevent arcing between parts of the filament[90] Nitrogen, used in some higher-power lamps, e.g. projection lamps, and where higher breakdown voltage is needed due to proximity of filament parts or lead-in wires Krypton, which is more advantageous than argon due to its higher atomic weight and lower thermal conductivity (which also allows use of smaller bulbs), but its use is hindered by much higher cost, confining it mostly to smaller-size bulbs. Krypton mixed with xenon, where xenon improves the gas properties further due to its higher atomic weight. Its use is however limited by its very high cost. The improvements by using xenon are modest in comparison to its cost. Hydrogen, in special flashing lamps where rapid filament cooling is required; its high thermal conductivity is exploited here. The gas fill must be free of traces of water. In the presence of the hot filament, water reacts with tungsten forming tungsten trioxide and atomic hydrogen. The oxide deposits on the bulb inner surface and reacts with hydrogen, decomposing to metallic tungsten and water. Water then cycles back to the filament. This greatly accelerates the bulb blackening, in comparison with evaporation-only. The gas layer close to the filament (called the Langmuir layer) is stagnant, with heat transfer occurring only by conduction. Only at some distance does convection occur to carry heat to the bulb's envelope. The orientation of the filament influences efficiency. Gas flow parallel to the filament, e.g., a vertically oriented bulb with vertical (or axial) filament, reduces convective losses. The efficiency of the lamp increases with a larger filament diameter. Thin-filament, low-power bulbs benefit less from a fill gas, so are often only evacuated. Early lightbulbs with carbon filaments also used carbon monoxide, nitrogen, or mercury vapor. However, carbon filaments operate at lower temperatures than tungsten ones, so the effect of the fill gas was not significant as the heat losses offset any benefits. Manufacturing The 1902 tantalum filament light bulb was the first one to have a metal filament. This one is from 1908. Early bulbs were laboriously assembled by hand. After automatic machinery was developed, the cost of bulbs fell. Until 1910, when Libbey's Westlake machine went into production, bulbs were generally produced by a team of three workers (two gatherers and a master gaffer) blowing the bulbs into wooden or cast-iron molds, coated with a paste.[92] Around 150 bulbs per hour were produced by the hand-blowing process in the 1880s at Corning Glass Works.[92] The Westlake machine, developed by Libbey Glass, was based on an adaptation of the Owens-Libbey bottle-blowing machine. Corning Glass Works soon began developing competing automated bulb-blowing machines, the first of which to be used in production was the E-Machine.[92] Corning continued developing automated bulb-production machines, installing the Ribbon Machine in 1926 in its Wellsboro, Pennsylvania factory.[93] The Ribbon Machine surpassed any previous attempts to automate bulb production and was used to produce incandescent bulbs into the 21st century. The inventor, William Woods, along with his colleague at Corning Glass Works, David E. Gray, had created a machine that by 1939 was turning out 1,000 bulbs per minute.[92] The Ribbon Machine works by passing a continuous ribbon of glass along a conveyor belt, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs or envelopes are created. A typical machine of this sort can produce anywhere from 50,000 to 120,000 bulbs per hour, depending on the size of the bulb.[94][95] By the 1970s, 15 ribbon machines installed in factories around the world produced the entire supply of incandescent bulbs.[96] The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is then fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested. The 2016 closing of Osram-Sylvania's Wellsboro, Pennsylvania plant meant that one of the last remaining ribbon machines in the United States was shut down.[96] Filament The first successful light bulb filaments were made of carbon (from carbonized paper or bamboo). Early carbon filaments had a negative temperature coefficient of resistance—as they got hotter, their electrical resistance decreased. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further. In the "flashing" process, carbon filaments were heated by current passing through them while in an evacuated vessel containing hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline). The carbon deposited on the filament by this treatment improved the uniformity and strength of filaments as well as their efficiency. A metallized or "graphitized" filament was first heated in a high-temperature oven before flashing and lamp assembly. This transformed the carbon into graphite, which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. This also changed the filament to have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic conductor, and helped stabilize the lamp's power consumption, temperature and light output against minor variations in supply voltage. In 1902, the Siemens company developed a tantalum lamp filament. These lamps were more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments and could operate at higher temperatures. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament had the property of gradually shortening in use; the filaments were installed with large loops that tightened in use. This made lamps in use for several hundred hours quite fragile.[97] Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.[98] From 1898 to around 1905, osmium was also used as a lamp filament in Europe, and the metal was so expensive that used broken lamps could be returned for partial credit.[99] It could not be made for 110 V or 220 V so several lamps were wired in series for use on standard voltage circuits. File:Light-Bulb-Filament-engineerguy.ogv How a tungsten filament is made In 1904, the tungsten filament was developed by Croatian inventors Franjo Hanaman and Alexander Just.[100] Tungsten metal was initially not available in a form that allowed it to be drawn into fine wires. Filaments made from sintered tungsten powder were quite fragile. By 1910, a process was developed by William D. Coolidge at General Electric for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering, swaging, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping" treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments.[101] Coiled coil filament To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a 'coiled coil'. Light bulbs using coiled coil filaments are sometimes referred to as 'double-coil bulbs'. For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 22.8 inches (580 mm),[61] and the filament diameter is 0.0018 inches (0.046 mm). The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light-emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source, while reducing the evaporation so that the filament will last longer than a straight filament at the same temperature. There are several different shapes of filament used in lamps, with differing characteristics. Manufacturers designate the types with codes such as C-6, CC-6, C-2V, CC-2V, C-8, CC-88, C-2F, CC-2F, C-Bar, C-Bar-6, C-8I, C-2R, CC-2R, and Axial. Filament of a 200-watt incandescent lightbulb highly magnified Filament of a burnt-out 50-watt incandescent lightbulb in an SEM in stereoscopic mode, presented as an anaglyph image.3d glasses red cyan.svg 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly. Filament of a 50-watt incandescent lightbulb in an SEM in stereoscopic mode, presented as an anaglyph image.3d glasses red cyan.svg 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly. Electrical filaments are also used in hot cathodes of fluorescent lamps and vacuum tubes as a source of electrons or in vacuum tubes to heat an electron-emitting electrode. Reducing filament evaporation One of the problems of the standard electric light bulb is filament notching due to evaporation of the filament. Small variations in resistivity along the filament cause "hot spots" to form at points of higher resistivity;[62] a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life.[61] These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, which increases the resistance at that point—this creates a positive feedback that ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament. Irving Langmuir found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly argon and some nitrogen,[102] or sometimes krypton.[103] Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and rhenium can be used to counteract the effect.[104][105] Since a filament breaking in a gas-filled bulb can form an electric arc, which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead-in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as fuses built into the light bulb.[106] More nitrogen is used in higher-voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing. While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gasses have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight is higher and also the cross sectional area is higher. Xenon gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.[107] During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of several hundred to 2,000 hours for lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long-life general service lamps have lower efficiency but are used where the cost of changing the lamp is high compared to the value of energy used. If a light bulb envelope leaks, the hot tungsten filament reacts with air, yielding an aerosol of brown tungsten nitride, brown tungsten dioxide, violet-blue tungsten pentoxide, and yellow tungsten trioxide that then deposits on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior. Bulb blackening In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening.[108] Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of the Edison effect, thermionic emission and invention of the vacuum tube. A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly affect lamp darkening. Water vapor dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this water cycle.[62] The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening.[61] Small amounts of substances such as zirconium are placed within the lamp as a getter to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation. Some old, high-powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.[109] Halogen lamps Close-up of a tungsten filament inside a halogen lamp. The two ring-shaped structures left and right are filament supports. Main article: Halogen lamp The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space. Fiber-optic lamps for optical microscopy is one typical application. Incandescent arc lamps A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments such as microscopes. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an arc lamp but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and xenon arc lamps.[110][111][112] Electrical characteristics Comparison of efficacy by power 120 volt lamps[113] 230 volt lamps[114] Power (W) Output (lm) Efficacy (lm/W) Output (lm) Efficacy (lm/W) 5 25 5 15 110 7.3 25 200 8.0 230 9.2 40 500 12.5 430 10.8 60 850 14.2 730 12.2 75 1,200 16.0 100 1,700 17.0 1,380 13.8 150 2,850 19.0 2,220 14.8 200 3,900 19.5 3,150 15.8 300 6,200 20.7 5,000 16.7 500 8,400 16.8 Power Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a power factor of 1. This means the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt-amperes) are equal. Incandescent light bulbs are usually marketed according to the electrical power consumed. This is measured in watts and depends mainly on the resistance of the filament, which in turn depends mainly on the filament's length, thickness, and material. For two bulbs of the same voltage, type, color, and clarity, the higher-powered bulb gives more light. The table shows the approximate typical output, in lumens, of standard incandescent light bulbs at various powers. Light output of a 230 V version is usually slightly less than that of a 120 V version. The lower current (higher voltage) filament is thinner and has to be operated at a slightly lower temperature for same life expectancy, and that reduces energy efficiency.[115] The lumen values for "soft white" bulbs will generally be slightly lower than for clear bulbs at the same power. Current and resistance The actual resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the hot-filament resistance when the lamp is operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of 144 ohms when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms).[61][c] Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase-control TRIAC dimmers can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-watt, 120-volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.[116] Physical characteristics Bulb shapes Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes. Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes. The names of the shapes vary somewhat from region to regions. Many of these shapes have a designation consisting of one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38. The letters represent the shape of the bulb. The numbers represent the maximum diameter, either in ​1⁄8 of an inch, or in millimeters, depending on the shape and the region. For example, 63 mm reflectors are designated R63, but in the US, they are known as R20 (2.5 in).[117] However, in both regions, a PAR38 reflector is known as PAR38.[citation needed] ANSI C79.1-2002, IS 14897:2000[118] and JIS C 7710:1988[119] cover a common terminology for bulb shapes. Examples description metric imperial details "standard" lightbulb A60 E26 A19 E26 ⌀60 mm (~⌀19/8") A series bulb, ⌀26 mm Edison screw[d] candle-flame bulb CA35 E12 CA11 E12 ⌀35 mm (~⌀11/8") candle-flame shape, ⌀12 mm Edison screw[d] flood light BR95 E26 BR30 E26 ⌀95 mm (~⌀30/8") flood light, ⌀26 mm Edison screw[d] halogen track-light bulb MR50 GU5.3 MR16 GU5.3 ⌀50 mm (~⌀16/8") multifaceted reflector, 5.33 mm-spaced 12 V bi-pin connector Common shape codes General Service Light emitted in (nearly) all directions. Available either clear or frosted. Types: General (A), Mushroom, elliptical (E), sign (S), tubular (T) 120 V sizes: A17, 19 and 21 230 V sizes: A55 and 60[e] High Wattage General Service Lamps greater than 200 watts. Types: Pear-shaped (PS) Decorative lamps used in chandeliers, etc. Smaller candle-sized bulbs may use a smaller socket. Types: candle (B), twisted candle, bent-tip candle (CA & BA), flame (F), globe (G), lantern chimney (H), fancy round (P) 230 V sizes: P45, G95 Reflector (R) Reflective coating inside the bulb directs light forward. Flood types (FL) spread light. Spot types (SP) concentrate the light. Reflector (R) bulbs put approximately double the amount of light (foot-candles) on the front central area as General Service (A) of same wattage. Types: Standard reflector (R), bulged reflector (BR), elliptical reflector (ER), crown-silvered 120 V sizes: R16, 20, 25 and 30 230 V sizes: R50, 63, 80 and 95[e] Parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) Parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) bulbs control light more precisely. They produce about four times the concentrated light intensity of general service (A), and are used in recessed and track lighting. Weatherproof casings are available for outdoor spot and flood fixtures. 120 V sizes: PAR 16, 20, 30, 38, 56 and 64 230 V sizes: PAR 16, 20, 30, 38, 56 and 64 Available in numerous spot and flood beam spreads. Like all light bulbs, the number represents the diameter of the bulb in ​1⁄8 of an inch. Therefore, a PAR 16 is 2 in in diameter, a PAR 20 is 2.5 in in diameter, PAR 30 is 3.75 in and a PAR 38 is 4.75 in in diameter. A package of four 60 watt light bulbs Multifaceted reflector (MR) Multifaceted reflector bulbs are usually smaller in size and run at a lower voltage, often 12 V. Left to right: MR16 with GU10 base, MR16 with GU5.3 base, MR11 with GU4 or GZ4 base HIR/IRC "HIR" is a GE designation for a lamp with an infrared reflective coating. Since less heat escapes, the filament burns hotter and more efficiently.[120] The Osram designation for a similar coating is "IRC".[121] Lamp bases Main article: Lightbulb sockets 40-watt light bulbs with standard E10, E14 and E27 Edison screw base The double-contact bayonet cap on an incandescent bulb Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp, and can be directly soldered to a printed circuit board for connections. Some reflector-type lamps include screw terminals for connection of wires. Most lamps have metal bases that fit in a socket to support the lamp and conduct current to the filament wires. In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases. General Electric introduced standard base sizes for tungsten incandescent lamps under the Mazda trademark in 1909. This standard was soon adopted across the US, and the Mazda name was used by many manufacturers under license through 1945. Today most incandescent lamps for general lighting service use an Edison screw in candelabra, intermediate, or standard or mogul sizes, or double contact bayonet base. Technical standards for lamp bases include ANSI standard C81.67 and IEC standard 60061-1 for common commercial lamp sizes, to ensure interchangeablitity between different manufacturer's products. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in automotive lamps to resist loosening due to vibration. A bipin base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps.[122] Lamp bases may be secured to the bulb with a cement, or by mechanical crimping to indentations molded into the glass bulb. Miniature lamps used for some automotive lamps or decorative lamps have wedge bases that have a partial plastic or even completely glass base. In this case, the wires wrap around to the outside of the bulb, where they press against the contacts in the socket. Miniature Christmas bulbs use a plastic wedge base as well. Lamps intended for use in optical systems such as film projectors, microscope illuminators, or stage lighting instruments have bases with alignment features so that the filament is positioned accurately within the optical system. A screw-base lamp may have a random orientation of the filament when the lamp is installed in the socket. Light output and lifetime See also: Lamp rerating Incandescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the supply voltage. These characteristics are of great practical and economic importance. For a supply voltage V near the rated voltage of the lamp: Light output is approximately proportional to V 3.4 Power consumption is approximately proportional to V 1.6 Lifetime is approximately proportional to V −16 Color temperature is approximately proportional to V 0.42[123] This means that a 5% reduction in operating voltage will more than double the life of the bulb, at the expense of reducing its light output by about 16%. This may be a very acceptable trade off for a light bulb that is in a difficult-to-access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings). Long-life bulbs take advantage of this trade-off. Since the value of the electric power they consume is much more than the value of the lamp, general service lamps emphasize efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps.[61] Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 a cartel agreed to limit life to 1000 hours.[124] When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.[125] The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around rated conditions, but they do indicate that a lamp operated at much lower than rated voltage could last for hundreds of times longer than at rated conditions, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The "Centennial Light" is a light bulb that is accepted by the Guinness Book of World Records as having been burning almost continuously at a fire station in Livermore, California, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40-watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an opera house where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.[126] In flood lamps used for photographic lighting, the tradeoff is made in the other direction. Compared to general-service bulbs, for the same power, these bulbs produce far more light, and (more importantly) light at a higher color temperature, at the expense of greatly reduced life (which may be as short as two hours for a type P1 lamp). The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3,695 K (6,191 °F). A 50-hour-life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 °C (122 °F) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp.[61] Lamps designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A lamp with the same rated lifetime but designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and a similar lamp designed for 30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt.[61] Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates. The wires used to support the filament make it mechanically stronger, but remove heat, creating another tradeoff between efficiency and long life. Many general-service 120-volt lamps use no additional support wires, but lamps designed for "rough service" or "vibration service" may have as many as five. Low-voltage lamps have filaments made of heavier wire and do not require additional support wires. Very low voltages are inefficient since the lead wires would conduct too much heat away from the filament, so the practical lower limit for incandescent lamps is 1.5 volts. Very long filaments for high voltages are fragile, and lamp bases become more difficult to insulate, so lamps for illumination are not made with rated voltages over 300 volts.[61] Some infrared heating elements are made for higher voltages, but these use tubular bulbs with widely separated terminals. The Centennial Light is the longest-lasting light bulb in the world. Various lighting spectra as viewed in a diffraction grating. Upper left: fluorescent lamp, upper right: incandescent bulb, lower left: white LED, lower right: candle flame. See also icon Energy portal icon Physics portal Flash (photography) Lampshade Light tube Lightbulb jokes List of light sources Longest-lasting light bulbs Over-illumination Photometry (optics) Spectrometer Notes Many of the above lamps are illustrated and described in Houston, Edwin J. & Kennely, A. E. (1896). Electric Incandescent Lighting. New York: The W. J. Johnston Company. pp. 18-42 - via Internet Archive. See luminosity function Edison's research team was aware of the large negative temperature coefficient of resistance of possible lamp filament materials and worked extensively during the period 1878-1879 on devising an automatic regulator or ballast to stabilize current. It wasn't until 1879 that it was realized a self-limiting lamp could be built. See Friedel, Robert & Israel, Paul (2010). Edison's Electric Light: The Art of Invention (Revised ed.). The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 29-31. ISBN 978-0-8018-9482-4. Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2018. Instead of a 26 mm E26 screw used for 110 V, European 230 V light bulbs use a 27 mm (E27) screw. Likewise, European candle-flame bulbs use E14 instead of E12. See also Edison screw types. Size measured in millimeters. See also A-series light bulb. References Keefe, T.J. (2007). "The Nature of Light". Archived from the original on 2012-04-23. Retrieved 2007-11-05. Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani, Towards an electricity-powered world. In: Energy and Environmental Science 4, (2011), 3193-3222, doi:10.1039/c1ee01249e. Vincenzo Balzani, Giacomo Bergamini, Paola Ceroni, Light: A Very Peculiar Reactant and Product. In: Angewandte Chemie International Edition 54, Issue 39, (2015), 11320-11337, doi:10.1002/anie.201502325. "Storey's guide to raising chickens" Archived 28 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine Damerow, Gail. Storey Publishing, LLC; 2nd edition (12 January 1995), ISBN 978-1-58017-325-4. page 221. Retrieved 10 November 2009. "277 Secrets Your Snake and Lizard Wants you to Know Unusual and useful Information for Snake Owners & Snake Lovers" Archived 29 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine Cooper,Paulette. Ten Speed Press (1 March 2004), ISBN 978-1-58008-035-4. Page 161. Retrieved 10 November 2009. "El peligro de los bombillos ahorradores". El Espectador. Archived from the original on 14 November 2014. Retrieved 22 October 2014. "Informe técnico preliminar - Estándar mínimo de eficiencia energética" (PDF). Ministry of Energy - Chile. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2014. Friedel & Israel (

miracle berry

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigationJump to search Synsepalum dulcificum MiracleBerry.jpg Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Asterids Order: Ericales Family: Sapotaceae Genus: Synsepalum Species: S. dulcificum The miracle fruit is the berry of Synsepalum dulcificum, a plant from West Africa. The chemical produced by the fruit makes other food taste sweet. This chemical is called miraculin. Miraculin is a glycoprotein molecule, with some trailing carbohydrate chains.[1] The berry has a low sugar content and a mildly sweet taste.[2] When the fruit is eaten, miraculin binds to the tongue's taste buds, causing sour foods to taste sweet. At neutral pH, miraculin binds and blocks the receptors, but at low pH (after eating sour food) miraculin binds protons and activates the sweet receptors. This is what causes the sweet taste.[3] This effect lasts until the protein is washed away by saliva (up to about 60 minutes).[4] Miraculin is now being produced by transgenic tomato plants.[5][6] References McCurry, Justin (2005-11-25). "Miracle berry lets Japanese dieters get sweet from sour". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-05-28. The berries contain miraculin, a rogue glycoprotein that tricks the tongue's taste-bud receptors into believing a sour food is actually sweet. People in parts of west Africa have been using the berries to sweeten sour food and drink for centuries, but it is only recently that the global food industry has cottoned on. Levin, Rachel B. (2009). "Ancient berry, modern miracle: the sweet benefits of miracle fruit". thefoodpaper.com. Retrieved 2009-08-20. Koizumi, A. et al (2011). "Human sweet taste receptor mediates acid-induced sweetness of miraculin". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (40): 16819-16824. doi:10.1073/pnas.1016644108. ISSN 0027-8424. Park, Madison (March 25, 2009). "Miracle fruit turns sour things sweet". CNN. Retrieved 2009-03-25. Hirai, Tadayoshi et al (2010). "Production of recombinant Miraculin using transgenic tomatoes in a closed cultivation system". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58 (10): 6096-6101. doi:10.1021/jf100414v. ISSN 0021-8561. Sun, Hyeon-Jin et al (2007). "Genetically stable expression of functional miraculin, a new type of alternative sweetener, in transgenic tomato plants". Plant Biotechnology Journal 5 (6): 768-777. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7652.2007.00283.x. ISSN 1467-7644.

Guavas

Guavas are plants in the genus Psidium of the family Myrtaceae. There are about 100 species of tropical shrubs and small trees in the genus. They are native to Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America and the northern part of South America. Now they are found in all the tropical, and in some subtropical, regions because they are edible fruits. Guava are also a kind of berry fruit on those plants. There are many kinds of guavas. The most common guava is the apple guava (Psidium guajava): it is so common that the word 'guava' usually refers to this species. Red guavas are called maroonguava. In 100 g of guava are 200 mg of vitamin C, which means that guavas have five times more vitamin C than oranges.

Figsssss

Many figs are grown for their fruit, though only the Common Fig, is grown to any amount for eating. The fig is a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds grow together to form a single mass. Depending on the type, each fruit can contain up to several hundred to several thousand seeds.[1] A fig "fruit" is derived from a special type of an arrangement of multiple flowers. In this case, it is a turned inwards, nearly closed, with many small flowers arranged on the inside. Then the actual flowers of the fig are not seen unless the fig is cut open. It is a fruit without a seen flower.[2]

black berry

The blackberry grows to about 3 m in height. It makes an edible black fruit, known by the same name