government

principles

A basic rule or standard.

privilege

A benefit enjoyed by a person out of grace or mercy. It is not owed to the person.

sit

A bill that will not be in progress or in any action but will be inactive for a particular time period.

assembly

A body of Greek male citizens who would decide laws, enact government policies, and maintain authority.

legislature

A body of elected officials that is empowered to make laws for a country.

draft

A brief, "first-step" presentation of a work to be completed.

social reform

A call for change within a country with regards to education and culture, among other things.

constituents

A citizen of a district that elects representatives to government.

dictatorship

A country with a one-party leader who is in complete control; usually one who is unfair.

The Federalist

A defense of the brand-new Constitution of the United States in a series of articles in 1787-1788.

empire

A dominating nation with extensive territories and a powerful ruler.

lottery

A form of choosing results or choosing men by the drawing of lots.

Nazism

A form of fascist government; probably the most extreme.

version

A form or variation of the original.

treaty

A formal agreement between two or more governments.

caucus

A gathering of party leaders to talk over possible candidates.

presidential

A government headed by a president, with two houses of Congress elected by the people.

democratic

A government or organized group that strives to be fair and equal to all people.

jury

A group of citizens appointed to hear and decide upon a case presented in a court of law.

political parties

A group of people organized with a governmental agenda in mind.

colony

A group of people settled in a particular area who carry the same interests.

ethnic

A group of people that share a common ancestry, nationality, or culture (including language and religious beliefs and practices).

standing army

A group of soldiers ready to do battle.

faction

A group that may not be in agreement with the general direction of the larger population.

pressure group

A group that tries to influence or sway public policy.

vassal

A man who would give protection to the lord in exchange for land.

philosopher

A person who is learned in the study of thought and conduct.

racketeer

A person who obtains money illegally, sometimes by threat of physical violence

strategy

A plan of action.

program

A political plan of action.

legislation

A proposed law. A bill that becomes a law.

Renaissance

A revival of art and learning arising between the 14th and 16th centuries.

Australian ballot

A secret ballot, originated in Australia.

checks and balances

A series of measures that keep a system from becoming too powerful or too weak.

bond slave

A servant under complete submission to his master.

government

A system of authority over a group of people.

feudalism

A system of cooperation among peoples which was basically an exchange of land for protection.

ethics

A system of moral values and good conduct.

province

A territory of a nation.

controversial

An issue that may not be agreed upon by many different sides, and causes many debates.

plank

An issue upon which the campaign may build such as civil rights, taxes, energy, or education.

warrant

An official judicial writing that authorizes a search

habeas corpus

An order to bring an arrested person to court and decide whether the imprisonment is legal. Also the right to a speedy trial. Habeas corpus is a much-admired right of American citizens. It can be considered a "defensive" mechanism that keeps a person from being held in jail indefinitely without a trial. The reference is to the full term writ of habeas corpus, which is a directive by a judge which requires the police to bring an arrested person into court. The court then makes a decision as to whether there is just cause to keep the person held as prisoner. In many countries where freedoms are limited, habeas corpus is seen as one of the pillars which make our country's freedoms so outstanding.

economic unrest

An uneasiness due to the lack of stability in the financial market.

chief of state

Another name for the chief executive; the President of the United States.

circuit courts

Any one of the 12 courts of appeal in the various federal districts throughout the United States.

patronage

Appointing individuals to political offices.

natural resources

Available goods supplied by nature; not man-made.

nationality

Belonging to a nation by virtue of birth or naturalization.

social rewards

Benefits that citizens of our society can enjoy. Awards based on achievement.

Amendment VI

"In all criminal prosecutions, *the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial*, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence." This amendment protects defendants in criminal cases and guarantees the accused that he will receive a speedy public trial by jury and gives him the rights to be informed of the accusation. An important part of this amendment includes the right to be confronted with the witnesses against them, to use compulsory process to secure witnesses, and to have the assistance of counsel.

Amendment III

"No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law." This amendment also shows the colonists' desire to eliminate the threat of any army taking advantage of the citizens. The colonists had been forced to house British soldiers in their own homes, and many of the citizens were treated poorly. For this reason, Amendment number 3 states clearly that no soldier can be housed in an American's home without the owner's consent.

Amendment V

"No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation." The Fifth Amendment requires grand jury indictments in major criminal prosecutions and keeps a person from being tried twice on the same charge or requiring that person to testify against himself. It forbids the taking of private property for public use without just compensation to the owner, and disallows the removal of life, liberty, and property without due process of law. The "due process" part of this amendment was highly important. It has been a foundation and main constitutional weapon for the protection of rights not defined in the Bill of Rights.

public opinion in a democracy

*In a democracy, what people think is important.* A decision by the government might be so unpopular that it is reversed, even though the idea was actually quite good for our country. A candidate might be popular enough to overcome moral problems in his personal life and win an election. A little-known issue becomes the talk of the nation as the television airwaves fill with discussion on the subject. Political parties know the power of public opinion! Candidates, pressure groups, and businesses are clamoring for our attention and attempting to influence our thoughts, attitudes, and actions. Discussion groups, newspapers, radio, television, magazines, motion pictures, school, and the home all help to influence our opinions. *Be critical consumers of information.* The involved citizen should not be deceived as are those who merely want to "follow the crowd." Marketers, advertisers, politicians, and others make good use of various propaganda techniques. Wise selection of information, critical analysis of differing views, and careful gathering of as many pertinent facts as possible are the best guarantees for intelligent behavior by both the voter and the government. Opinions should not be passive, but should be active. Once we have made up our minds and formed some opinions, we should act on them, whether in voting or in the editorial page of the newspaper. Opinions by themselves are of little value; it is what we do about these opinions that counts.

nomination by petition or self-announcement

*Nomination by Petition.* It is not necessary for a candidate to be supported by a political party or to be nominated at the party primary. Although they provide for the primary, most states allow prospective independent candidates to be nominated by petition and to have their names placed on the ballot in the final election. This nomination requires more signatures than is required of those who wish their name placed on the primary ballot. It is generally required that the petition for nomination be filed after the primary election, and most states prohibit candidates who were defeated in the primary from filing as independent candidates after the primary election. *Nomination by Self-Announcement.* In most towns and villages the candidates for office are put on the ballot by the simple method of self-announcement. For example, Ms. Silverton decides that she would like to serve on the town council; therefore, she makes a public announcement to this effect. She files papers with the proper officers and pays a filing fee, and her name is placed on the ballot. Many of the nonpartisan officers, such as members of the board of education, are nominated in this manner. It is used in small areas, for public service, and for nonpaying positions.

the two party system

*Political parties are more than televised gatherings.* We see a lot of balloons, banners and excitement whenever we watch a political party's convention, but there is much more to the party than just a rousing atmosphere. Serious strategy, long hours of labor, and much sacrifice goes into the formation and growth of a political party. A political party is an organized group of people who control or seek to control a government. In democratic countries, like the United States and Canada, political parties are extremely active on the national, state or provincial, and local levels. For as long as you, your parents, or grandparents can remember, we have had political parties. Our two-party system of government assures us of representation in the government and of a continued free nation. If you had been born in a country that had a one-party system, you would face the dangers of a government that could severely limit the freedoms of its citizens. Having a multiparty system helps assure that no particular party can abuse the politics and welfare of the people. Political parties are absolutely necessary to democratic governments such as ours. Most modern democracies are called representative democracies. A representative democracy is a democracy where the people elect representatives to act as their agents in making and enforcing laws. In a representative democracy, some process is needed for nominating candidates for public office and for selecting issues for public debate. Political parties perform these functions for a representative democracy. At election time, the people go to the polls and vote into office the candidates of their choice. Political parties are totally voluntary organizations and want to obtain as many members as possible. Some of these parties have rules to be obeyed and membership dues. Others have practically no rules and require no dues of their members. *Some countries have only one political party.* This type of political system is known as a dictatorship. Under a dictatorship form of government, the party controls the government. For example, in Communist nations the Communist Party is always in power. It controls very tightly who may or may not run for election. Therefore, the people have only one choice, the choice of the party. In the United States political parties are voluntary organizations of voters seeking to gain or keep control of the government in order to achieve the goals of the party. The party members select their candidates, draw up party programs, and encourage people to vote for their candidates so that their goals may be reached. The political parties in our country use the ballot box instead of revolt and guns to achieve the changes desired for our country.

how political parties formed

*Political parties are special groupings.* As powerful as the Democratic and Republican parties seem these days, it is almost incredible to us that there was a day when American politics was not ruled by one of these two organizations. Before the American Revolution, no truly organized political parties existed in America. Voting was so restricted and the power of the elected officials was so limited that there were few issues which would divide the people. There did not seem to be a real need to organize any special groups. With the crisis of the Revolutionary War, however, things changed. The first political groupings developed in the United States, and after the Constitution was written, true and permanent parties began to develop. With the writing and adopting of the Constitution came the development of the party system in the United States. Two parties came into the political forefront in America: the Federalist party and the Anti-Federalist party. The Federalists wanted a strong central government; the Anti-Federalists (or Democratic Republicans, as they were also called) wanted a weak central government. These two parties had a healthy political battle for a time and both parties appeared fairly strong. However, within the Democratic-Republican party there was a split during the "Era of Good Feelings" ( 1816- 1824 ) after the decline of the Federalist Party with the Democratic-Republicans becoming the Democratic Party. Other parties such as the Whigs and some of the Democrats unified around 1854 forming the Republican party. The Republican Party emerged and stayed in power from 1860-1932, with only two Democrats being elected President during this time. Even though the two major powers seemed to be in control through the years, the minority parties played a very important role in the political party system. They influenced several Presidential elections, from Theodore Roosevelt's Bull Moose Party of the early century to Ross Perot's United We Stand Party of recent years. Let's go back and look at the beginning of the party system.

some other parties

*The Green Party*--"The Greens/Green Party USA is part of the worldwide movement that promotes ecological wisdom, social justice, grassroots democracy and non-violence." *The Libertarian Party* --"The Libertarian way is a logically consistent approach to politics based on the moral principle of self-ownership. Each individual has the right to control his or her own body, action, speech, and property. Government's only role is to help individuals defend themselves from force and fraud." *Natural Law Party*--"The Natural Law Party stands for prevention-oriented government, conflict-free politics, and proven solutions designed to bring national life into harmony with natural law." *The New Party*--"The New Party believes that the social, economic, and political progress of the United States requires a democratic revolution in America -- the return of power to the people. Our basic purpose -- reflected both in our own governance and in our aspirations for the nation -- is to make that revolution happen. At present, in America, the people do not rule. And they must, if we and our children are to lead lives of dignity, decency, and fulfillment."

fight to protect individual freedom

*The United States did not want any abuse of the central government.* They battled for the right for independence, and were not about to let it slip away into an abuse of power that trampled on the citizens' rights. Hot debates occurred during the adoption of the Constitution, with fears expressed that the Constitution did not assure enough freedom for the individual. The group of men could remember the tyranny imposed upon them by the British government. The assembly called for a "bill of rights" that would list immunities and freedoms of the individual American. *On September 25, 1789, the First Congress of the United States proposed an important step in our country's demand the nation's freedom.* The state legislatures were presented with twelve amendments to the Constitution which would answer many questions concerning the strength of that document. The first proposed amendment had to do with the number of constituents for each Representative in Washington. It was not ratified. The second amendment concerned the compensation of Congressmen. It, too, failed ratification at the time. (However, it was finally ratified 203 years later, in 1992). Articles 3 to 12 were ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures and make up the first ten amendments of the Constitution. This list of ten is still known today as the Bill of Rights.

protecting individual freedom

*The United States did not want any abuse of the central government.* They battled for the right for independence, and were not about to let it slip away into an abuse of power that trampled on the citizens' rights. Hot debates occurred during the adoption of the Constitution, with fears expressed that the Constitution did not assure enough freedom for the individual. The group of men could remember the tyranny imposed upon them by the British government. The assembly called for a *"bill of rights" that would list immunities and freedoms of the individual American*. *On September 25, 1789, the First Congress of the United States proposed an important step in our country's demand the nation's freedom.* The state legislatures were presented with *twelve amendments* to the Constitution which would answer many questions concerning the strength of that document. The first proposed amendment had to do with the number of constituents for each Representative in Washington. It was *not ratified*. The second amendment concerned the compensation of Congressmen. It, too, *failed ratification* at the time. (However, it was finally ratified 203 years later, in 1992). Articles 3 to 12 were ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures and make up the first ten amendments of the Constitution. This list of ten is still known today as the Bill of Rights.

political parties: state committees

*The major parties also have state committees.* Both the Democratic and Republican parties have committees in each state. In most states the committee members are chosen in party primaries or at conventions. The state committees organize and manage campaigns for state offices and assist in local campaigns. They also raise money, make arrangements for primary elections, and organize the state conventions. *The chairman of the state committee is the official head of the state party.* The committee formally elects him, but the governor, a United States senator from the state, or a group of powerful local officials actually hand-picks the chairman. In most states these officials are also powerful enough to lead the party and to control the state committee. In some states, however, the committee chairman is an effective leader and controls or even chooses key state party officers. *Local organizations can stay just as busy as the national parties.* Both of the two major political parties has a county committee in most counties of the United States. Committee members are chosen by county conventions or in primaries. The county committee elects the county chairman. He maintains communication with the state party organization and, in most states, is a delegate to the state committee. County chairmen have a great patronage power, which they use to sway the votes of delegates at both state and national party conventions. Below the county committees are the city, ward, and precinct organizations. Leaders of these organizations have the closest contact with the voters. City and ward committeemen are selected in local conventions or primaries. In some states precinct committeemen or captains are also chosen in primaries. In others the county committee selects them. DO YOU KNOW YOUR PRECINCT? *The United States has approximately 150,000 election precincts.* In most of them, either one or both major parties have a precinct captain or committeeman. This official prepares the party poll book, which lists the names of the voters in his precinct and to which party, if any, they belong. He and his assistants try to make sure that all members of their party are registered to vote. *There has been a history of abuse in American politics on the local level.* In decades past, precinct captains or committeemen have performed unethical acts in order to reach their objectives. They have sought votes for their party by assisting voters and would-be voters in many ways. For example, they have helped immigrants become citizens, bailed out prisoners under arrest, found jobs for unemployed persons, and sometimes even given out charity. However, in many cities, the local party leaders and political bosses have lost the great influence they once had, while "watchdog" groups see to an election's honesty. Government welfare programs and rapid economic growth have made many voters less dependent on the help of the precinct leader. Ever-present media attention scares a lot of election wrongdoing away. Still, voters must be always aware that care should be taken at election time to see that the proper authorities are present to make voting honest.

voting is a citizen's right in america

*Voting is a privilege, not a requirement as it is in some countries.* When the founding fathers of our country met in what is now called Independence Hall in Philadelphia, they were concerned with individual freedoms. Through all of the debates, compromises, and political maneuvering, the body of delegates fought for the best way to grant American citizens certain liberties. One of the liberties which was agreed upon in those many meetings in Philadelphia was the right to vote. That voting right spread from its initial privilege to white men only, to cross gender, race, and even age lines. It is an opportunity that should not be taken lightly. Such a simple thing as voting involves many areas, from the polling places and election officers to the types of ballots used in elections. You may know the major political parties, but do you know about the secret ballot, absentee voting, contested elections, the handicap of the long ballot, the straight ticket versus the split ticket, the short ballot movement, frequency of elections and separating national and local elections? *Polling places give access to the voters of the area.* Every county, district, or city is divided into *precincts*, with a fairly equal number of voters in each. The aim is to have one polling (voting) place for every few hundred voters. The *voting place* for each precinct is usually some public building, such as the *school, police station, fire station, or library building*. In some states private homes are used as voting places; however, this procedure is often expensive. Because the county pays from $10 to $50 a day for the use of a private home, the election officials too often have rented the homes of party workers as political patronage. *Election officers maintain order and fairness at the polling place.* At every polling place are inspectors and judges who are responsible for the proper conduct of the election. *Generally 3-5 election officials chosen by an election board are at each polling place.* With the exception of a few states where one party controls the state, these officers must come from both parties. In addition to the election officials, *poll "watchers"* are at the polling places; they *are appointed and paid by the parties to keep a watchful eye on the voters and the officials.* Each county or election district has an election board whose members are *selected by the county supervisors or the district election board*. in some states these officials are appointed by the county clerk or the county court.

how a bill becomes a law

*Well, so far your Toll Booth legislation has been passed all the tests!* It has been sponsored by Senator Birchlimb, passed the subcommittee's test, been approved by the committee, and has survived the Senate vote. As with any other bill, the Toll Booth legislation now goes to the other house of Congress, which in this case would be the House of Representatives. Let's continue on with our scenario... *A House committee is now looking over the bill.* Remember, when a bill is passed by the one of the houses of Congress, it is referred to the other chamber, and it pretty much follows the same route through committee and floor action. It is up for debate, and there are some changes that the House wants to see in your bill. It looks like the House may have some changes concerning the free tolls and where the chip is to be placed on the car in your bill. Those and some other changes are going to make a strong alteration in your bill. *Since there are big changes, a conference committee is formed.* If there were only *minor changes to the bill, there would have been a simple agreement sent back to the Senate*, notifying it of the minor alterations. In any minor change by one house of Congress, the next usual step is for the legislation to go back to the first house for *concurrence*. However, whenever the other house of Congress significantly alter the bill, a conference committee must be formed to reconcile the differences between the House and Senate versions of the bill. In the case of the Toll Booth bill, the conference committee must reach an agreement or see the bill die. If at any time in the bill's stay with the conference committee the conferees are unable to reach an agreement, the legislation dies. But that does not happen with your bill. An agreement has been reached, and a conference report is prepared describing the committee members' recommendations for changes. The report goes to both the House and the Senate. Both houses must approve the conference report. *It has been hammered out; the bill has been approved.* The House vote is in your favor! Since the bill has been approved in identical form by both the House and Senate, it will be sent to the president. Senator Birchlimb tells you that this is the last step: if the president approves of the legislation and signs it, it will become a law. Or, the Senator says, *if the president does not address it and lets it sit for ten days while Congress is in session, it automatically becomes law.* There is a chance the president might oppose the bill. He has the power to veto it. And that is exactly what happens to your bill! The president did not like some parts of it and so he vetoed the whole thing. Now what happens? *Great news! The Congress passed it anyway!* Yes, if the president vetoes a bill, Congress might decide to "override the veto." It's not that easy for a bill--this requires a two-thirds roll call vote of the members who are present. Apparently enough of the members of Congress liked your bill and it passed! Congratulations! The bill will now become a law. Although many bills are introduced each year, relatively few are actually passed, especially with a presidential veto. There are many steps in the process where a bill can easily die. Even though this was a fictional account of a bill, it helped to see "first-hand" what happens when an idea is launched into the workings of Washington, D.C.

history of political parties

*Where did they come up with the Republican and Democratic party symbols?* The donkey and elephant symbols have a long heritage and a humorous history! In 1828, the Democratic hopeful Andrew Jackson was mocked by his political rivals as being stubborn and as stupid as a donkey. The political cartoonists began portraying Jackson as a donkey and the symbol stuck on him. However, after Jackson won the election, the once-mocking donkey now became a symbol of strength in the political cartoons. It grew more and more popular until it eventually became the symbol of the Democratic Party. The Republican's symbol of the elephant first appeared in 1874, drawn into political cartoons by artist Thomas Nast of the magazine Harpers Weekly. The elephant was meant to symbolize the huge Republican vote throughout the country. It, too, was accepted eagerly, and by 1904 the Republican elephant was the party's symbol. Why do they call themselves the G.O.P.? That term first came along during the election of 1896--when the Republican party captured both houses of Congress in addition to the presidency with William McKinley! That was indeed a "large" victory and a boisterous atmosphere of optimism permeated Washington, D.C. A dramatic economic upturn accompanied the Republican sweep, and a grateful American nation nicknamed the Republicans the "Grand Old Party." Practically every day you read of news about the Democratic Party and Republican Parties. But you may have never heard of the Prohibition Party, the Libertarian party or even the Bull Moose Party! These were all part of the political scene at some time in American history. Political parties have played, and will continue to play, a vital role in the American political drama. For almost as long as the Constitution has been in existence, the United States has only gone once without a competitive national two-party system. Only during the eight-year administration of George Washington was the United States without an organized, competitive two-party system in the White House. Since that time we have seen a healthy and vigorous "battle" between at least two political parties in the United States.

Pluralism

*is a form of government where the public can have input in various areas of interest of the country.* The United States, Great Britain, and Canada are all pluralistic countries. A pluralistic society guards the rights of its citizens carefully while giving the government certain powers as borne out in constitutions and other articles of conduct. *Special interest groups have an opportunity to get legislators to propose legislation, whether it be for racial, ethnic, or business reasons.* The diversity of the many peoples and their interests constantly mix into the politics of a pluralistic society so that no particular group takes over. The latter part of the 19th century saw a number of factors which set up the pluralistic flavor of the United States. The nation was no longer considered an agricultural country as much as an industrial one. Cities sprang up as immigrants poured in from Eastern Europe, Southern Europe and Asia. Within the next three decades following the Civil War, the number of cities over 10,000 in population grew by tenfold. America soon grew to become a nation of diverse cultures and backgrounds. Writer William James called it Pluralism. In his book, The Varieties of Religious Experience, James encouraged support for this new era in American diversity. Pluralism, he argued, opened thinking to new horizons of acceptance and challenge.

Mark the three statements that are TRUE. The difference between the Roman republic and the Greek democracy was that:

-In Rome, only men with money and property could vote. -In the Roman Senate, the most powerful part of the government, all senators were patricians. -In Greece all men were allowed to vote. FALSE: -In the Greek Senate, even teenagers were allowed to participate. -In the Roman government, no Greeks were allowed to serve. -In the Greek government, retired soldiers were given automatic seats in the Senate.

Select the four statements that are TRUE.

-Local governments help the citizen by creating libraries, such as in the town of Delmar, Delaware. -Public utilities include telephone and electricity supplied to the citizen. -Towns can create and maintain local parks. -The state government has the right to make and enforce laws within their home state. FALSE: -The local government has sole responsibility for licensing businesses. -Only the federal government has the right to regulate mass transportation.

To establish a government:

1. *Leadership is Needed.* Whether they want to be governed by a group of leaders or a solitary decision-maker, any group of people who would establish themselves in an orderly manner must have leadership. Any government needs a leader to whom the people can turn. There must be a stopping place in the decision-making process where the population can feel satisfied that someone is *taking responsibility*. As many organizations will say, "The buck stops here!" Who is in charge? Whether it is a monarchy, democracy, or even oligarchy, there must be *a final point of authority*. John Smith of the Jamestown settlement and Sam Houston of the Republic of Texas are fine examples of leaders who *kept a government strong and active*. 2. *Safety is a Priority.* Measures must be taken to be safe. Think of it--who would want to be part of an organization that could not assure a secure surrounding? People settling in an area want to feel safe from outside attacks. What if an enemy creeps in and tries to destroy the group? Protection might not be in the form of a standing army or a powerful navy, but any population that seeks to be independent needs to have a guarantee that the citizens could be free from damage or danger. A good government needs to organize a group that would ensure its protection. Such areas as Fort Pitt (which would later become the city of Pittsburgh) made safety one of their first priorities. 3. *Production and Sustenance Should be Provided Daily.* Food is a necessary contribution to the population. People need to be fed, and they must be given the opportunity to take care of themselves and their families. Does your government have farming in the community, or will the food be shipped from another area? Are goods and services readily accessible? People need to feel assured that provisions are available. If they do not, they will seek other places that will sustain them. A good example of this need is seen in the *Sinagua Indian tribe* of over 600 years ago. They left an intact village, including a 20 room 5-story dwelling, in what is now Camp Verde, Arizona. Experts believe they abandoned the village for no other reason than they could not keep enough supplies on hand with the resources and abilities they had, so they moved. 4. *Law and Order Must be Maintained.* If there is not order, problems will arise. Problems that are not addressed will grow larger until they become almost insurmountable. If a city is not organized it will disintegrate. If a colony has no policing, it will soon be decimated by crime. Any government which does not take its law and order seriously will soon find itself in a precarious position. A number of Western mining towns of the late 1800s that established a safe, orderly environment were able to survive the closing of the mines, simply because people enjoyed living in a community with such privileges. Conversely, even a large city with a steady population can be in danger of collapsing if law and order become an insurmountable problem. A recent example of a city government learning of the need to establish its law and order is the city of East St. Louis, which has already experienced travesty such as near bankruptcy due to a lack of self-discipline and order. 5. *The Government Should Have a Goal.* If there are no set goals or challenges, where do the people aim? Is the group to grow, or merely to exist as they are? The dynamics of *New York City*'s harbors made it a business area with a mind for international trade. It grew at an incredible rate. Many researchers believe that one of the main factors of *Rome*'s decline was simply that there were no more goals.

executive department

15 divisions of responsibility that handle the duty of administering the national government.

compensation

Earnings; wage.

fasces

Elm or birch rods bound by straps. The blade of an axe protrudes from the rods, symbolizing unity and strength. Used as a symbol for power and jurisdiction.

The Era of Good Feelings

From 1816 to 1824, the Democratic-Republican party under the direction of James Monroe, was the only party on a national scale in the United States. This period was not totally an "Era of Good Feelings," for it was also a time of trouble within the Democratic-Republican Party. Each of the leaders, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson, controlled a faction representing a different section of the nation. Through the history of the United States, political conflict and new ideas constantly added new parties, large and small, to the American scene.

search and seizure

Gives authority to the officer to seize certain designated items for evidence of a crime.

aristocracy

Government by privileged citizens or the upper class.

welfare

Government financial aid to assist people in need.

electoral college

Group of electors chosen to make the decision of electing the President and Vice-President of the U.S.

conference committee

Group which was formed to reach an agreement on how the final version of a bill would be presented.

laws of the 12 tables

Guideline for citizens' behavior; a list of Roman customs about property and punishment.

Alien and Sedition Acts

Legislation which gave the President power to deport any alien he deemed dangerous.

party-raiding

Members of one party move into the primary of the other party to choose candidates.

war chest

Money designated for the purpose of conducting a winning campaign.

naturalized citizens

Natural citizens are people who were born in one country, but who have met the requirements for citizenship of another country and are now citizens of that country. The following is a list of requirements for naturalization (effective December 24, 1952). 1. Must file a petition for naturalization in a naturalization court in the district where they are residents. 2. They must be at least 18 years of age and of good moral character. 3. They must have been lawful residents of the U.S. for at least five years immediately preceding the date of filing their petition for naturalization and must be residents of the state in which they filed their petition for the preceding six months. 4. They must have been physically present in the U.S. for at least two and one-half years of this 5-year period. 5. The residence requirement for spouses of U.S. citizens is three years. Special regulations also govern the naturalization of spouses of U.S. citizens who are employed abroad and alien veterans of the U.S. armed services. 6. Petitioners are required to read, write, and speak English, unless prevented by physical disability or unless they were, on December 24, 1952, over 50 years of age and residents of the U.S. for 20 years. 7. They must also be "attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States" and have a knowledge of U.S. history and government. 8. Petitions for naturalization must be signed by the applicants and must be attested by two trustworthy witnesses, citizens of the U.S., who are personally acquainted with them. Generally a period of 30 days from the date of filing must elapse before a final hearing on petitions is held. When petitions for naturalization are granted by the court, the applicants swear allegiance to the U.S. and *renounce* allegiance to the foreign countries of which they were formerly citizens. All racial barriers to naturalization were legally abolished in 1952. Women and men have equal rights to naturalization.

contemporary

Of the present time; recent

licensing

Official and legal authorization for a specific ownership or practice.

oral voting

Older form of voting where voters would call out the name of the candidate.

Anti-Federalist Party

One of the first two American political parties; it wanted a weak central government.

George Mason

One of the powerful influences in the writing of the Bill of Rights. The Virginia delegate was highly disappointed with the Constitution, feeling it did not go anywhere near protecting the citizens as it should. Mason's earlier writing on freedoms had influenced Thomas Jefferson's writing of the first part of the Declaration of Independence, and Mason's influence was there once again when James Madison drafted the amendments to the Constitution that were to become the Bill of Rights. So what is the Bill of Rights? The first ten amendments to the Constitution speak of the protection of freedoms of the individual citizen.

judicial

One of the three branches of the U.S. government; interprets federal laws; upholds or negates them.

legislative

One of the three branches of the U.S. government; this branch establishes or retracts laws.

executive branch

One of the three branches of the U.S. government; this branch mainly enforces federal laws.

house of congress

One of the two chambers in government, either the Senate or the House of representatives.

Roman Senate

One of the two houses of the early Roman republic.

inspector

One who is responsible for the proper conduct of the election.

social scientist

One who studies individual relationships within society and relationships to society.

constituency

People of a region who elected a representative; the representative is answerable to these people. Also, the region itself. People of a certain region who elected a representative to whom the representative is answerable

ceremonial

Performance mainly in pomp and style rather than in accomplishment.

provincial

Pertaining to Canada; regional or territorial.

free enterprise system

Political system in which the government allows citizens to own private business for profit.

tyrant

Power-hungry militants who grabbed absolute control by force.

president pro tempore

Presiding officer of the Senate whenever the Vice President is not present.

abridge

Reducing or cutting short.

questions

Removal of legal and social barriers which impose separation of groups is: -integration What was the main point of the Fourteenth Amendment? -giving citizenship to the slaves The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified on December 18, 1899. -false The practice of treating equal people unequally and not letting them have the same opportunities to compete for social and economic rewards is called: -discrimination To be unfair in judgment; to be prejudiced and show partiality is: -discrimination What was the main point of the Thirteenth Amendment? -the abolition of slavery A group of people that share a distinctive race, culture, heritage, or nationality is a(n): -ethnic group Separation from a main group to form a new group as a result of disunity is called: -segregation The "slavery amendment," the 14th Amendment, was ratified in 1870. -false Which statement is NOT true? -Slavery was an established institution until the Twelfth Amendment was ratified on December 18, 1865. President Kennedy's administration was known for promoting civil rights. -true What was the main point of the Fifteenth Amendment? -giving the right to vote to all American males What happened in 1890 concerning civil rights? -twenty states passed laws that enacted segregation laws Applicants for naturalization _____ allegiance to the foreign countries of which they were formerly citizens. -renounce

biased

Stereotyped against; prejudiced

questions

T/F: The national committee meets every 4 years to nominate candidates for president and vice president. -false Three sources of funding for political campaigns may come from: 1. the party 2. the average taxpayer 3. the candidates themselves What committee sends political leaders to certain states to campaign for their party's candidate? -national committee The two basic units of each party at each level are: 1. mass meeting 2. committee What are four duties of the national chairman? 1. campaign manager and fund-raiser 2. campaign fund spending and fund management 3. public relationships 4. assisting the President in awarding loyal party workers How can a republican state chairman become a member of his party's national committee? 1. if most members in the Congress from his states are Republican 2. if his state has a Republican governor 3. his state cast electoral votes in the last election for the Republican candidate In most states, committee members chosen by: -party primaries (or conventions) Four functions of state committees include: 1. Organizing and managing campaigns for state offices. 2. Assisting in local campaigns 3. Organizing state conventions 4. Raising money The primary responsibility of the precinct captain is to: -make sure that all members of their party are registered to vote How many representatives does the Democratic National Committee send from the Panama Canal Zone? -two

unalienable

That which cannot be lost or transferred away.

right

That which is due to a person because of law, nature, or tradition.

Concillum Plebus

The "common-people" assembly which helped give the citizens more political power.

public opinion

The collective feelings of the population of an area; it may or may not have factual basis.

plebeian

The common person or lower-class citizen.

diplomatic relations

The communication and ongoing relationship between America and other nations of the world.

ballot box

The container into which votes are put.

mass meeting

The convention that mobilizes the national agenda and announces the candidates for the national election.

public works

The creation and maintenance of state roads, dams, buildings and other similar projects.

platform

The declared policy of a political group.

the caucus

The earliest device for nominating candidates for state offices and for seats in Congress was the legislative caucus. People would gather together to discuss the pros and cons of each possible candidate. The term caucus comes from the Algonquin Indian language and means "to talk," and a caucus is a gathering of party leaders to talk over possible candidates. In the beginning, members of the state legislatures met in caucus to draw up the slate of candidates for the various state and congressional offices. In local affairs, however, the nineteenth century caucus had become one of the regular means by which candidates were secretly named by local political leaders. The people took no part in the nominating process--it was a privately arranged affair. In our nation's *first three presidential elections, no system of nomination was used and there was no caucus desired. The members of the electoral college simply agreed* twice on George Washington and once on John Adams. With the coming of political parties *in 1800, though, the candidates for president and vice president were chosen by the caucus.* A group in Congress representing one of the two main parties--Federalists or Democratic Republicans--would meet in a caucus and put up their party candidates for president and vice president. The caucus method lost favor after 1828, after the followers of Andrew Jackson made a strong argument that it was being seriously abused. Therefore, with the extension of suffrage, the caucus method of nomination began to disappear from the national scene. The caucus is far from gone, though--it is still used in many local elections today in the United States. (*By using the caucus the people took no part in the nomination process*)

public relations

The effort to establish a favorable impression with the populace.

indirect ballot

The elected representatives cast the vote in the place of the members they represent.

Amendment I

The first amendment, adopted in 1791, states: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances." The granting of such freedoms has been a closely guarded right that has been challenged and supported through the years of growth of our country. Because they are such important rights, let's look at those listed in Amendment I in more detail. *Freedom of religion is granted in the first amendment.* The first amendment to the Constitution states, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...." The freedom of religion was important to the colonists. At the time this amendment was written, most European countries had an established (official) church. In England of the 1700's, you could be imprisoned if you did not join the Church of England. America's Founding Fathers they didn't want to create similar situation in the United States. When America gained its independence from Britain, the political ties were broken with the Anglican Church (the official Church of England). Freedom of religion, as defined in the first amendment, is two-fold. First, the government is forbidden to establish a religion, either directly or indirectly. Secondly, the government is forbidden to interfere with or to regulate religion. Individuals have the right to assemble or worship without fear of being persecuted by the government. *Freedom of speech and of the press are granted in the first amendment.* The first amendment also guarantees that "Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press." Individuals are free to speak their minds and express their opinions, even when they disagree with their leaders. The newspaper publishing companies, television networks, and radio stations enjoy the rights to broadcast news and information that will not be edited and controlled, as they were in the days of the Mussolini-led country of Italy. The government of the United States does not have the right to interfere with the freedom of the press. In recent years, this freedom has been extended to include "freedom of expression," allowing political protesters, artists, and others to express their views in a variety of other ways. *Freedom of assembly is granted in the first amendment.* "Congress shall make no law... abridging...the right of the people peaceably to assemble." After their experience under England's laws, where public gatherings were restricted, America's founders knew it was important for the people to be allowed to meet together for any legal purpose. In a democracy, public assembly is one way of sharing political information. *Freedom to petition the government is granted in the first amendment.* The right "to petition the government for a redress of grievances" means that anytime you have a concern, a complaint, or a comment, you're free to speak to your governor, email your senators, or even call the president. In a democracy, it is essential that the leaders hear from the people.

announcement

The individual fills out documentation and pays a filing fee to announce that he seeks a political office.

questions

The job function of a news commentator is most similar to that of a(n): -editor Contemporary political, social, and economic issues are addressed in such news magazines as Time, Newsweek, and U.S. ____. -News and World Report T/F: Headlines are sometimes misleading because it is impossible to tell the whole truth in only a few words. -true T/F: Public opinion is influenced by the home, the school, and other elements in the community. -true Select four opinion makers that influence us: newspapers television Internet magazines ___ is important in creating intelligent public opinion. -education One of the major benefits that resulted from the The Alar "scandal" in 1989 was: -the concept of responsible journalism by broadcasters was reinforced Public opinion has often been influenced by newspaper ___. -editors The political viewpoint of a newspaper can be learned by reading the: -editorial page Radio and television media perform a public service in the field of political education by: -interviewing people who are in the news

production

The making of goods that can be used or worn for protection or well-being

direct primary

The members vote, by secret ballot, to choose their candidate for the general election.

federalists vs. anti-federalists

The men who would write the Constitution met in Philadelphia in 1787 and, quite frankly, political parties were one of the furthest things from their minds. It was never written into the Constitution, and today as you read it, the Constitution makes no provision or mention whatsoever of political parties. In fact, George Washington, the President of the Constitutional Convention, and many other early political leaders opposed the development of political organizations. Despite the initial disinterest, organizations began to develop before George Washington became President in 1789. Shortly after that, two political organizations, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, began to actively oppose each other. The Federalists were led by such men as *John Adams and Alexander Hamilton*. They favored the extension of the powers of the Federal government beyond the specific provisions of the Constitution. In other words, they wanted to make the government strong and wide-reaching. The Federalists also favored a *loose construction of the Constitution*, believing that the Federal Government *should possess all powers not specifically denied to it*. The Anti-Federalists, later renamed the Democratic-Republicans, were led by *Thomas Jefferson*, and favored a *strict construction of the Constitution*. The Anti-Federalists *wanted to limit the Federal government strictly to the powers which the Constitution specifically delegated to it*. In other words, they wanted to shackle the powers of the government and keep a tight control on it. Although the Federalist party did not survive as long as the Democratic-Republican party did, it did serve the nation well. The Federalists, under the leadership of Alexander Hamilton, who was the Secretary of the Treasury, set the young nation's financial affairs in order, encouraged manufacturing and trade, maintained the country's honor, and laid the foundation for a sound constitutional government. In their desire to stay in power, the Federalists passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. These acts gave President John Adams the power to deport any aliens he deemed dangerous, and to fine or imprison editors who criticized him for his actions. These laws angered so many people that the Federalists became very unpopular and lost too much support. As a result, Thomas Jefferson won the Presidency in 1800. Because of their opposition to the War of 1812, the Federalists finally lost all their support and eventually disappeared from the political scene. America had a brief time where there was only one political party.

plurality

The most votes cast, but not necessarily a majority.

monitor public opinion

The political parties keep a careful eye on the reactions of the public throughout the United States. With so much at stake, the party that is out of office doesn't want the nation to start favoring the party in power. The party in office is usually held responsible by the public for running the government and for the achievement of its program. If a Democratic president and Congress have been elected, they are considered responsible for laws passed and actions taken, even though many of these laws and actions may have been supported by the Republicans. Thus, in the past, the Democrats have received both praise and blame, depending on the point of view, for such programs as Social Security, civil rights, or the Vietnam War. On the other hand, the Republicans of the President Eisenhower administration were credited with the National Defense Education Act and the building of the St. Lawrence Seaway. Down through the years, administrations and individuals have been under fire for various issues. For Ronald Reagan, it was a concern of who received firearms for battle in what was known as the *"Iran-Contra Affair."* For George H. Bush, it was a lack of consideration for the country's economy. For Bill Clinton, it was for personal morals. Conversely, the same men were praised for their good efforts while in office. Ronald Reagan received high accolades for strengthening the economy, as did Bill Clinton. George H. Bush was much praised for his no-nonsense approach to Iraq's threats in the Persian Gulf War. The party out of office will look forward to gaining some seats in the Senate and House during state elections. For instance, even if the party gains a seat in Hawaii, a seat in Idaho, and a seat in Texas, those may be the necessary votes that would help the party sway particular votes in Congress. The party out of office, desiring to get in, keeps a critical eye on the party in power to discover mistakes and to use those mistakes to their own advantage in the next campaign. However, this function is more than campaign strategy. A duty of the *"loyal opposition"* is to take a firm stand on the program of the administration and publicize its own views. It must bring to the public's attention any misuse of power, any serious blunders or errors of judgment, and any violation of constitutional principles by the party in control of the government. Various means are used, such as press conferences by minority party leaders and rebuttals of presidential speeches. The give-and-take of the opposing parties might seem overbearing at times, but the positive note is that such competition not only gives the public information on those in office but also keeps all of the candidates aware that they are being scrutinized with as much vigor as they are scrutinizing others.

Check the one thing that is NOT true about the Electoral College.

The state of Pennsylvania oversees the inner workings of the Electoral College. TRUE: -The College is made up of people selected by the states. -Those designated to perform this task are known as the electors. -The College makes the decision of electing the President of the United States.

in session

The time when Congress is active and members are present, fulfilling their respective duties.

persecuted

To harass or annoy.

concurrence

To reach an agreement.

adoption

To receive and make one's own.

advise

To recommend or suggest.

decimated

To reduce the amount in blocks or sizable amounts.

purge

To thoroughly clean out; to purify.

concede

To yield or surrender, to admit or acknowledge.

chief executive

U.S. President; carries responsibility of ceremonial duties, foreign affairs and armed forces.

tyranny

Unjust governmental authority; oppressive power.

split ticket

Voting for the best candidates for each office regardless of party.

nominating candidates for office

You may have seen a Democratic or Republican convention on television and been surprised by the "party atmosphere." What fanfare and excitement! It seems as if most of the events are centered around one big celebration, but behind all the whistles, banners, and ticker tape, there are serious goals being reached. These political conventions have an agenda that hopefully will lead to a successful run into the White House. Candidates are being nominated, which leads up to an election. Nomination is the first step in the election selection process, and often it can be more important than the election itself. In American politics, the nomination process is a very careful agreement of many thousands of people who try to select the person who most nearly represents their goals and political desires. Lots of strategy occurs during nominations--do we present this person as our strongest candidate? Does he have what it takes to convince the population that he is best? How well will he serve if he wins? How bad will it hurt us if he loses? Nominations are not limited to a free society; dictators have been quick to recognize the importance of the nominations process. They often have taken advantage of the process. Their policy is: "Give us the right to name the candidates and you may vote for whomever you please" - but it is important to remember that in a suppressed society the nomination and elections are almost a mockery. You might be surprised to know that Mussolini, Hitler, and Stalin all held elections. With great fanfare they pointed out that almost all of the voters cast their ballots. At first it seemed that indeed the percentages appeared to put the democracies to shame, but the democracies were quick to point out that the peoples of oppressed societies had no real freedom of choice or consent. Not only were they required to vote, but often they were forced to vote for the only candidate for a given position - one hand-picked by the dictator. In comparison, American politics offers a highly competitive yet open-society approach to selecting candidates. There are two ways a candidate can get his name on the ballot: either with or without the support of a political party. SUPPORTED BY A POLITICAL PARTY Except for the candidates for the presidency and vice presidency, the nomination of public officers has been left almost entirely to the states. We elect over 500 members of Congress, about 10,000 state officers--governors, legislators, and so on--and over 500,000 local officials. Since both major parties name candidates for many of these positions, the total is well over a million nominations. *Five different nomination methods* have been used up to the present day. These methods are: 1. caucus 2. convention 3. direct primary 4. petition 5. announcement

patriotism

employing nationalistic terms in order to give the impression of being zealous for the country's welfare EX: America is my home. I am a freedom-loving U.S. citizen.

Which of the following is an intangible way state government helps its citizens?

oversee business

one-party systems

political structures *where there is no opposition to the party in power, do not allow for political activism by the common citizen.* The people of the country are rarely permitted to give input, and, in most cases, elections are strictly controlled. *One-party systems are often associated with dictators*, whether they are "good" or "bad." Most dictatorships allow only one party, which totally controls the government. Some dictatorships permit other parties so long as they create no serious threat to the government. Often, when a serious political threat of victory appears, the subordinate party ceases to exist. The potential for abuse is much larger in one-party systems than in other types of governments since, in a one-party system, there is more power in fewer hands. With less accountability to citizens, there is a strong tendency to neglect the needs of the people. Historically, communist countries have had one-party systems in which the country's Communist Party forms the government. In communist countries, no other party is allowed to exist under any circumstances. Membership in the Communist Party is considered a privilege and is granted only after a person meets certain standards. Even from youth, organizations are formed so that the children of the communist country may learn the doctrines of the party. In the days when the Soviet Union was considered a world power, it had a one-party system. History tells us that, although the Communist Party was the only legal political party in the Soviet Union, only about *6 percent* of the population belonged to the party. Even though the populace may not have actively supported it, the one-party system nevertheless remained strong due to strict military controls. In communist countries, the Communist Party performs many more functions than are performed by political parties in countries that have multiparty political systems. For this reason, the Communist Party has an elaborate organization for recruiting members and leaders, developing policy, indoctrinating the people, and maintaining discipline. However, a dictatorship, since it is run by virtually one person alone, does not need as elaborate an organization. The danger of both a dictatorship and Communist Party rule is that abuses can be swift and powerful. The past atrocities of leaders such as Idi Amin in Uganda and Pol Pot of the *communist Khmer Rouge government in Cambodia* provide sufficient evidence as to the torture and horrors of a one-person government gone badly. Communist nations and most other one-party dictatorships do have elections. The elections are held chiefly to generate interest and enthusiasm for the Communist Party. In China, for example, the candidates tell the people how wonderful the party is and what the party has done for them. The party leaders explain what the party has done and plans to do and what it expects of the people. Some non-communist countries also have been governed by a one-party system. For example, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional, known as the *PRI*) controlled Mexican politics from 1929 to 2000. It won all the state and national elections by huge majorities. During its *71 years* in power, there were many accusations of corruption and rigged elections. Mexico has several smaller political parties, but none of these parties were able to compete effectively. In the 1990s, economic problems and political opposition weakened the PRI. The PRI was forced to govern by reaching agreements with many of the smaller parties and coming to a compromise in many decisions. In 1997, the PRI lost its majority in the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of Mexico's Congress. The PRI continued to hold the presidency and a majority in the Senate. The 2000 elections marked a turning point in Mexican politics. The PRI lost its majority in the Senate, and the the National Action Party (Partido Accion Nacional, known as the PAN) won a huge victory over the PRI, electing a former corporate executive, Vicente Fox, as president. During his campaign, Fox promised Mexicans full democracy after decades of one-party rule by the PRI.

Which government passes laws in order to protect the rights of its citizens?

pluralism

name calling

using broad accusations and negative attacks in order to bring down the reputation of an opponent EX: My opponent is a liberal and a compromiser. He is also a shoplifter!

testimonial

using well-known personalities in the hopes of identifying with some of their glamour EX: Sports star "Rocket" Livesay endorses me for governor!

glittering generalities

using wide-spread universal terms that do not deal with the specific issues at hand EX: I stand for truth, justice, and the American way!

Karl Marx

was a German social scientist and professional revolutionary of the 19th century. The basic principles of two of the most powerful types of governments in the past century were influenced by his writings: communism and socialism. Marx was born and raised in Prussia and attended the University of Bonn, gaining a reputation as a gifted intellectual. He later attended the University of Berlin and eventually received his doctorate in philosophy. Working with Friedrich Engels at various times throughout his life, Marx wrote two works that established him as a radical in his approach to government: The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital. The Communist Manifesto is the pamphlet that laid the groundwork for Marxism. In the Manifesto, Marx claimed that history could be seen as a series of battles between the dominant class and the subordinate class. The real dream would be achieved during the Industrial Age, according to Marx, when the working class overthrew the upper classes. The result of this would be a classless society in which nobody would have the rule, the factories and major corporations of the land would be owned publicly, and the common people would be in charge of their own destiny. *Das Kapital was Marx's view on the free enterprise system.* While admitting that it was virtually the most powerful economic system ever created, he nevertheless pointed out the flaws he believed it had. First, he felt that continued series of inflationary periods and depression would grow worse and eventually cripple free enterprise until it was useless. Even as he acknowledged that the free enterprise system created wealth, Marx maintained that the accumulation of wealth only made more misery since nobody knew how to spend the wealth wisely. In this writing, as in most of his works, Marx maintained that the only true good society would come when the proletariat (the working class) would be able to overthrow the bourgeoisie (the middle class). However, the proletarian revolution that Marx envisioned never took place.

John Milton

was a prolific writer of the 17th century who not only wrote such *English literary classics as Paradise Lost and Samson Agonistes*, but he was also an influential politic writer. Milton was involved with the politics of the 1600s in England and did much to *promote radical reform against the monarchy*. While Milton was traveling through Europe, he heard of serious unrest between King Charles I and the Puritans back in his home country of England. The king had joined forces with the bishops of the Church of England and fought the Puritans over the policies of the church and state. Civil War broke out in 1642, and the Puritans, led by Oliver Cromwell, were the victors. John Milton spent the next 20 years in favor of a ruling party other than a monarchy. His support of the Commonwealth and the Cromwell Parliament was evident in his writings, which included *Of Reformation in England and The Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Commonwealth*. He wrote of *the people's right to select and eliminate rulers in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates*. His political writings gave insight into a citizen who desired to live without a monarch in a country *where the people had a right to speak out.*

Niccolo Machiavelli

who lived during the Italian Renaissance, *is considered the father of modern political science*. While the medieval approach to politics was to view it in the light of religion, Machiavelli based his theories on logic. He presented the state as a living organism with the ruler as the head and the subjects as the rest of the body. Machiavelli argued that anything must be done to keep the body healthy so that the government would run smoothly and the people would remain peaceful and secure. As a result of the content of his writings, Machiavelli gained a reputation as being cruel and heartless. In *The Prince*, which was published in 1532, Machiavelli argued that a ruler must do anything necessary to keep the body healthy—even if *the ruler has to be cruel and deceitful in order to maintain the balance of power*. In fact, *excessive force upon dissenters was encouraged* by Machiavelli, and his many writings on the use and abuse of leadership formed many new thoughts among political thinkers as to the use of extremes in government.

alteration

Change or amendment to the bill.

nominate

Choose; appoint. To formally suggest and recommend a candidate for election.

Axis

Coalition of countries that opposed the Allied powers in World War II. (Italy, Germany, Japan)

Khmer Rouge

Communist regime in Cambodia that brutally seized power in 1975 and controlled the country until 1979.

localized

Confined to a smaller region; "closer to home."

judicial review

Courts making decisions as to whether laws passed stay within the guidelines of the U.S. Constitution.

Amendment VIII

"Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted." This amendment prevents excessive bail or fines or cruel and unusual punishments to the individual.

Amendment VII

"In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law." The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in civil cases.

Amendment IX

"The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." This amendment states that the list of rights in the Constitution does not deny other rights retained by the people; in other words, just because there is a list of rights in this document does not mean "if it's not listed here, you don't have the right." *Americans still have their other freedoms.*

Amendment X

"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, *are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.*" The Tenth Amendment upholds the fact that all powers not given to the United States government itself belong to the states or the people.

Amendment IV

"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." This amendment was added to prevent the abuses the colonists had suffered from general warrants. It protects the citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures and also requires warrants to be specific and issued only upon probable cause.

US Constitution

*What exactly does the Constitution do?* The Constitution lays down the fundamental laws of the United States. The rights and freedoms of the individual citizen are defined, as well as the goals of the government. There are some restrictive guidelines as well. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, the Bill of Rights, limit the powers of the Federal government. For example, the Supreme Court has decided that neither the Federal government nor the states can deprive any individual of his freedom of *religion, speech, press, petition the Government for a redress of grievances, the right of the people to peaceably assemble, or of several other rights that pertain to the fair treatment of the accused person.* *1787: the right time to unify the nation completely.* Some of the signers of the Constitution included George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton. As George Washington presided over the Convention, he knew there were many obstacles to overcome. The initial assembly in Philadelphia looked like little more than a gathering of 13 independent little countries. There was scant unity among the states, with problems like trading between each other and the printing of state currency instead of federal money. By the end of the convention, *39 delegates signed the Constitution*. Many people are not aware that there were actually some delegates who refused to sign! Elbridge Berry, George Mason, and Edmund Randolph all refused to sign the Constitution because they felt it still gave too much power to the federal government. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, known as the Bill of Rights, speak of the protection of freedoms of the individual citizen. Some amendments may seem odd to us today, but they were especially relevant to the nation at the time of their writing. These amendments were ratified December 15, 1791. The granting of such freedoms has been a closely guarded right that has been challenged and supported through the years of growth of our country. *The First Amendment.* The first amendment is considered by some to be the most important of all twenty-seven amendments. It defines some of the most essential rights of American citizens: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." This amendment guarantees freedom of religion and gives us the right to worship where and how we want. Freedom of speech and of the press give us openness in the fields of communication to express our displeasure with the government without the fear of imprisonment. We also have the right to gather peaceably and to ask the government for justice. *The Constitution has been a hard-working document through the years.* It has been a vital cog in the workings of the American government. The Constitution gives the *general method for electing a President*. It also lays out the *rules for organizing Congress and the guidelines for the potential members of Congress*. The Constitution explains such *diverse subjects as making laws, establishing copyrights for inventors, and extraditing criminals back to states for trials*. The Constitution is a magnificent framework for forming our government. The British statesman *William Gladstone* appropriately called the Constitution "the most wonderful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of man."

summons

A call to appear in court.

homage

A ceremony which bound the vassal's physical protection for the lord of the manor.

poll watcher

A citizen who is paid by the parties to keep a watchful eye on the voters and the officials.

alliance

A close association of countries.

republic

A country whose government is controlled by the elected representatives of the population.

appointment

A designation to serve, based upon ability and other qualifications.

voting booth

A device used in elections; its privacy curtain or shield ensures the citizen of secrecy while voting.

conference

A meeting for discussion.

sponsor

A member of Congress who is willing to introduce and back the legislation.

scandal

A public shame or disgrace brought about by illegal or unethical actions. An issue that is a public shame, performed by an official in an illegal or unethical manner.

utilities

A service to the public such as gas, telephone, water, or electric power.

Constitution

A set of laws and guidelines laid out for the proper governing of a country.

sound bite

A short clip of TV footage which may cut a speaker's words to a few seconds of time

workfare

A system where a person will receive welfare benefits after showing proof of working in a regular job.

short ballot

A ticket for voting that shows only the names of the candidates for the highest offices.

hearings

A time when the good and bad aspects of a bill are discussed; includes written and verbal statements.

partisan

A type of person who will staunchly campaign or vote for only one political party.

campaign

A unified and organized effort with a goal in mind.

roll call vote

A voting process by the members who are present; no absentee voting allowed.

group identity

Being affiliated with a particular culture, association, or people.

prejudices

Biases; stereotypical attitudes.

specific leaders

Chairman of the national committee and presidential candidate.

reversed

Changed; headed in the opposite direction.

House of Lords

Contains the High Court. Also called the "upper house"; composed of the lords temporal and spiritual.

public safety

Creation and maintenance of state fire and police departments, hospitals and other citizen needs.

polling official

Designated authorities who see to the fairness of the election at each voting precinct.

concentration camp

Detainment centers for Hitler's "undesirable" citizens, including those of the Jewish race.

debating

Discussing, conversing, and even arguing over the points of a matter.

diverse

Distinct; different.

equal access

Every political party receives the same radio/TV broadcast length and time of day

administration

Executive branch of the American government; particularly used in relation to the office-holder, as in "the Clinton administration."

immunities

Exemptions; protections.

Constitutional Convention

Gathering for the purpose of creating a Constitution which would frame the laws for running the U.S.

These organizations sponsored by the American Legion help young people learn how legislatures are organized and how bills are passed:

Girls State Boys State

import

Goods brought into a country or state for the purpose of trade.

loose construction

Interpretation of the Constitution allowing the federal government powers not specifically denied it.

strict construction

Interpretation of the Constitution limiting the Federal government to the powers in the document.

voting procedures

Let us pretend that you have reached the proper voting age in your state and have fulfilled the requirements for voting. Just how will you proceed to vote? Assuming that you have registered in time, and that you are a qualified voter, you will probably receive from the county clerk or other election official a card telling you where you are to vote. The announcement usually will be posted in several places in your precinct about a week before the election. On election day, you will go to your voting place. You can recognize the polling place because it will display the United States flag. Upon entering, you will be asked to give your name and address. Some states require that you present your voter identification card and sign the voting book. One of the election officials will check the registry to see if your name is listed and if you are qualified to vote in that precinct. If everything is found in order, another election official will give you a ballot. You then go to a booth where you mark your ballot in secret and fold it. Having completed this procedure, you hand the folded ballot to the election officer, who deposits it in the ballot box. Thus, you complete your responsibility as a voting citizen of your town, county, state, and nation. After the polls close--they are open for eight to twelve hours--the officials begin the task of counting the ballots. This task often takes hours, and the election officials are usually up until the early hours of the morning after the election. In some states voting machines have taken the place of paper ballots. The names of all candidates, each with a separate lever, appear across the face of the machine. The voter walks in and closes the curtain behind him. This automatically opens the machine. Then he simply pulls the levers which indicate the names of his choices. When he opens the curtain that has concealed him, the machine records his vote. *Automatic voting machines have these advantages*: they make fraud impossible, they assure absolute secrecy, and they do away with the need for numerous officials to count the votes. Votes are tabulated automatically as they are cast. Most of the big cities already use some form of automated voting. It is estimated that well over half of the voting is now done by machine. Machines are increasing in popularity and may eventually be used nationwide; in recent elections, some precincts used "touch-screen" computers for the first time. *Absentee Voting.* Nearly all of the states *allow those who are absent on business, or those who are ill or physically disabled, to vote.* Under the absentee-voting system the ballots are received beforehand. The voter marks this ballot and then swears before a *notary public* that he is a duly registered and qualified voter. He then sends his ballot to the *county clerk*. An absentee ballot may be obtained from the county election officer by mail or in person. *Contested Elections.* Sometimes an election is so close that the outcome is in doubt until the last ballot is counted. Close elections have often occurred in our history, including gubernatorial elections, senatorial races, and even presidential elections. In such cases, the losing candidate may accept the results, or he may believe that a recount of the votes will change the results. If he is convinced that evidence of fraud exists, he can contest the election. In the former case he simply demands a *recount*, and the election commission is required to make it. If the charge of fraud is made, the case comes under the jurisdiction of the courts. Because contested or disputed elections are always a possibility, most states require that the ballot boxes be sealed and kept in a safe place for several months after the election.

electoral districts

Local geographic boundaries within which the citizen votes.

noble

Lofty, financially well-to-do citizens who carried much power within the community.

landslide defeat

Losing by a large margin in an election.

consensus

Majority agreement in matters of opinions.

propaganda

Material distributed by the proponents of a cause to support their viewpoint.

patrician

Member of Rome's richest and most important families who served on the Senate for life.

party column method

Names of the parties appear at tops of the columns; titles of various offices are shown at sides.

nullify

Negate; destroy.

national level

On a country-wide scale.

local level

On a smaller, non-widespread scale.

autocracy

One person has complete control over all branches of government. Whenever George Washington was first considered for leadership of our country, there was talk of making him King of America. After all, an autocracy under Washington would work out quite well, wouldn't it? Of course, that idea was never carried out. The citizens of the United States wanted an active role in the workings of the government. Louis XVI was an autocrat that ruled France. As the picture to the right attests, Louis XVI not only held sway over the clergy and the nobility, he ruled with complete authority over the common people as well. In many autocracies in history, the ruling powers could appoint and dismiss members of governmental branches whenever they desired.

dissenter

One who disagrees or has a difference of opinion.

appointee

One who is nominated or designated to a position.

editorial page

Opinion page of the newspaper, where readers and writers express their views

editorial

Opinion section of a newspaper; many times also known as "Letters to the Editor"

House of Commons

Oversees law and tax legislation; the more powerful of the two houses of Parliament.

Federal Communication Commission

Oversees the communications industry in America, and enforces broadcast laws

cabinet members

Person appointed to head an executive department of the United States Government.

declaration of candidacy

Person wishes to be a candidate for the party, so he makes an announcement of intention.

contenders

Political competitors.

communism

Political system of collective ownership of property, population is of one class.

absentee voting

Process for those who cannot be present at their polling place because of health or obligation.

overturn

Reverse; change to the opposite position.

civil rights

Rights and privileges owed to a citizen, including the freedom of speech and of worship.

feudal aid

Rights benefiting both lord and vassals. Vassals gave money at the marriage of the lord's eldest daughter.

democracy

Rule by the people. Originally an Aristotlelian term that meant bad "people-run" government.

election board

Selected by district election board, a group that sees to the fairness and efficiency of an election.

oligarchy

Selfish group leadership, as defined by Aristotle.

Emancipation Proclamation

Slaves within any State shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free.

polling place

Specific voting area; each voter is assigned a particular place within the district where he lives.

sovereignty

Supremacy of rule; higher authority.

socialism

System where political power and property is to be shared by the whole population.

intangible

That cannot be felt by touching, immaterial.

compromise

The act of coming to an agreement by means of mutual concession.

censorship

The act of removing what may be considered objectionable to people

statutory construction

The act of the courts interpreting the meaning of laws and administrative rules and regulations.

city-state

The ancient power structures; cities that were fortified into independent units of strength.

reputation

The estimation of a person; the public perception of a person.

central government

The federal power of the country.

economic collapse

The financial panic and downfall of a country.

direct democracy

The first name given to the Greek democracy.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution, based strongly on the personal freedoms of the citizen.

committee

The group of leaders who make the major decisions in the political party's election strategy.

fief

The land granted to the vassal.

authority

The power and/or right to enforce obedience and make decisions over a group.

influencing

The power to produce a desired result

jurisdiction

The right to exercise authority. The extent of authority; the range of control.

politics

The science and activity of governing and social leadership

state bar exam

The state testing of potential attorneys in order to see if they qualify for active legal practice.

political science

The study of the principles of government and the electoral process

referendum

The submitting of a proposed public measure for voting by the general public.

investiture

The vassal gives his allegiance and is given his rights to control the land but not have ownership of it.

electoral votes

The vote each state is given to cast for a national candidate for President of the United States.

closed primary

The voter declares his party allegiance and votes for the ballot of his own party.

electorate

The voting public.

endowed

To be equipped with a talent or a quality. Supplied with; given as a help.

discrimination

To be unfair in judgment; to be prejudiced. To show partiality.

assess

To evaluate and set the amount of a tax.

interpret

To explain the meaning of; to clarify the definition of.

redress

To set right; correcting a wrong that was done.

suppress

To subdue and limit the freedoms of people.

Third parties play a highly important role in the:

strengthening the two major parties

Federal governments

work for the good of the country as a whole. We see tangible evidence of the government at work whenever we see a *coin or dollar bill*. We see our armed forces and know that the government is obligated to our safety. We receive mail and read of tariffs on imports and we know that the government works to regulate and maintain the mail system and commerce for the benefit of all the country's citizens.

Communism

is a system which proclaims to be for the "common man" but in practice has shown to be an oppressive government. The communist government, which we will study later, calls for everyone to give up selfish rights for the common good of the populace. However, in doing so, the freedoms that are offered in a capitalistic society are almost unheard of under communism.

Amendment II

"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed." This amendment reflects the early colonists' hostility toward the standing armies that had occupied their land; they guarantee the people's right to bear arms to prevent those armies from making America submissive to another government.

the legislative branch

*"Congress Overrides the President's Veto" shout the newspaper headlines.* It may seem like the height of arrogance for the Congress to ignore the concerns of the President of the United States, but arrogance is not the reason for the two-thirds majority to vote a bill past the president to become a law. This is the legislature's power in motion. The legislative branch is one of the three branches of the United States government, and was a highly regarded part of the overall governmental system written by the members of the Constitutional Convention. The legislative system is *given powers granted to it by the Constitution in Article I*. This includes the U.S. Congress which consists of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The *legislative branch can* create, alter, or repeal laws. It also directs the government in the area of taxes; it can assess and regulate taxes. Legislative members are voted for by the people of the nation, giving widespread responsibility to all areas of the country, since the members are from each state of the Union. Even though the two houses work together in the legislative process, their frameworks are very different. The Senate *contains 100 senators*, two representing each state so that everyone has the same number and the voting power is pretty much on a "even field." The *435 members of the House of Representatives*, however, are elected by the different states *on the basis of their population at the most recent U.S. census*. Since California had the largest population as of the 2000 census, it has the most representatives, 53; many of the states with the smallest population, such as Delaware, have only 1. A member of the House of Representatives will serve two-year term, while a senator has a six-year term. *Many people are not aware that the Library of Congress is maintained by the legislative branch of the government.* Other agencies that fall under the legislature's jurisdiction include the *Congressional Budget Office, the General Accounting Office, and the Government Printing Office*. *How do they elect leaders in the House and Senate?* It is not exactly a popularity vote, but the members of the two houses are careful in their consideration of their house leaders. According to the U.S. Constitution, "the Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote" except to break a tie vote. In the House, the presiding officer is chosen from among the membership; each house of Congress selects their majority leaders and each committee's chairman. Though the leaders usually try their best to have a unified effort within the whole of Congress, sometimes there is a divided government, where one party controls the House and another party controls the Senate. Having a divided government can slow things down because the two parties are often not in agreement. What might be a great idea for Republicans may be a real problem to the Democrats, and vice versa, leading to a fight over and the delay of a bill. *On the home front, Congress has far-reaching powers.* Congress can actually have *new money coined or changed and control its value*. Congress can also *levy taxes*, and *regulate the trade among the states*. Congress assists in *creating and monitoring the departments and agencies of the executive branch*. The houses of Congress have the *power to declare war*, and authorized the use of force against Iraq during the Persian Gulf War. The *maintenance of the armed forces* is the responsibility of Congress. *Each house of Congress has particular responsibilities.* In December of 1998, the House of Representatives voted to approve the impeachment of President Clinton; *beginning the impeachment process is a right given solely to the House.* At any time a president is under impeachment proceedings, the House initiates the act. If the House approves the impeachment, the Senate then takes the rein, and with a two-thirds vote, would approve the impeachment of the president. In the case of President Clinton's impeachment, the House recommended the proceedings to continue on to the Senate, but in February of 1999 the Senate did not pass the two articles of impeachment and the trial came to an end. The House also has the responsibility to make a choice among the top three contenders if the Electoral College should ever be unable to select a president; the Senate would then choose the vice president from the remaining top two contenders. If both the president and the vice president die or should otherwise be unable to fulfill the responsibility of their office, the obligation falls to the Speaker of the House, who becomes president. The Senate advises and consents to nominations for major executive officials, ambassadors, justices of the Supreme Court, and federal judges. In the event of a deadlock in the Electoral College, The president pro tempore (or "pro tem") of the Senate comes after the Speaker of the House in the line of succession to the presidency. When the vice president is not present in the Senate, the president pro tempore presides over the Senate. Among the duties are appointing other Senators to preside when necessary and deciding points of order.

why are political parties so important?

*Although America has many different parties, our political system is considered a two-party system.* Political parties are the instruments for expressing the wishes of the people. Our political experience in the United States has led to the development of a two-party system. Our two-party system is perhaps the strongest in the world. In addition to the two main political parties, the United States has a history full of minority or third parties which have helped shape American politics. The third parties have played a significant role in the strengthening of our two major parties. After these third parties have served their purpose of protest or proposal, they have often seen their issues and their members taken over by one or the other of the major parties. This type of give-and-take helps keep either of the major parties from becoming too narrow-minded in their agendas. With very few exceptions, most Americans think of themselves as either Democrats or Republicans. Even independents, who pride themselves on remaining outside the party organizations and using the attitude of "voting for the best regardless of the party," are forced to choose candidates that are already chosen for them in party conventions or primaries. *Two-party systems are most common in the English-speaking countries* of the world. *Two-party countries include Great Britain, with its Conservative and Labour parties; Canada, with its Liberal and Canadian Alliance parties; and the United States, with both its Democrat and Republican parties.* Although these countries may have other parties, one of the two major parties in each country usually controls the government. Although a nation may have a strong two-party system, one party may control politics in certain areas of the country. For example, Canada has a number of parties from which the voters can choose, but in recent elections, the Liberal Party has had almost 40 percent of the vote, nearly double of the runner-up party, the Reform Party (now a part of the Canadian Alliance). There are other parties in Canadian politics, such as the Tories, Bloc Quebecois, and the New Democratic Party, but the Liberal party has been dominant in recent elections, holding the most seats in Canadian Parliament. One party can continuously hold a strong power in elections for years and years. The party has gained this control because the voters in particular areas have continually voted for its candidates. In Great Britain, for example, certain constituencies have always supported the Conservative Party, but in certain other areas the Labour Party receives all the support. Therefore, in national elections each party considers certain areas safe for their candidates. If a party leader wants to be sure a certain candidate wins a seat in Parliament, they have him run in a safe constituency. In Great Britain a candidate for national office does not have to live in the constituency he hopes to represent. In America, a candidate must live in the constituency for a specified amount of time. In many U.S. states, both the Democratic and the Republican parties have considerable strength. In other states, however, only one of these two parties has traditionally controlled the politics of that state. *For example, from the Civil War (1861-1865) until the mid 1960's, the Democrats strongly controlled most of the southern states.* During that time span, the Republicans, though not as strong, controlled some New England and Midwestern states. Since the 1960's the Republicans have won increasing support in the South, and the Democrats have been making gains in New England and the Midwest. Several of the large industrial and commercial cities in the United States, such as Chicago and New York City, usually vote for the Democratic Party. The rural areas, however, usually support the Republican Party. This voting pattern is similar in most two-party countries. Generally. the industrial areas of a nation will support the more liberal party; but the rural areas will normally vote for the more conservative party. Both the Republican and Democratic parties have a spirited and colorful rivalry for the office of President, and in almost every political race. Because of a healthy two-party system, representative government is alive and responsible in the United States. It avoids the extreme of the single party dictatorship that is so *common in both communist and fascist countries*. It also prevents the endless succession of stalemates and weak coalition governments that are common to countries with numerous political parties. France, for example, has suffered from this condition for many years. Weak coalitions do not tend to allow a country to grow properly because of the excessive compromising necessary and because of the behind-the-scenes maneuvering against the party in power. Because we have active political competition and frequent elections, we are not plagued with the bloody revolutions as other countries have experienced. Sometimes a shift in party control in the government, as occurred in 1932 with the Democrats and in the early 1990's with the Republicans, keeps the political balance and stability that is so important for our government to function properly. State and national elections show hard-fought contests for political party control of seats in the Senate, House of Representatives, and State legislatures. Even the campaigning for offices in thousands of counties, cities, towns, and lower districts throughout the United States serve as a constant reminder of the importance of political parties in our political system.

Ancient Greece

*Democracy was born in the Greek culture*. If you had visited Greece around 400 B.C., you would have been able to witness the very first democracy known to man. You would find a government very different from most governments today; the Greek territories were divided up into city-states, which meant that the cities and their outlying areas were each independent of one another. Within these city-states the seeds of democracy were being planted. Within 100 years of your first visit to these regions, Aristotle and Plato would have been expounding the wisdom of government mainly by established laws. Developing out of Athens, Greek democracy was first called a direct democracy. Each male had a responsibility to serve on a permanent seat on the *local assembly, deciding laws and government policies*. The assembly set the rules and maintained authority. *The democracy of Greek city-states was limited in that no women or slaves could vote*, yet it was a model of population involvement at that time. Rivalries developed between the city-states, and in a way it was a good thing. Disputes between the two powers first occurred over land. Because of conflicts, the people of each city-state became fiercely loyal to that government and became politically involved. The best known city-states were Athens and Sparta, who each had strong governments and powerful military forces. Sparta had a standing army and Athens possessed a powerful navy. The city-states had a close-knit atmosphere much like that of a family, and the government was originally put into rough form around 700 B.C. At first, the city-states were ruled by an *oligarchy*, which was a small group of aristocratic men. Gradually, however, many male citizens were given the right to vote, serve on a jury, and hold public office. A walk through Athens in 400 B.C. gives us a glimpse of the government of that area. We see *a group of 500 men in session deliberating over a new law for the Athenians.* These men were selected from a lottery, as were those serving on jury. Though some of the poorer men could not leave work in order to serve in either office, the freedoms afforded to the citizens was highly enjoyed and became a model for future generations of governments to come. Were the city-states always democracies? No, if we go back about four more centuries we see that kings ruled the city-states for centuries. They were concerned mostly with personal power and did little for the poor people who were barely surviving on what little they could farm from the land. *Nobles overthrew most of the monarchs by 750 B.C.* and opened the way for a new type of rule. These rich men owned much land and had vast power in the localized government. Unrest because of slavery and power-hungry nobles led to city-states being overthrown by leaders who wanted a change. They were known as tyrants, which meant that they had grabbed absolute control by force. Many of the tyrants achieved their original goals of getting farmland and jobs for the needy, but soon they too had power-hungry disputes. Oligarchies eventually replaced the tyrants, but then Athens made a move which helped change the history of government. In 594 B.C. *Solon* was chosen as an Athenian statesman with reformation powers. Athens chose Solon to make laws to better assist the populace. Solon established a law which prohibited enslaving people in debt. He set up a strict code of law and defined the duties of classes of people within the city-state. After he left office, his successor, *Cleisthenes, presented the constitution in 508 B.C. This proposal opened up the voting rights to all free adult men.* The assembly of 500 would include any citizen of Athens. Democracy was truly advancing toward the rights and privileges given to all citizens.

history of discrimination against jews

*Discrimination is nothing new.* In 1215, the 4th Council of Lateran in France declared that the Jews of their country would be required to wear a distinctive sign to display their religion. A patch that bore the design of a wheel made of red or yellow cloth had to be worn by anyone Jewish. This practice was imitated in Italy in the 16th century, where all those of the Jewish race were required to wear a yellow hat. The purpose behind this humiliating act was to distinguish the Jew as being a "different kind of person" from the rest of the people. Similar practices occurred through the ages and included such countries as Spain and England. In Nazi Germany, Jews were again required to wear an outward symbol that labeled them as Jewish - a yellow star. In each of these cases, the fact that they had to *wear distinctive clothing* probably shows that they were similar in other respects. In other words, other people were forcing them to be seen as different! A PARTIAL TIMELINE OF DISCRIMINATION THAT TURNS INTO HORROR: *Sept 27, 1938* - Nazis prohibit Jews from all legal practices. *Oct 5, 1938* - A Nazi law requires all Jewish passports to be stamped with a large red "J." *Oct 28, 1938* - In a confusing yet tactical move, Nazis arrest 17,000 Jews of Polish nationality who are living in Germany, expelling them back to Poland. The Polish government, though, refuses them entry, so the Jews are left in a humiliating 'no-man's land' next to the Polish border for nearly half a year. *Nov 15, 1938* - Jewish students are banned from all non-Jewish German schools. *Dec 14, 1938* - Hermann Göring is given authority to resolve what the Nazis call the "Jewish Question." *Feb 21, 1939* - Nazis require Jews to hand over any and all gold and silver items. *July 4, 1939* - German Jews are stripped of the right to hold any government jobs. *Oct 23, 1941* - Nazis disallow any emigration of Jews from the Reich. *Dec 8, 1941* - Jews are taken to Chelmno extermination camp are placed in mobile gas vans and driven straight to a burial place. While the Nazi soldiers are driving to the destination, carbon monoxide from the engine exhaust is fed into the sealed rear compartment, killing them. The first gassing victims also include 5,000 Gypsies who were deemed unnecessary to society. *Dec 12, 1941* - The ship "Struma" leaves Romania for Palestine. "Struma," carrying 769 Jews is denied permission by British authorities to allow the passengers to disembark at the Haifa docks or anywhere else on the Israeli shore. In February of 1942, "Struma" sails back into the Black Sea, looking for a safe haven. However, it is intercepted by a Soviet submarine and identified as an "enemy target" and sunk. *Dec 16, 1941* - In a meeting of Nazi officials, Hans Frank, Gauleiter of Poland, asserts to the audience- "Gentlemen, I must ask you to rid yourselves of all feeling of pity. We must annihilate the Jews wherever we find them and wherever it is possible in order to maintain there the structure of the Reich as a whole..." He had previously made the public statement, "I ask nothing of the Jews except that they should disappear." "...that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom..." These words were spoken by Abraham Lincoln as he proclaimed the liberties that were available to each citizen of the United States. However, many people then and now still suffer a type of bondage: the bondage of prejudice.

characteristics of fascism

*Fascism is a form of government that demands complete control of its citizens in all areas of their lives.* Political, economic, social and even religious activities are under the rule of a fascism government, which is usually controlled by a dictator. *"Ruling by strength" or "might makes right" could be the slogan of fascist governments.* Though fascist governments *allow private enterprise to function*, personal liberties are severely curtailed. *Mussolini led the Italian Fascist party during World War II.* One of the prime examples of a fascist government is that of the Italy during the Second World War. In fact, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini coined the term fascism. Economic conditions were poor in Italy following World War I, and even though they had been on the winning side, Italians were upset because the peace treaties after the war had given them less territory that they had expected. The king of Italy was not showing improvement on the conditions of the land, so the Fascist party made sweeping claims about reclaiming the rightful territories of the nation from the days of the Roman Empire. By 1922, the Fascist Party gained so much support from landowners and leaders of business and military that it boldly maneuvered the king to make Benito Mussolini the prime minister. Upon receiving such power, Mussolini put the Fascists in control and made himself dictator. Having total control over education, communication and even police, Mussolini abolished every other political party and started a reign of power over the populace. Mussolini led Italy into an alliance with Hitler's Germany during World War II and called themselves the Axis powers. The Allied powers of the U.S., Britain, and others overcame the Axis. Consequently, the Fascist government was overthrown and Italy surrendered. *Even the symbol for fascism denotes power.* The fasces were a display of the government's strength in the time of the Roman Empire and were carried by the guards of the government officials. Fasces were made up of a bundle of elm or birch rods that were bound together by straps. The blade of an axe would protrude from the bundle of rods, symbolizing unity and strength. Though Mussolini started using the actual word fascism, the concept had been used as a powerful influence in many governments, including 1930's Hungary and Romania and Napoleon's French empire. *Fascists usually come to power by promising prestige or safety.* The history of fascists shows the party *usually gaining control of governments after an economic collapse or an outside threat*. Though the party may sometimes gain control by peaceful methods, the control they have is powerful and suppressing. No other political parties may have a share in the running of the country. Fascists may have a small group of leaders but usually one leader - a dictator - will take complete control. Behind the cry for national glory, the dictator will assume control over the military and the educational system. *Although a fascist country may become strong, it is at the expense of the individual citizens.* Personal liberties such as cultural pursuits and freedom of worship are ended. Even travel is curtailed under fascism. Massive propaganda campaigns sweep the country in order to promote the reasons for the personal sacrifices "for the good of the country." Children are often required to attend educational programs that will not only teach them the goals of the party, but also persuade them to completely support Fascist policies. *In business, the fascists control with an eye to high profits.* The government actually encourages private business, provided the businesses will serve the government in its functions. Labor strikes are strictly forbidden and insurrection may lead to imprisonment and even death, for to stop work is believed to be equal with rebellion against the government. Perhaps one of the most appalling traits of the Fascist governments of history is an intolerance towards ethnic minorities. Whether Jews, Gypsies, Slavs, or other minorities, fascists have hated these peoples and have allowed persecution of them, even to the point of conducting their own deadly *governmental "purging,"* slaughtering thousands of people at a time. *Hitler's Nazi Party displayed many traits of fascism.* Adolf Hitler ruled as a dictator and suppressed any rebellion with brutal force. His hatred for Jews and other minorities led to the death of millions, while he stirred the German people to be a "pure race." Power was his byword and he appealed to the national glory that he said was due Germany.

the use of propaganda

*Great men knew the importance of wise leadership.* Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was one of the greatest literary figures of German culture, a writer and philosopher at the beginning of the 1800's. His early poems and novels show not only superb art but also deep knowledge and philosophy. Goethe once said, "There is nothing more terrifying than ignorance in action." His statement rings especially true in the area of politics. The people of our country agree, but sometimes it can get confusing whenever some political speakers become vague in the areas of truth. *Search for the truth in politics.* It may be quite hard, but the wise citizen is careful to discern the meaning of words that may be frequently and flippantly used in American political life. For instance, we are told that if a person is a "conservative" or "right wing," they are old-fashioned and mean-spirited. If a person is "liberal" or "left-wing," they are overly emotional and weak-willed. Frankly, a lot of people use the terms and have little idea of what they mean. Although there are minor variations to the terms, most dictionaries agree on the overall idea of this simple way to remember the terms: Conservatives want to conserve the good things that have made our country great. Liberals want to liberate the nation from the bad things that would make it suffer. In their roots, both philosophies are, in theory, honorable. Sadly, both have the potential to fall short of these ideals. *Propaganda can be abused.* Propaganda is the spreading of information or ideas for the purpose of helping or hindering a person, institution, or cause. The word is often considered "bad," but it need not be so. Propaganda is nothing new, and it certainly isn't limited to the political arena. Countless organizations have dedicated themselves to propagandizing worthwhile causes such as peace, freedom, justice, education, public health, and the like. Other groups have propagandized to hinder or destroy these ends. Even today, in times of war, a goal of propagandists is to gain victory regardless of method. Use of the "big lie," atrocity stories, and "fronts" are cases in point. The result of such distortion and deception has led many of us to associate the term propaganda with evil. We prefer to label what we do as "education," and what others do as "propaganda." The fact of the matter is that attempts to sway our opinions surround us daily. We can avoid them only by closing our eyes, ears, and minds. Words are dangerous when they are untrue, whether in politics, business, school, or any other walk of life. Propaganda is not wrong if it is used properly and presented factually. It is merely the attempt to persuade others. *Seven propaganda techniques.* How can we recognize, use, or combat propaganda? Seven propaganda techniques are quite common. 1. When a candidate says he stands for "peace, prosperity, and progress," he is using glittering generalities. 2. When she implies that her opponent is "soft on Communism" or "has the support of the right-wing fanatics," she is resorting to name calling. 3. When candidates are photographed kissing babies, catching a fish, or mowing the lawn, they are seeking to appear as just plain folks. 4. Realizing how religious and patriotic most Americans are, he resorts to patriotism by opening his political meeting with a prayer, a salute to the flag, and the singing of The Star-Spangled Banner to transfer the religious and patriotic feelings involved to his cause. 5. When the candidate uses card stacking, he "stacks the cards" by recalling all the good things he has done, omitting facts that would justify his defeat. 6. She cites special polls to show that many people are joining her bandwagon and suggests that you should climb aboard. 7. If famous sportsmen, businessmen, or personalities issue testimonials on his behalf, he hopes to identify with some of their glamour. In analyzing such devices the best defense is a questioning mind. Ask yourself some of these questions: "Who says so? Why? Is it really true? Who stands to gain or lose by what was just said? Are the appeals made to reason, or to emotion and prejudice?" By carefully considering the facts behind the rhetoric, we can more carefully review the true content of the speech. *Support opinions with deeds.* The average person does not have the time to investigate all of the many problems and issues confronting us today. He must therefore rely on the newspapers, the radio and television, school, and family to make the facts available, and having collected as many facts as possible, he must form his opinion on a reasonable basis, free from prejudice or emotion. When he has done that, he owes it to society to associate himself with others who have reached the same or similar opinions and make his opinion a part of public opinion. You can make your opinions effective by participating in school and community activities. Do you have a debating team in your school or a current events club? If not, organize one. Does your school need a "clean-up" day? Get one included in your student activities program! *Do not wait until you are "of age."* Start now to make your opinions count. If the community needs a youth center, start one! If the school needs a pep band, organize one! If you think you could do a good job as a class officer or member of the council, then run for office. If things are needing repair in your neighborhood, do something about it! If you are dissatisfied with the party in power, join with those working to improve the situation. In the last analysis, opinions privately held on civic problems are not enough. Democracy works best when these opinions are publicly expressed and translated into civic action for the public good.

states' rights and responsibilities

*It is not all the federal government's responsibility.* You're driving out of town on a Saturday afternoon, heading for a festival in another city. You turn off of Main Street and head out of town on County Road 210. You then merge onto State Highway 60 after a few miles. Then you turn onto Interstate 17. You have experienced the benefit of four different levels of government: road construction and repair from departments of your town, your county, your state, and your federal government. Most people forget that in the creation of government projects and improvements, many levels of government are at work. Most parks are not run by the federal government, neither are the police forces. The state plays an important part in the running of our everyday lives. *There is a wide range of jurisdiction that is given to a state.* Jurisdiction was given to the states of the Union through the wisdom of America's founders and set forth in the Constitution. *Jurisdiction means the power of making laws and enforcing them*. If a state is not in conflict with the U.S. Constitution or other acts of Congress, it can work in a fairly wide-range of areas. Certain treaties must be honored by the state as well. For example, Arizona must honor the *Indian Reservation treaties* that were drawn up by the American Government for the Indian Nations. *National elections are conducted by the states.* The *Electoral College*, which decides who will be America's next president, is organized and managed by the states. The two houses of Congress are populated by the elected officials of the states of the Union. The House of Representatives and the Senate are both comprised of the members who have been sent to Washington by the voters of their home state. You may have traveled this country and have seen Iowa's state parks or enjoyed the results of the forests preserved by a state's Department of Conservation. You might have a relative who was a graduate of a state university in Texas or Louisiana. You may have read of the state's increase in spending for the welfare of the poor in New Hampshire. All of these services are the right and responsibilities of the states of the Union. Public works and public safety also fall under the umbrella of the state's service to its citizens. Many professions must undergo licensing in the state. *Doctors and dentists* will display their certificates on their office walls. *Real estate brokers* must apply for a state license. *Lawyers* must pass a state bar exam. The states regulate licensing and fees for such different responsibilities as *automobiles and marriages*! *The federal government allows the states to act on their own in many areas.* The Constitution is clearly supportive of state's right as it states in the 10th Amendment, " The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution , nor prohibited to it by the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people." This is wise because it not only allows individual states to exercise their uniqueness; it also helps the government to avoid being overburdened with "micro-management" -- having to oversee every street sign, driver's license, and policeman's salary in the nation. The states are able to handle responsibilities on a more local level. In colonial times relations were tense between the states and the central government, Continental Congress. The creation of the Constitution was an effort to ease those tensions. Before the Constitution, the states were governed under the Articles of Confederation. Under the Articles, the central government was much weaker than the state government. The men who drafted the Constitution favored a stronger central government. The new Constitution delegated extensive powers to the central government, especially economic and war power, but reserved many powers for the individual states. It called for a government of limited and delegated powers. Do you see the conflict? Even today, people do not agree on how much power the federal government should have; some would like to give the states more.

public opinion

*Measuring Public Opinion.* There are various ways in which the strength of public opinion on an issue can be measured. The public opinion poll has been used extensively in recent years to try to determine how people will vote in elections, and to measure the popularity of individuals as well as government policies. The techniques of opinion research used by such organizations as the Gallup Poll ® and the Harris Poll® have been improved and made more scientific in recent years. They are still subject to human error (usually the margin of error is between 2 and 4 percent) and the results should be considered very carefully. Many times you will read the results of either a scientific opinion poll or an online reader survey. It is important to realize that although the topics of these two very different types of public opinion sampling are alike, the results can be very diverse. Polling such as those done by USA TODAY® newspaper is a phone survey taken from a random sampling of United States residents. The polls are designed to reflect the "overall" opinions of the country. By polling from a carefully selected "slice" of the population, this kind of scientific polling tries to reach a representative of the various regions, races, and backgrounds. This type of polling has been used to consistently predict the outcome of elections. Online surveys, however, are not structured in the way polls are. Many websites today, as well as personal "blogs," will frequently ask a one or two-question survey in an effort to see what their readers think about a particular topic. These online surveys are not a broad slice of the population, but instead reflect the views of a narrower part of the population. Why? First, not everyone has Internet access, so the survey will be limited to those who are online. Second, people who use the Internet most frequently tend to have different demographics than the country overall; they are slightly younger than the general population. Third, people tend to view websites and blogs where their own views are reinforced. For example, politically conservative Americans will generally view politically conservative websites. The results of a poll found on such a website will reflect the views of the conservative readers. Likewise, a poll on the website of an organization committed to environmental issues will lean in favor of those who are already interested in environmental concerns. The results will not reflect the "typical" American. Because of these differences, the results of an online poll may be drastically different from scientific polling. The most important point to remember is that polls are no more reliable than the samples on which they are based. If the people polled do not represent a true cross-section of the public, the opinions reported then are biased. Scientifically constructed opinion polls are valuable as they reveal major trends and tendencies of the public. Such information can be very worthwhile if it is kept up to date, because opinions change often. On many issues the opinion is not stable. One public opinion poll may show that the majority of the people favor something in January and oppose it in August. People change their minds as they study a question or as dramatic new developments take place. This changing of opinion may be hard on the public-opinion poll takers, but it is good for democracy. *Public opinion is also measured by the roll calls taken from week to week on important measures in Congress.* Its members (both the House and the Senate) are very sensitive to what their constituents like or do not like. A citizen can help benefit his community by playing an active part in the affairs of his city and country. A simple editorial in the newspaper can go a long way in explaining why you feel that you need to speak up as a citizen on certain issues. *Another measure is the vote in local, state, and national elections.* At election time, people indicate whether they approve the policies of the party in office, or whether they prefer the alternatives offered by the other party. Individuals are often reelected or defeated because public opinion approves or disapproves their stand on issues. How well election results reflect public opinion, however, depends upon how clearly the candidates have stated the issues. *A strong measure of opinion is based on the letters, emails, and phone calls sent to congressmen.* This feedback is an important factor in determining how congressmen and senators vote on bills. It is not too reliable, however, because pressure groups conduct letter writing campaigns, which give the impression of greater support or opposition than really exists. The natural human tendency also is to take for granted what we favor and to write a letter only when we are angry. Despite the potential problems, however, our representatives welcome our considered opinions. *The Role of the Expert.* We value the idea of equality very highly in our republic. For example, we insist on the one-man-one-vote concept of government. This concept is correct; however, sometimes it can be carried too far. For example, we often say, "My opinion is as good as yours." If we mean, "I have as much right to my opinion as you do to yours," we are correct. However, the value of opinions vary a great deal. In fact, the more we know about a subject the higher the value of our opinion; and the less we know about anything the lower the value of our opinion. Soon after we enter high school we tend to specialize, or to major, in certain areas that we prefer. Most of us make a career out of our expertise, whether as a nurse, lawyer, plumber, mechanic, librarian, or teacher. People value our expertise in these occupations and pay for the services we render. Strangely enough, however, in the field of government we have been slow to recognize the role of the expert such as the experienced public administrator, city manager, political scientist, public health specialist, criminologist, economist, and sociologist. In her area of expertise, her opinion is far more valuable than yours or mine. Our opinions gain value whenever we recognize that others who know more about a particular subject are better-qualified to give an opinion than we are.

public opinion and the pressure on citizens

*Public opinion can be defined as the group opinion of individuals on a particular problem, backed by intention to act on that opinion.* Every question or issue that comes up in a club, a school, a city, a state, or the nation is subjected to the individual judgments of the people who make up these organizations. For example: The state-line town of Delmar, Delaware wants to draw out-of-state consumers to their businesses. They propose a 50-store mall that will advertise the fact that there is no state tax on merchandise purchased in the mall. Public opinion, however, is strongly against bringing so much traffic into the quiet town of 3,000 people. People hold local meetings and begin calling town officials. The mayor's committee receives the many reports and phone calls and decides to drop the idea before a vote is needed. That's public opinion in action. Public opinion is of most value in a democracy when the people who hold an opinion voice it and take action on it. Public opinion is influenced by consensus and compromise, by public relations and pressure groups. Public opinion *should be measured by experts*, but anyone can measure it to some degree and can determine the effect it has on them. *Consensus and Compromise.* Government by consent is really government by consensus- majority agreement in matters of opinions. This agreement does not mean that all of us must or do think exactly alike. However, it does mean that enough of us, as citizens, think enough alike to constitute a major agreement for intelligent action. Our representatives can represent us far more effectively when they can detect where the majority stands on vital issues. Many times an elected official will vote on an issue, knowing full well he does not have a strong grip on the feelings of his constituents. Citizens should be regular contributors of opinion to their elected officials in levels of government, from local to federal. To gain the *consensus* necessary to make democracy work most effectively requires considerable compromise. *This compromise is the act of coming to an agreement by means of mutual concession.* Say the town of Salisbury, Maryland wants to put up a new town park with a swimming pool. Half of the people surveyed want to see not only a swimming pool but a waterslide added to the park. The other half feel that a swimming facility will add too much liability insurance to the town budget. After some weeks of discussion and proposals, the two sides agree on a town park with a jogging track and a petting zoo. The compromise satisfies everyone. Compromise recognizes that few issues are clearly black and white, that a wide range of views and possible solutions to most problems exist. It seeks to find a course of action that will achieve the greatest good and least harm to the greatest number of people. The art of compromise requires great skill and diplomacy, but most legislation is based on it, and representative democracy could not thrive without it. *Public Relations and Pressure Groups.* The building of public opinion has become an important occupation in our democratic society. *Public relations has developed as a profession to promote public opinion.* Pamphlets, books, articles, and newspaper columns are written as promotional materials. Speakers are hired and radio and television time is purchased in an effort to shape the thinking of the public to the desires of special interest groups. Therefore, citizens need to be alert about our sources of information. Our opinions can never be any sounder than the facts upon which they are based. We should be able to recognize what propaganda is and how to analyze it and to see who is trying to shape our opinions and why. *Organized efforts to shape public opinion about government policies are carried on by special interest or pressure groups.* On the local, state, and national levels, groups strive to see certain laws passed. Groups range from teacher organizations to public relations departments of great corporations, from labor unions to railroads, and from medical and legal associations to farmer organizations. Two examples from the early 1990's were the influx of ads of the tobacco industry and the medical insurance industry. Both groups felt that they needed to take their story to the public airwaves to "give their side of the story." Citizens had to be careful to weed out the difference between truth and error, especially in the case of the tobacco industry. More recently, state lotteries flooded the media with reasons why the lottery system is essential to the welfare of the state. Conspicuously absent from the advertisements is the problem of gambling addictions and the very small amount of money that actually goes toward the needy groups such as public education. Each group is interested in either getting or protecting favorable treatment for its members. As a citizen it is important that you be careful in receiving information from groups with a political agenda. Be wise and consider who wants your support, what they want it for, and why they want it. Public opinion does not just grow on its own. It comes as a result of a common recognition of a challenge or problem, the accumulation of information about it, and public or group discussion. When a particular viewpoint on a matter of common concern is held by a majority of the people, we say that public opinion favors it or perhaps opposes it. Then if action needs to be taken, our representatives usually do something about it.

magnificent documents

*Some magnificent documents were written in the 1700s.* One of the most treasured documents in American history is the "unanimous Declaration of Independence" which Congress presented on July 4, 1776. It states "We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." With the Declaration of Independence, America announced its intention to become a free and self-supporting nation. It took until 1783 to finally win that treasured independence--now, what should a young government do? When the *leaders of the country met in Philadelphia in 1787*, they were already dealing with the problems of *collecting taxes, enforcing the laws, and establishing trade between the states*. They had originally met with the intention of modifying and amending the Articles of Confederation (1781). They realized that the Articles extended so much independence to the individual states that the national government was weak and ineffective. Through arguing and agreeing, debating and deliberating, the delegates were able to come to a consensus. Even the opening statement, or Preamble, shows the intent of these leaders to create an honorable government: "We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." The ideas behind the Constitution had been debated by many political thinkers in England before America's Constitution was actually written. Englishmen such as *Thomas Hobbes* (1588-1679) rejected the new idea of human dignity. He wrote a book called *Leviathan* which means "giant". Hobbes believed that man had absolute liberty in the state of nature to be very cruel. After a time, man was willing trade all of his liberties to the rulers of a nation in exchange for protection. The only two rights that the person retained under a government were the right of self-defense and the right to demand that the state provide protection against other men. He believed the government should be in complete control of man since man had an "evil" nature and could not be expected to act morally, cooperate with others, and act in his own best interests. *John Locke* (1632-1704) wrote a book called *Two Treatises on Civil Government* in which he discussed the same state of nature of which Hobbes wrote. Unlike Hobbes, who believed in the absolute authority of the state, Locke believed in the rights of man. He believed that in the state of nature, man lived according to natural law and had a life that was peaceful and full of reason. Locke said that man might have remained in this ideal state except that he must have the help and cooperation of other men. In the state of nature, according to Locke, man obeyed natural law. A man had rights and freedom equal with those of every other man and that in the state of nature man obeyed natural law. Locke's basic ideas are that no government can exist without the consent of the governed and that the primary purpose of the state was to protect the rights of the citizen. The practice of dividing the powers of a government among different branches to guard against abuse of power is known as "separation of powers." The United States government is separated into 3 branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. John Locke gave the concept more refined treatment in his Treatise. Locke contended that the legislative and executive powers were theoretically different, but did not always have to be separate in government. Judicial power played no role in Locke's thinking. He also proposed a system of checks and balances to avoid one branch asserting too much power over another. Sir William Blackstone was a contemporary of Locke who lived in England. His work "Commentaries on the Laws of England" explained natural laws and the absolute rights of individuals. It was used for more than a century as the foundation of all legal education in Great Britain and later in America. Baron Charles Montesquieu dealt with the modern idea of the separation of powers in The Spirit of the Laws. Montesquieu outlined a three-way division of powers in England among the Parliament, the king, and the courts, although it didn't actually exist at the time. So, America's founding fathers established a three-level system of government in the Constitution. *Alexis de Tocqueville* (1805-1859) was a French writer who analyzed the American governmental system in his two volume, *Democracy in America*. He contended that the delegation of government to the states was one of the strong points of the American system. He also was in favor of the independent judiciary system. However, he criticized America's majority rule concept as possibly as unfair as a monarchy and that public opinion could lead to dictatorship John Stuart Mill was an Englishman who wrote the book The Essay on Liberty in 1869 which is one of the most important political science books ever written. He reasoned that the problem of freedom in a democracy is not how the nation or ruler treats the people, but how the majority of the people treat the minority. Mill reminds us the rights that men have, such as participating in making the rules of a nation, are not absolute.

convention time: delegates nominate and "fine-tune"

*The Convention.* The party convention is a meeting of delegates. These *delegates may be elected by the people in a district or may be chosen by the party leaders themselves*. Two types of conventions were used after 1830. The *county convention* came into existence first and it nominated most county officers, elected the county chairman, and later chose delegates to the state convention. *State conventions* soon began to meet and to nominate all candidates for state offices and members of Congress. The state convention also nominated the delegates to the national convention of the party. In general, party leaders prefer the convention system because it gives them opportunity to take care of the other party business besides nominating candidates. At these gatherings the party can "fine-tune" its organization, finding where it is weak and working to correct the weakness. It can judge the candidates from the standpoint of popularity in different sections of the state and can arouse party enthusiasm among the leaders. This enthusiasm can be carried home to the local level. For these reasons the convention method was the most common method of nominating candidates after 1835. It remained popular until shortly after 1900 when the direct primary replaced it in many states, but it is still used on the national level. In some states both a convention and a direct primary are held. Candidates in Massachusetts, for example, can enter the primary election as endorsed by the convention. Some, however, enter without such endorsement. *The Direct Primary.* Political bosses gradually came to dominate the conventions. Fraud, bribery, and corruption were all common in the conventions. For this reason states abandoned the convention method of nomination. Nearly all the states now use the direct primary or a combination of convention and primary. The direct primary is a party election. The members of both the Republican or Democratic parties vote, by secret ballot, to choose the candidate who is to represent their party in the general election. Any person who desires a political office may have his name put on the primary ballot of his party in one of the following three ways: (1) a simple declaration of candidacy; (2) a declaration plus payment of a fee; (3) the presentation of a nominating petition signed by a given number, or a certain per cent, of the voters in his party. California, for example, requires every petition of candidacy to be filed by a certain number of "sponsors" who must swear that they know the candidate personally and consider him qualified for the office he is seeking. Two types of primaries are used in most of the United States. In the open primary, all qualified voters may vote for the candidates of the party they desire without revealing their party membership. For example, Ms. Jones gets both Republican and Democratic ballots, both the same size and color. She marks one ballot and puts it in the ballot box. The other is then discarded. Voters of all parties as well as independents thus enjoy complete freedom of party choice. The weakness of the open primary is the fact that it lends itself to "party-raiding." Members of one party can thus move into the primary of the other party to choose candidates whom they will more likely defeat in the final election. Some of the open primary states are Wisconsin, Michigan, Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, and North Dakota. In the closed primary the voter must declare his party allegiance and ask for the ballot of his own party, which he then marks. Independents are excluded. The closed primary has the advantage of building up the party strength and unity. It helps to make both the party and the candidates mutually responsible for its program. Most states use the closed primary system. What is the practice in your state? A third system, used in Washington state, is known as the blanket ballot system. It has also been referred to as the wide-open primary. Under this plan the voter is given one ballot. The ballot has the names of the candidates for each office in each party. The voter makes his choice regardless of the party label of the candidate for whom he votes. This system encourages party switching, with emphasis on "the best man for the job" rather than party loyalty. Like the open primary, the blanket primary can also lead to "party-raiding." *Run-off Primary.* In most states the candidate who receives a plurality, the most votes cast (even if it's not a majority) is the candidate of that party in the general election. However, most southern states have provided for a second primary or run-off election to decide which candidate gets a majority. In two other states the winning candidate must receive at least 35 percent of the votes of his party. If he fails to obtain this percentage, the nomination is made by a convention called for that purpose.

feudalism

*The Middle Ages brought about the rise of a governmental system known as feudalism.* Although feudalism was a highly decentralized system of authority, it was most successful in meeting the needs of the medieval period nobles. The primary political authority rested in local dukedoms and baronies and established a political system which had never been conceived before. Feudalism was an exchange of land for protection in which discipline, order and a different type of currency set a new course in styles of government. Here was a type of government where no coin currency would have to change hands! An aristocrat would give vassals land in an agreement in which the vassals would then give military service to the lord. Only the upper echelon of society such as noblemen could take part in the feudal agreement. This system helped the rulers of the Middle Ages bring order to the nations, as a lord granted fiefs (land) to those who vowed to *give military protection* to him. *Feudalism started around A.D. 700* and was probably at its strongest in the 900's up to the 1200's. It served its purpose and was *gone by the 15th century*. It *started in Northern Europe and spread throughout the continent, but was strongest in England.* Knighthood was a part of the lore of feudalism. Let's create a scenario to help explain the principles of feudalism. We will put our scene in England in the fictional area of Springbrook in the year A.D. 1100 The noble Robert of Springbrook needs to have protection over the vast lands that he owns. Robert knows of many good men who will be great and faithful leaders, so he calls to them to become vassals in his manor. These men agree and an important ceremony known as an homage sealed the commitment. The ceremony bound the vassal's physical protection for the lord of the manor, and the lord vowed to give honor to the vassal. It was a serious crime to break this pledge of commitment. Let's call one of the vassals Thomas the Vassal. An investiture ceremony followed the homage, where Thomas the Vassal is now accorded the land promised to him. *A vassal was given the rights to control the fief but not to have ownership of it.* Thomas now is given the right to receive the benefit of anything the land would produce, along with the right to hire workers. Anyone who lived in his fief would pay Thomas taxes and be subject to a court held by Thomas, should they break a rule of the fief. This could continue down through family lines even after Thomas died. The relationship between the lord and vassals carried other financial responsibilities. In special rights called *feudal aids*, the lord had further financial protection. When the lord's eldest son was knighted or if his eldest daughter was married, the vassals would be required to provide money to him. Should the lord be in wartime and become captured in battle, the vassals were bound to provide ransom money for his release. On the other hand, the lord must not overtax his vassals unduly. Robert of Springbrook calls on Thomas the Vassal and informs him that he should have his knights prepared to protect the kingdom. Thomas then hires knights to be suited up with armor and prepare for horse-mounted battle at short notice. Thomas agrees to give the knights a part of his fief in exchange to be part of his "standing army." In exchange for the land, the knight agrees to be a sort of sub-vassal to Thomas. This agreement was known as *subinfeudation. This layering of responsibility* was for each level to be directly responsible to the level above them.

the republican party

*The Republican Party began as a series of anti-slavery political meetings throughout the Midwest in 1854.* The Whig Party was collapsing, and many Whigs, as well as northern Democrats, opposed the extension of slavery. The Republican Party represented this anti-slavery view and thus gained followers rapidly. The party's first Presidential candidate was John C. Fremont, who ran unsuccessfully in 1856 although he carried eleven northern states. From 1860, when Abraham Lincoln was elected president, through 1928, the Republican Party won fourteen of the eighteen presidential elections. Its policies appealed to many groups, including farmers, industrialists, and merchants, but the party did have problems. Financial scandals during the presidency of Republican Ulysses S. Grant in the 1870's, as well as general economic unrest nearly cost the party the presidential election in 1876. Theodore Roosevelt served as the Republican president from 1901 to 1909. Another Republican, William Howard Taft, served as president in the next four years. By 1912, the Republican Party was divided between Taft and Roosevelt. The conservative Republicans re-nominated Taft at the party's 1912 national convention. Roosevelt and his supporters then withdrew from the Republican Party and with the help of Jane Addams formed the National Progressive Party (also known as the Bull Moose party). This split helped the Democratic candidate, Woodrow Wilson, win the election. The Republicans lost to Wilson again in 1916, but, they regained the Presidency in 1920 and won easy victories in 1924 and 1928. The party's popularity declined after the Stock Market crash of 1929 . A Republican did not win the Presidency again until 1952. *During World War II (1939-1945), the Republicans began to show signs of recovery.* In 1946, they won majorities in both houses of Congress for the first time since 1928. Then, in 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower brought the Republicans their first presidential victory in twenty-four years. Eisenhower, a popular war hero, won again in 1956, but he had a Republican majority in both houses of Congress for only the first two years of his eight years in office. The Republicans lost a close race to the Democrats in 1960 when John F. Kennedy was elected. In 1964 the Republicans suffered a landslide defeat to Lyndon B. Johnson. They regained the Presidency in 1968, under Richard M. Nixon and held it in 1972, but the Democrats continued to control Congress. In 1976 Democrat Jimmy Carter won the presidential election, but lost to Republican Ronald Reagan in 1980. Reagan's vice president, George Bush, was elected as the next Republican president. The Republicans kept control of the presidency until the 1992 elections when Bill Clinton won two successive terms, the first over the incumbent George H. Bush and the second over the challenger Bob Dole. In the 2000 election, George W. Bush, son of President George Bush, won a narrow victory over Democratic Vice President Al Gore. The results were challenged in several states, but the most challenges came from Florida, where legal battles lasted to December 13, five weeks after the election. Gore finally decided to concede the election after the U.S. Supreme Court halted the re-count of certain votes in select Florida counties.

the great melting pot

*The United States has been known as "the great melting pot,"* meaning that people of all races and nationalities are welcome within its borders. It also means that people bring their cultures, traditions, and languages, melting them together into a new culture known as America. Sometimes the inclusion of so many diverse backgrounds causes attitudes of discrimination and prejudice. *From ancient history, slavery has been an accepted norm for most societies.* It was customary for the victorious nation to take the captured people as slaves. For example, the ancient Hebrews were slaves to the Pharaoh in Egypt because they were a conquered people. The ancient world - whether Babylon, Egypt, Greece, or Rome - did not base slavery on the color of a person's skin. Slavery was an accepted social class, which did not necessarily denote cruel treatment and a hopeless, downtrodden way of life. Slaves, however, wished for their freedom, as would anyone under bondage. Intense race consciousness among European peoples did not develop until the colonial expansion, when white men needed a handy rationalization to justify their rule over nonwhite people. Such discrimination was a result of prejudice. Prejudice implies a preconceived and unreasonable judgment or opinion, usually an unfavorable one marked by suspicion, fear, intolerance, or hatred. Prejudice is an unreasonable bias formed before the facts are known, usually resulting in injury or harm of some sort. Stereotyping is another harsh action, where a person is pre-judged wrongfully because of a characteristic such as their skin color or national origin or even what they wear. For example, Bill might be constantly excluded from neighborhood baseball games because he wears glasses; the rest of the kids assume that anyone who wears glasses cannot see well enough to play baseball. That is a form of stereotyping. Prejudice is not limited to racial attitudes, but also includes discrimination against people with physical handicaps. Many people avoided assisting people who were blind, arthritic, lame, or otherwise physically limited. The general thinking of society was that they were "lesser" citizens because of their handicaps. Thankfully, awareness is increasing toward assisting those who are physically challenged. In America today, for example, businesses must comply with federal guidelines that assist physically disabled citizens or face stiff fines by the Government. It wasn't until recent decades that public places became "Wheelchair Accessible." Wider doors, lower sinks, drinking fountains, and larger restroom stalls with safety handles were not available to those in wheelchairs. We should be examples of those who show compassion and encouragement toward those who are limited in their physical abilities. All of us are guilty to some extent of prejudice and a discriminatory attitude -- we might avoid someone because of their accent, their skin color, or their school grades. The way to cure our prejudice is for us to see what it is like to be that person who suffers from discrimination. Imagine how a black person of the 1950's felt when he was refused service at a restaurant. Imagine the older person who finds it hard just to read a newspaper or hear a normal conversation. We need to reach out and not only understand, but as much as possible, to try to alleviate the problems surrounding that person.

Ancient Rome

*The beginnings of a government that involved the people were seen in ancient Rome.* In *500 B.C., the Roman government was forming into what was to be a republic.* In a republic, citizens have the freedom to vote for their leaders through elections. This afforded something new in the general thinking of governments: accountability to the people. There were *two parts, or two houses, to the early Roman republic: the citizen assembly and the Senate.* Two elected officials headed the two councils, and served for one-year terms. The republic was established in 509 B.C. and *lasted nearly 500 years*. *What was the difference between the Greek and Roman governments?* In early democratic-type governments, the wealthy still wanted to maintain control, and it was no different in Rome. *The difference between the Roman republic and the Greek democracy was that in Greece all men were allowed to vote, but in Rome, only men with money and property could vote. But the common people gained their own way into the government.* In the Senate, the most powerful part of the government, *all senators were patricians* (members of Rome's richest and most important families). To obtain political rights, *plebeians* (the common people) *formed their own assembly, the Concillum Plebus*, and named their leaders *tribunes*. Plebeians largely controlled the assembly and an active, cooperative government was formed. *Establishing peace and order gave Rome much-needed stability.* The Romans' first code of law was established around 450 B.C. On 10 separate tablets, ten legal experts wrote down a list of *Roman customs about property and punishing people who did wrong*. However, due to plebeian pressure, two more tablets of laws were added, which satisfied the plebians. The final code was called the laws of the Twelve Tables (bronze tablets on which the laws were inscribed). Originally its details of procedure were restricted to a body of patrician leaders. Later, the Twelve Tables were posted in public, making the laws more accessible to the common man for interpretation and understanding. By the end of the third century Roman law covered relations among Romans, dealings with foreigners, and eventually covered even magisterial law to strengthen and correct existing law. As the Roman Empire was in its first steps of dominance around 27 B.C., the law's development was taken over by the emperors, who added and revised freely. As the law grew more complex, the government literally trained jurists who could understand and correctly interpret the laws. The stability of the law, the military, and financial standing of Rome kept it powerful. A number of enemies tried to overthrow the Roman republic, but they failed in their efforts. *Rome successfully battled the Carthaginians, the Celtics (now known as the British), the Etruscans, and the Samnites.* *The Roman empire grew within and without.* The Roman civilization grew, partly due to a government that ran smoothly for years. *The Roman empire was established around 27 B.C.* Through the wise working of its leaders it had grown from a small republic into an empire that spanned three continents. Even the growth of the power of Rome did not keep it from being far-sighted in its planning, and the leaders took careful steps to maintain what they owned. *The empire was divided into states that were ruled by governors who collected the taxes and sent the money back to Rome.* The early government of Rome shows us the importance of people's involvement in the decision-making process, by voting and even serving in office. Rome showed us how a republic could be run.

the ballot

*The secret ballot is the accepted voting procedure in America.* Jeff is voting in his very first presidential election. He heads to his polling place and arrives at 8:30 in the morning. His particular polling place is at a local elementary school where he is surprised to see quite a number of people already filing in to vote. He passes a table with coffee and smiling people asking him if he needs any assistance. He asks them where he signs in and is directed to a table at the middle of the gymnasium floor. He shows his voting card and his driver's license. The kind old lady sitting at the table points him to a voting booth, where Jeff enters, draws a curtain and fills out a ballot in secret. In a matter of minutes he's on his way, but not until after he has received a small sticker on his lapel which proclaims him as a voting citizen. As trivial as it may seem, Jeff is proud to wear the sticker and let everyone know he cares enough to vote. As you know, voters in a national election will be casting their ballots for president and vice-president once every four years. However, if you have not been eligible to vote in a state election, you may be surprised at the number of office candidates hoping for your vote. From governor to judges, you are given the right to elect servants to state offices. In some states, the legislature or the governor will appoint judges to office, but there are still many states who leave this decision up to the citizens. *In the early days of our democracy, oral voting was used* in a number of states. The voters went to the polling place and shouted to the judges the names of the candidates for whom they were voting. The candidates were present, and they knew who voted for them and who voted against them. An employer also knew how his employees voted, and vice versa. A little later the printed ballot came into use. Each party printed its own special-colored ballots with the names of its candidates. These ballots were distributed before the election and the voter simply brought the colored ballot of his party to the polls and cast his vote openly. By this method the political bosses knew how everyone voted, and they could punish those who failed to vote the "right" way by denying them any services or jobs. *Not until 1888 was the so-called Australian ballot introduced into the United States.* It was used in Louisville, Kentucky, in the city elections. Several months later it was adopted by Massachusetts, and today it is used throughout the country. The Australian ballot has four distinctive features: (1) it is a secret ballot, (2) it includes the names of all candidates from all parties, (3) it is prepared by the state or county and is printed at public expense, and (4) it is distributed only at the polling places and only by the election officials. The ballot is arranged in one of two ways. One is the party column method where the names of the parties appear at the tops of the columns, and the titles of the various offices are shown at the sides. The other is the office-bloc arrangement, which puts the titles of the offices across the ballot, then the candidates of both parties for each office are placed below the titles.

the challenge of discrimination

*The signers of the Declaration of Independence were signing a magnificent document of personal freedom:* "We hold these truths to be self evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." This statement is a foundational principle for American democracy, and yet even as this document was being signed, some of the signers owned slaves. *Why do people show discrimination?* Sometimes it is from fear. Other times it might be from a past hatred. Unfortunately, even today, discrimination and prejudices are locked in the minds of most Americans. Many people feel they have the right to feel superior to those of other ethnic backgrounds or people groups. A good definition of discrimination is a practice that treats equal people unequally and does not let them have the same opportunities to compete for social rewards. We should show kindness and respect for the citizens and neighbors around us, no matter how different they are from us. Many people bond together on the basis of nationality, economic status, language usage, religious affiliation, or regional habitat, as well as race. Of all these criteria, race is one of the most widely used as a basis for group identity. Race may be defined as a group of people somewhat different from other groups in a combination of inherited physical characteristics, but sadly, race is also substantially determined by popular social definition. We may often hear people speak of the "Jewish race" or the "German race," but in reality this is an ethnic group rather than race. An ethnic group is any kind of group, racial or otherwise, which is recognized by society and by itself is a distinct group--and is open to discrimination as well. CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS *We've all come from a unique background.* Since the founding of our nation, European immigrants have been assimilated in the United States. These immigrants came from many national cultures with a variety of languages, customs, religions, family patterns, and general attitudes toward life. Usually they would settle in ethnic colonies, either in small towns--sometimes given a European name--or in urban neighborhoods. These neighborhoods often became known as "Little Italy," "Little Poland," or any country from which the majority of the populace came. Though many immigrants planned a temporary residence in the United States, the majority remained. Some spent their entire lives within the ethnic colonies surrounded by fellow nationals, but succeeding generations moved out of the colonies as their assimilation progressed to such an extent that their European background became only a faint memory. Although European immigrants quickly became integrated in a common society, Americans whose racial features set them off from the Caucasians have not found assimilation to be so easy. Instead, the prevailing American pattern has been the integration of Caucasian immigrants and the segregation of all other groups. *It took a series of amendments to the U.S. Constitution and other federal laws to get freedoms for all.* The United States was founded and settled chiefly by people seeking greater liberty. Thus, many of the subsequent events in America's history--the Revolutionary War, the settlement of the West, the coming of tens of millions of immigrants, and the participation in two world wars--have had liberty as their motivating force. In the American context, equality means that the government should not discriminate among citizens by establishing legal classes, but should treat all persons alike. Americans proclaim that every person should enjoy fair and equal opportunities. The proclamations are admirable, but the practices of Americans have often left much to be desired. For example, slavery was an established institution until the *Thirteenth Amendment was ratified on December 18, 1865*, when slavery was abolished and freedmen were granted equal protection under the law. Section I says, "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." Three years later on July 28, 1868, *the Fourteenth Amendment defined the rights of citizenship* by stating in Section l, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privilege or immunities of citizens of the United States: nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." In 1870 the Fifteenth Amendment gave all male citizens the right to vote: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Notice that the Fifteenth Amendment says nothing about women being allowed to vote. *It was designed to give the vote to former slaves.* Women didn't gain the right to vote until 1920, with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." In 1964 President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act. This new federal law outlawed discrimination in public accommodations such as hotels and restaurants. It also encouraged public schools to become desegregated. The next year, Johnson also signed into law the Voting Rights Act, which outlawed the use of literacy tests to qualify to register to vote. These tests had been used as a way of discriminating against minorities and poor voters, who were often not as well educated. Another Civil Rights Act in 1968 outlawed discrimination in the sale, financing, or rental of homes. *Race has been a constant issue in America.* Though slavery had been abolished and all citizens granted equal protection under the law and the right of equal vote, equal opportunity was not insured. Beginning about 1890, *approximately twenty states enacted segregation laws directed primarily at African Americans, but affecting in varying degrees persons of Oriental descent, Mexican origin, and even American Indian origin.* Although they varied from state to state, these laws basically *provided for compulsory segregation* of people along racial lines in the use or enjoyment of both private and public facilities including such areas as education, recreation, housing, eating establishments, and transportation. Finally in 1954, the "separate but equal" policy in regard to education was ruled unconstitutional, and a long, slow process of desegregation began. Since then, both Federal legislation and state legislation have been passed in an effort to prevent segregation and discrimination. States now forbid operators of theaters, hotels, and restaurants to refuse service to minority groups, nor can private industry discriminate in hiring employees. Despite forward advances taken during the administrations of Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy promoting civil rights, many doors continued to be closed to minority groups. A key speaker at the 1963 rally in Washington, D.C. was Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. who addressed the crowd at the Lincoln Memorial with his historic "I Have a Dream" speech. Since 1963, more desegregation laws have been consistently passed and attitudes of individuals are continuing to be altered, weakening discrimination in our American society. Sometimes, a conflict can arise berween two or more different rights. For instance, the media may report about a string of murders in you community. They have a right to report the crimes, and you have a right to know. After all, you may need to protect yourself. After great police work, someone is arrested for the crime and lawyers for the state and the accused prepare to go to trial. The defense attorney (lawyer of the accused) may ask for a "change of venue." This means that the defense is asking for the trial to be moved to a different county. Because of the media coverage of the murders, the lawyers may feel that it is impossible for the defendant to get a fair trial in the county where the murders were committed. Often, a judge will grant a change of venue, and the trial will be moved to a different county and then proceed as normal. This is an example of a conflict between different rights guaranteed under our Constitution--First Amendment and Sixth Amendment.

history of democracy

*The people of the United States voted for incumbent Democrat Bill Clinton over Republican challenger Bob Dole in the 1996 presidential election.* It was another coast-to-coast example of American democracy at work. Every time a senior citizen enters the voting booth at a local high school to vote on a town mayor, it's democracy in action. Every time a father makes a voting mark on the ballot for the next county sheriff, democracy is being exercised. Every time a college sophomore receives her voter's registration in the mail and heads to her precinct for voting, we see democracy working. America's democratic government has survived well over 200 years, but it is a concept that goes back thousands of years. *Democracy is a great idea that started with the Greeks and Romans.* The city-states of ancient Greece and the Rome republic *had citizens voting in direct democracies*. A democracy is a system of politics in which the people of a nation actually rule by their voting power. They may choose a form of government which might be different from other countries in order to meet their particular needs, but it is still government by the people. In modern democracies, elected *representatives* are sent to the government seat to do the will of the people from their designated districts. The representatives may even be replaced by the people according to the voting process called recall. Elected officials are directly accountable to the electorate.

how to introduce a bill to congress

*We see legislative action on the news practically every day.* Senators debating. Representatives compromising. Legislators voting. With all of the big words and House Bill numbers, how can we really know what is going on? Probably the biggest question in the whole process is: How does an idea become a law? Surely someone had to put the idea down on paper and get the ball rolling. Well, let us see if we can get a better picture of the law-making procedure by inventing a scenario: *Let's say you have a great idea for a possible law.* You have felt that people pay so much on tolls on highways, that you have come up with an idea to put a computerized chip embedded into a car which will signal the toll booth every time you go through and pay. For every five times you pay a toll, you get a free pass! You sit down and write out the details, like where the monitoring system is, on what part of the car the chip would be located, how the person would be able to get the free pass, etc. You are really itching to get this thing into a law! Well, you can't go running into Congress, waving your idea around. *Anyone may draft a bill; but only members of Congress are allowed to introduce legislation, making them the sponsor of the bill.* The great thing about American law-making is that all legislation starts off as an idea that can come from anybody. There are no "membership" qualifications or a certain amount of money needed to give you the prestige to make a presentation. Anybody can give an idea for a law! One of the first things to do is to persuade a member of one of the two houses of Congress--the House or the Senate--to sponsor the "toll booth" bill. Let's say it goes to the Senate and your area Senator Birchlimb receives it. He likes it and has it drafted into an actual bill. The drafted bill gets returned to Senator Birchlimb--and you--for review. You and the senator check it and see that it is staying within the guidelines of what you put down. The senator then introduces the bill at the Senate Desk. If you would have taken it to your representative, it would have gone to the House of Representative's desk. The idea, now called a bill, is assigned a number and read for the first time. The official legislative ball gets rolling when a bill or resolution is numbered--*H.R.* signifies a House bill and *S.* a Senate bill--and is printed up by the Government Printing Office. *The next step to a law is when your Toll Booth bill gets a referral to a committee.* With few exceptions, bills are referred to standing committees in the House or Senate according to carefully defined rules of procedure. The committee then goes into action. Your Toll Booth bill is placed on the committee's calendar for review. This bill can be referred to a subcommittee, but in this case it is considered by the committee as a whole. It is at this point that a bill is examined carefully to see if it even has a chance of passing. In our case, the committee likes what they see and they act on it. Good thing--*if the committee does not act on a bill, it's the same as if they would have voted it down.* In your case, the committee has formed a subcommittee to review your bill further and do a little "homework" on it. Your bill is now under the scrutiny of a subcommittee for study and hearings. Hearings provide the opportunity to hear the views of various experts, other public officials, supporters and even opponents of the bill. The hearing provides for the matters to be put on record, whether the testimony is given in person or submitted as a written statement. When the hearings have finished, the subcommittee might meet again to "mark up" the bill. Marking up a bill means that the subcommittee might make changes and add amendments before they recommend the Toll Booth bill to the full committee. Again, if the subcommittee votes not to do anything with the bill, the bill dies. *The subcommittee liked your bill.* The opponents could not mount a reasonable argument, and the experts gave good insight to your plan. The bill was passed back to the full committee who did a little more study on it. They considered the subcommittee's recommendations and a proposed amendment about putting the chip underneath the bumper of the cars. The full committee voted its recommendation to the rest of the Senate known as "ordering a bill reported." After a committee votes on this, the committee chairman instructs a staff to prepare a written report on the bill. This report describes the intent and effect of the bill (also called legislation) on existing laws, and includes the agreeing and dissenting views of the members of the committee. *Your bill has been reported back to the chamber where it originated, and is getting ready for its big introduction.* The Toll Booth Bill is placed in chronological order on the calendar. When it is given its reading to the members of the Senate there may be a debate on this legislation. Senator Birchlimb informs you that there are certain conditions and amounts of time allocated for general debate about the bill. The senators open the discussion about the bill and the debating starts. Discussions continue as the senators hear the pros and cons of the bill. Will it cost too much? Will it encourage more travel along the toll routes? Will it benefit the people or hurt them in the long run? These and many other questions revolve around your proposed legislation. No amendments have been added to the bill and the debate draws to a close. The members vote. *Your bill passes the Senate!* Now it is time to move the Toll Booth legislation to the House. You see, any time a bill is passed in one house of Congress, it then moves over to the other house of Congress. In this case, it will move from the Senate to the House.

pillars of democracy

*What makes a modern democracy so great?* Four powerful pillars of democracy include the *citizen's freedom, equality before the law, voting rights, and opportunity for education.* Independent countries flock to the democratic system which, even with its flaws, still remains an immensely popular form of government, since there is a great margin for correction if the need arises. *One of the best American writings on democracy is the series of essays known as The Federalist (1787-1788).* Written during the Revolutionary Era by the statesman *Alexander Hamilton*, the essays are a powerful display of love and patriotism for our country's freedom. The essays, or papers, defended the brand-new Constitution of the United States. The Federalist Papers, as they are now known, present some of the most persuasive arguments for constitutional government ever written. While Hamilton was the primary author of the papers, a number of them were written by James Madison and John Jay. *Democratic nations may have different forms and styles in voting.* For instance, each of Argentina's 23 provinces elects three senators to six-year terms. The United States has two houses of Congress and the *elected Senators have six-year terms while the House's officials have two-year terms.* In 1991, Bangladesh voted in a parliamentary democracy, headed by a prime minister. Earlier that year a 300-member parliament was elected, and 30 additional seats were subsequently filled by indirect ballot. Different nations exercise various forms of democracy. Nevertheless, the framework of democracy stays the same: the people have voting rights. Despite its challenges and shortcomings, democracy still thrives as strongly today as it did centuries ago. English journalist John Langdon-Davies made a bold public statement in 1936: "Democracy will be dead by 1950." What do you think?

Put the steps that an idea goes through before becoming a law in the correct order.

1. drafted into an actual bill 2. bill introduced at House or Senate desk 3. bill number assigned 4. bill referred to a committee 5. a hearing is held 6. the committee recommends ordering the bill reported 7. bill is placed on the House or Senate calendar 8. bill passes in one house and moves on to the other house of Congress

policy

A governmental course of action. Plan; course of action

chancellor

A head of state in some forms of government.

chamber

A legislative meeting hall.

social class

A level of society.

enumeration

A list; a number of.

dictator

A leader who has total control over a country, and is unrestrained by law. (A supreme ruler with absolute power; usually a demanding and harsh ruler.) 1. Dictator Saddam Hussein of Iraq tolerated no opposition within the country, and his decisions went unquestioned by citizens, lest they face fearful consequences. His regime systematically executed, tortured, imprisoned, and terrorized the Iraqi people. He managed to keep control over Iraq even though his country had been humiliated by the United States in continual conflicts since the initial attacks of the Persian Gulf in the early 1990s. In March of 2003, President George W. Bush ordered a military invasion of Iraq with the goal of toppling Hussein from power. The goal of removing Hussein from power was accomplished on December 13, 2003, when soldiers, including U.S. special operations forces, found him hiding in a 6-by-8-foot hole. Saddam had challenged his followers to fight to the death before, during, and after the war that eventually removed him from power, but in the end, he quickly surrendered when facing American soldiers. Hussein was captured with weapons and about $750,000 in $100 bills. 2. General Idi Amin was another dictator like Saddam Hussein; he ruled the African country of Uganda with an unrelenting and iron-like fist. He came to power in 1971 and quickly declared Uganda to be a Muslim country. Many non-Muslim foreigners were given 24 hours to leave the country. Even native non-Muslim Ugandans were not allowed to meet together for religious purposes. Many who were in disagreement with him were quickly killed. In 1972, he expelled all Asians from Uganda, including over 60,000 businessmen and professionals. Amin would tolerate no insubordination whatsoever, and the multitudes feared and loathed him. In 1979, when Uganda was at war with neighboring Tanzania, Ugandan rebels allied with Tanzanian troops and drove Amin from the country. Amin was allowed to escape and settle in Saudi Arabia, where he died in August of 2003.

voting machine

A mechanism used in elections; with a systems of buttons and levers, the voter has no need of writing utensils.

currency

A medium of exchange for purchases.

representative

A member of a legislative power, elected by, and acting on behalf of the voters of his district.

The Democrat Digest

A monthly digest of information for Democrats.

The Republican

A monthly digest of information for Republicans.

independent agencies

A part of the executive branch that acts apart from an interactive network.

Whig Party

A party formed mainly to fight the Democratic Party and Andrew Jackson; formed in the 1830's.

Era of Good Feelings

A period from 1816-1824 where there was only one political party: the Democrat-Republicans.

straight ticket

A person votes for all candidates of that party for all offices.

incumbent

A person who currently holds an office.

candidate

A person who desires a position in a political office.

challenger

A person who does not hold an office but who is trying to unseat an incumbent.

ambassador

A representative of a government; a diplomat who resides in the country where he is in communication.

petition

A request.

minority party

A smaller party with not as much political clout or election support.

mercenary

A soldier who is hired for service in a foreign country.

independents

A voter with no party affiliation.

knighthood

Able-bodied men who are hired by the vassal for the protection of the lord.

stereotyping

Acting in a biased manner; using prejudicial thinking.

floor action

Activity concerning a bill which may include debates and compromises.

John Jay

American statesman and the first chief justice of the United States.

Alexander Hamilton

American statesman, principal author of the Federalist Papers, and the first secretary of the treasury.

James Madison

American statesman, the "Father of the Constitution," and the fourth president of the United States.

atrocity

An appallingly wicked act.

term

An assigned period of time for an elected official.

primary

An early election in which delegates select and nominate candidates for office.

precinct

An election region or section of a community.

settler

An emigrant who has arrived in a new area to create a home.

polity

Aristotle's definition of a good government run by the people.

provision

Arrangement or groundwork laid to establish a program.

medieval

At the time of the Middle Ages. (A.D. 500-1500 approx.)

delegated

Authorized or assigned; allowed.

ratified

Authorized; put into legislation.

secret ballot

Ballot that is kept private and distributed only at the polling places and only by the election officials.

subinfeudation

Breaking down an already-smaller portion of land in exchange for services and protection.

tranquility

Calmness; peacefulness (note: the early American spelling has two "L's").

campaign debt

Deficit incurred due to the expenses of a political effort.

state convention

Delegates nominate candidates for offices and Congress, and delegates to the national convention.

county convention

Delegates nominate most county officers and chose delegates to the state convention.

representative democracies

Democracy where the people elect representatives to act as their agents in making laws.

infringed

Disobeyed or violated.

fascism

Extreme totalitarian government run by a dictator and based on highly-emotional nationalism.

conducting the campaign

Few candidates for state or national offices could be elected without the support of their party. The party prints and distributes literature and contracts and pays for radio and television time including as much prime time as possible. The party does everything it can to sell its candidate to the voters. The party creates campaign slogans to help reflect the position of the party and its candidate. Billboards along all the streets and highways are plastered with names and pictures of the candidates. The party collects as much information as possible and distributes this information on behalf of its candidate. It is not uncommon to find bumper stickers and posters distributed everywhere. The party will often search for information that will work against the opposing candidate. They will broadcast this information in hope of influencing the voters on election day. The national committee assigns leaders to go to certain states to help campaign for their party's candidate, especially in states where the opposition may be stronger. Political campaigns waged by rival organizations focus the spotlight of public attention on the candidates, their qualifications, and their stand on the issues. It may seem to be an avalanche of information heaped upon the public! The people are bombarded with party slogans, campaign promises, speeches and sound bites every day during the heat of the campaign. Locally, party workers strive to get people out to vote in their precincts on election day, sometimes even offering free transportation and baby-sitting services. Every effort is made to get the voter to the polls to vote for the man or woman of their choice. If a candidate appears to be headed for a loss, he or she may concede the election to the other candidate, which means that they are acknowledging their defeat. After the election the losers normally congratulate the winners and then start making plans for the next election. *Financing the Campaign.* It takes more money to win an election than many people may realize. For example, the 1996 Federal Election Commission reported that Texas Senator *Phil Gramm spent over $9,600,000* on his campaign--and he didn't even win the Republican presidential nomination. Millions are spent by each front-runner in an effort to keep his name in the public consciousness. With the exception of extremely wealthy persons, most candidates cannot possibly finance their own campaigns on a district, state, or national level without the support of the party they represent. The party acts as the central agency for collecting funds for all its candidates and often campaigns for all of these candidates as a unit. The party distributes funds among them. If a candidate does not have a good chance of winning, he may find that the party will not allot him as much money as it would to a candidate who has an excellent chance of winning. The party prefers to spend the money that has been contributed on candidates who will win, and this increases the party's power. The problem of how to regulate the raising and spending of campaign funds is vital. A law passed in 1966 allows each taxpayer to mark a box on his income-tax return requesting that one dollar of his tax (or two dollars for couples) go into presidential campaign fund to be shared by the parties. This law was suspended in June 1967, and reinstated in 1972. Congress has also considered numerous proposals for permitting tax deductions for political contributions up to $100, for requiring television stations to offer reduced rates for television campaigning, and for putting new limits on campaign spending. *Fundraising for Political Parties.* The parties have to depend largely on private donations for their campaign funding. They also hold dinners that range from $50 to $10,000 a plate. Other donations come from corporations.

inflation

Financial instability brought on by continual increase in prices or continual decrease in purchasing power.

stock market crash of 1929

Financial panic where the market lost so much power that many people lost their fortunes in days.

conscientious

Following one's principles.

sustenance

Food and drink; necessary foods in order to stay alive.

socialist

Form of government where goods and services and the political power are distributed among the people.

monarchy

Hereditary rule by one person alone; usually a king, queen, or emperor.

anonymity

Hidden from detection; secretive and without being recognized

quartered

Housed; supplied with home-like arrangements.

culture

Human thought and lifestyle within a certain time period or place.

religious affiliation

Identification to a church or belief; adherence to a certain faith.

contested election

If a losing candidate feels that fraud has occurred he may call the commission to recount the votes.

divided government

In American politics; one party would control the House and the other party would control the Senate.

carried

In a national election, a candidate won the vote in a particular state.

unrelenting

Inflexible; refusing to yield.

divine laws

Instructions and guidelines for life believed to have been delivered by God.

national conventions and committees

In theory the national convention of each party has the final authority in party matters. However, the national convention actually has very little power. *The national convention of each party meets only once every four years, when it nominates the candidates for President and Vice-President of each party.* The national convention also goes through the motions of electing the national committee, which acts on behalf of the party between conventions. Each state party, in reality, chooses its representatives on the committee. The national committee of both major parties consists of one committeeman and one committeewoman from each state and from the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The Democratic National Committee also has *two representatives from the Panama Canal Zone*. The Republican National Committee includes each chairman of certain state committees. A Republican state chairman becomes a member of his party's *national committee* if (1) his state cast its electoral votes for the Republican candidate in the preceding Presidential election, (2) most members of the Congress from his state are Republicans, or (3) his state has a Republican governor. *Both the Democratic and Republican national committees have their headquarters in Washington, D.C.* They meet only one to three times a year. A main task of each party committee is to organize its next national convention. It chooses the city where the convention will meet and makes arrangements for a smoothly run convention. It prepares campaign literature; secures speakers; arranges tours for the candidates from city to city and state to state; contracts for billboards, radio, and television time; and assists the state and local committees to start their political machinery rolling. The national committee members organize into working committees to provide money, publicity, and speakers. Most work of the national party organization is done by the national committee chairman and his staff. The national chairman is the specific leader who takes on the role of making the campaign a success. *The chairman of the national committee is generally selected by the party candidate for President.* He is usually an outstanding party figure who has organizing ability and a great deal of popular appeal and money-raising ability. During presidential election years, the chairman serves as national campaign manager and fund-raiser for his party. He decides where the campaign funds are to be spent and where the campaigning is to be heaviest. The chairman acts for the national committee in directing the public relations of the party. He assists the president in patronage matters by recommending appointees for federal jobs. Because appointees are cleared through his office, he grants favors where they do the most good, rewarding faithful party workers with jobs. Jobs are the fuel for the party machine. The national chairman of the party out-of-power is also a busy man. His primary duty is to organize a program of positive education about the party for the public, to build up the party image, to direct publicity, and to keep the machinery from getting rusty. In other words, he keeps the party active on every level of the organization and takes political advantage of every mistake the majority party might make. The national chairman also organizes the national headquarters of his party. He is the chief decision maker within the national organization, but the headquarters staff, which consists of more than one hundred permanent members, does the detailed work for the party. It has campaign, public relations, and research divisions. The Republican Party, for example established a research and editorial division at its national headquarters in 1936. This agency is still in existence; it prepares material for Republican members of Congress, coaches them on legislative subjects, issues propaganda material, and acts as the research agency for the Republican National Committee. It publishes The Republican, a monthly digest of information for Republicans. The Democratic Party publishes the Democrat Digest.

active

Involved and striving to reach a goal.

Select the two true statements about the Democratic Party.

It is the oldest political party in the United States. The Democrats won the Presidency in the 90's but lost control of the Congress.

Mussolini

Italian Fascist party leader during World War II.

Of Reformation in England

John Milton's writing on the preference of a commonwealth over a monarchy.

majority

Largest percentage of the whole body which, by vote, controls the direction of legislation. Having the larger number in a house of Congress, assuring strong voting power.

tribune

Leader within the Concillum Plebus

tyrannical government

Leadership taken and directed by force, often with bloodshed; an oppressive regime.

House Bill

Legislation that is under the voting process in the House of Representatives.

Gestapo

Nazi secret police.

passive

Not participating; inactive.

Federalist Party

One of the first two American political parties; it wanted a strong central government.

open primary

Qualified voters vote for the candidates without revealing their party membership.

repeal

Recall; cancel.

veto

Rejection of a bill passed by the legislature.

Great Depression

Result of the stock market panic of the 1920's which brought on the 1930's worldwide economic slump.

presiding

Ruling; overseeing.

tangible

That can be felt by touching, material.

the democratic party

The Democratic Party of today grew out of this struggle between the factions within the Democratic-Republican Party. During the election of 1824, Jackson won the most electoral votes but not the majority needed to win the Presidency. The election went to the House of Representatives, where Henry Clay swung his support to John Quincy Adams. Although nothing was illegal about it, the followers of Jackson accused him of "stealing" the election. They decided to organize their forces under the new name Democrats and started their campaign to put Jackson in the White House in 1828. The early Democratic party was powerful, but not peaceful. *The Democratic Party is the oldest existing political party in the United States.* From 1828 to 1860, the Democratic Party won all but two of the Presidential elections, those of *1840 and 1848*, though its members often disagreed on several issues during those thirty-two years. The Democrats fought, almost literally at times, *over banking policies, the slavery issues, and tariff rates*. They also met bitter opposition outside the party. In 1832 several groups that opposed Jackson combined to form the Whig Party. The Whigs, however, never sufficiently united to propose a program with as much popular appeal as that of the Democrats. During the 1850's the Democrats split over whether to oppose or support the extension of slavery in the states of Kansas and Nebraska. As strange as it seems, *in 1860 the party even had two candidates for President*: John C. Breckinridge and Stephen A. Douglas. Both candidates lost to the Republican candidate, Abraham Lincoln. *From 1850 to 1932, only two Democrats won the Presidency*, Grover Cleveland in 1884 and in 1892 and Woodrow Wilson in 1912 and 1916. The *Republican Party had gained so much strength during the Civil War* that the Democrats had great difficulty winning control of the government, not only on a national level, but also on the state and local level. In addition to this situation, the Republicans accused the Democrats with having started the Civil War and having been disloyal to the Union. THREE STRAIGHT TERMS AS PRESIDENT! *The situation changed after 1929.* The Democrats blamed the Republicans for the Stock Market crash of 1929 and for the Great Depression of the 1930's. The Democrats held the Presidency from 1933 to 1953. This included a time when Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt won three consecutive terms as U.S. president. During most of that period, they also controlled both houses of Congress and the majority of the state governments. From 1955 to the early 90's the Democrats kept control of the Congress, but they had difficulty winning the Presidency. They lost the Presidency to the Republicans in 1952, 1956, 1968, and 1972, but regained it in 1976 with the election of President Jimmy Carter. They again lost control of the Presidency in 1980 and did not regain until the 1992 elections with the election of William Jefferson Clinton. Conversely, when the Republicans lost control of the White House, they gained control of the Congress. The balance of power has shown a pattern of shifting back and forth so that no party has had total Democratic or Republican control for any period of time.

the supreme court

The Supreme Court is *the highest court in the land and is part of the judicial branch* of the government, or simply, the judiciary. The judicial system of courts derives its powers from *Article III* of the Constitution. In 1986, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that opponents of the death penalty may be barred from juries in capital cases even if this makes the possibility of a conviction greater. This decision had a major impact on the choosing of juries across the country, and still continues to be a controversial issue. The Supreme Court has such power to enact laws that can change the fabric of our lives. Decisions have been handed down which concern abortion, free speech, racial quotas, reading material, and hundreds of other concerns to Americans. Every day the Supreme Court hears cases of various kinds from diverse areas of the nation, from the 1803 case involving Congress' conflict with the Constitution to a 1990 case supporting the right to die. It has also made decisions about our constitutional rights. One such case was Schenck v. the United States (1919). Charles Schenck sent out 15,000 letters to men who had been drafted for military service, telling them they did not have to respond to the draft. Schenck claimed that he was simply expressing his first amendment right of free speech. However, the Supreme Court decided it is not freedom of speech to coerce people into doing illegal activities. *The judicial system was established by the Constitution.* It consists of the Supreme Court, 12 circuit courts, or courts of appeal, 91 district courts, and includes special courts such as the Claims Court, the Tax Court, and the Court of Veterans Appeals (renamed the U.S. Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims in 1999). The federal courts are involved in performing a two-fold task. They perform statutory construction which means they interpret the meaning of laws and administrative rules and regulations. For example, when a person uses certain offensive language on the radio waves, is he exercising his right of free speech or is he violating local obscenity laws? The courts make decisions on cases such as this every week. Secondly, the courts are involved in judicial review. They make decisions as to whether any law passed by Congress or state legislatures stays within the guidelines of the Constitution. They must decide whether any administrative activity of the national or state executive branches is in violation of the Constitution. Federal courts even have the right to nullify laws that they feel are violating the Constitution. Judicial review is an important weapon of protection for the freedom of America, holding the governments to a "code of conduct" as set forth in the Constitution. An example of judicial review is the case of Marbury v. Madison (1803), which involved an appointment to office by the forerunner of Secretary of State James Madison. In this case, Congress set forth some decisions that were under question as to their constitutionality. The Supreme Court held that the act of Congress was in conflict with the Constitution and thus was void. This was a precedent-setting example of the Court's power of judicial review. *The Supreme Court is not all-powerful.* Congress has the right to overturn some decisions of the Supreme Court, which is a valuable check and balance to keep the Court from gaining too much power. The president and Senate might fill a vacancy on the Supreme Court with new justices whom they are sure will overturn certain decisions. The Constitution can also be amended by Congress. There are currently 27 Amendments, reflecting the need for Congress to take action on certain decisions by the Supreme Court. *How do the justices get to be on the Supreme Court?* The president nominates a justice for the Supreme Court, and the Senate approves him or finds a reason he should not be appointed, so that there are always nine justices presiding. Other federal judges are nominated in the same manner. All federal judges and justices of the Supreme Court *serve for life*, but they can be removed, should they be guilty of wrong behavior. The process of impeachment is an option of the Congress. *Nine justices serve in the Supreme Court.* Through the history of the United States Supreme Court, the number of justices has ranged from five up to ten, but has settled to nine and has stayed consistent at this number since 1869. Many of the decisions made by the Supreme Court are controversial because of the changing interpretations of civil rights laws. Groups such as the NAACP and LULAC are constantly lobbying for more consistent interpretations of civil rights laws. The Supreme Court generally takes on the personality of the Chief Justice. Sometimes the Court leans in a more conservative direction, sometimes in a more liberal direction, depending on the Chief Justice. The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren (Chief Justice from 1953 to 1969) greatly expanded individual rights and government power to regulate the economy. In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Warren wrote the decision for a unanimous Court decision outlawing segregation in public schools because segregation denied black students equal protection of the law under the 14th Amendment. The Warren Court was sometimes accused by conservatives of taking an active role in shaping public policy and actually creating new law. This practice is sometimes referred to as "judicial activism," since the court's role is to interpret law, not create it. The Supreme Court under Chief Justice William Rehnquist (Chief Justice from 1986 to 2005) often reflected the conservatism of the chief justice and his support of judicial restraint. As a result, the Rehnquist Court was also accused of judicial activism, but by liberals rather than conservatives. It took a dim view of most affirmative action policies. For example, it ruled in Adarand Constructors v. Peña (1995) that the strict scrutiny test should apply to all race-based legislation, including affirmative action laws that favored disadvantaged groups. It also curtailed the possibilities of habeas corpus appeals, making it much more difficult for state prisoners to take appeals on constitutional grounds to the federal courts. Under Rehnquist, the Court has generally looked unfavorably on federal laws that imposed a burden on the states.

insubordination

The act of disobedience.

campaign manager

The director of a political agenda whose goal is to place a chosen candidate in office.

Article

The divisions of the Constitution addressing certain policies and laws set forth for the country.

america's third parties

There have been many third parties in the United States and probably will continue to be. None of these third parties have ever won the Presidency, but many of their proposals have gained such widespread support from the public that the two major parties were forced to adopt them. Some of these proposals included the convention system of nominating presidential candidates, the direct election of United States senators, and the levying of a Federal income tax. Third parties are formed for diverse reasons. The third parties in the United States can be divided into five types, according to their origins and goals. The first type consists of groups that broke away from the two major political parties. This may be caused by dissatisfaction with a current candidate or a break in relations over the agenda of the party. The Roosevelt Progressives of 1912 broke from the Republican Party when there was a dispute over the selection of William Taft as the choice of the party. The Liberal Republicans of 1872 were another group who left the Republican Party to form a separate party. The Gold Democrats in 1896 and the Dixiecrats in 1948 also split from the Democratic Party. The second type of third party consists of organizations formed chiefly to help a specific group of people. For example, debt-ridden farmers established the Greenback Party in the 1870's and the Populist Party in the 1890's. The third type is made up of left-wing protest groups. The dominance of the common man -- the working class laborer--is the chief goal of these parties. These groups include the Socialist Labor Party, formed in 1877; the Socialist Party, founded in 1901; the American Communist Party, organized in 1919; and the Socialist Worker's Party formed in 1938. The philosophical statement of the Communist Party U.S.A. helps us understand their direction: "We are a Marxist-Leninist working-class party that unites Black, Brown and white, men and women, youth and seniors. We are a Party that speaks out from a working-class point of view on every vital issue. The People's Weekly World is our voice and the voice of labor, of all militant movements for social progress. We are a party of unity in action. We are an integral part of every struggle and movement for change to eliminate poverty and joblessness, against racism and for full equality. We are participants, initiators and leaders of every movement to make life better now and much better in a socialist future." Likewise, the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA) tell us their philosophy in their web page statement: "We are socialists because we reject an international economic order sustained by private profit, alienated labor, race and gender discrimination, environmental destruction, and brutality and violence in defense of the status quo. The fourth type consists of parties that have only one goal. These single-issue parties include the nation's oldest existing third party, the Prohibition Party. Founded in 1869, it seeks to prevent the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages in the United States. Though very small, it is still in existence as a party. The fifth type of third party consists of groups that have broad programs and attempt to gain national favor. Examples include the Progressive parties of 1924, 1948, and 1952 and the American Independent Party, established in 1968. In the early 1990's, Texas billionaire Ross Perot formed the party originally called United We Stand, but later renamed the Reform Party. The Reform Party's goals of free trade and financial power place it in this category. The Constitution Party (formerly known as the U.S. Taxpayers' Party) would also fall into this category. The Constitution Party tells of their agenda in a philosophical statement found on their web page: "The Constitution Party stands firmly on the principles of government laid down by our Founding Fathers in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. Unlike other political organizations, we do not believe these principles are outdated. . .Our government has become a problem because these principles are ignored and not followed. . .We need a return to a government that. . . protects all innocent life; protects liberty, not suppresses it; and allows the free pursuance of happiness, not regulation of it. In the spirit of the Declaration of Independence it is time to remove power from that 'faraway' government in Washington, D.C. and return it to the people, states, and local communities. "

heir

Those eligible for an inheritance.

Why have governments?

Through the ages, there have been governments wherever there has been a significant number of people. Governments are formed because groups need an organized effort to create and enforce rules that control conduct within the population. You see governments within many different groups. Besides your town government, governing occurs within groups ranging from Garden Clubs to Scout Troops. The ruling members are put in their places of authority to create and enforce rules that govern the conduct within the group of people with whom they meet. Governments also exist in order to assist society to improve in tangible and intangible ways. Governments serve to help in both these areas. Our forefathers believed strongly in freedom and equality. These two ideals became the basic of principles of American government. Differences of opinion regarding religion and politics were respected. Most of the early colonists came to America to escape the tyranny of European kings. In other countries one religious group may predominate, thus making it nearly impossible for others of different beliefs to exist openly. The United States is one of the few countries that practices religious tolerance.

office-bloc arrangement

Titles of offices appear across the ballot; the candidates of parties for each office are below the titles.

adopt

To accept and agree upon.

consent

To agree or accept.

mark up

When a subcommittee makes changes and add amendments before they recommend a bill to proceed.

ordering a bill reported

When a subcommittee reads its recommendation to the rest of their house of Congress.

treasury

Where the funds are received, kept, and disbursed.

constitutionality

Whether the law or act is within the guidelines of the United States Constitution.

media impact on public opinion

When it comes to daily life in a free-speech society such as America, we must be cautious. Countless types of media compete for our attention and may try practically anything to get it. Often in their desire to be in the "limelight," different types of media may resort to distorting the truth. Each day we are influenced by the news, by conversations with our friends, and by the things we read. The opinion-makers try to influence us each day, and many times they succeed. Who and what are the opinion makers? Newspaper, magazines, television, radio, motion pictures, and other agencies are the chief opinion makers around us today. These media pour out thousands of images and words that carry a message of one kind or another. Television programs are careful to add just the right "sound bite," a small clip of sound and image. *Newspapers are powerful opinion-makers.* Information is the key to intelligent public opinion. One of the most commonly used sources of information on public issues is the newspaper. Every town has one or more daily or weekly newspapers, and many city papers are distributed for hundreds of miles around the city. Many homes receive at least one newspaper a day. Newspaper *editors have often taken the lead in influencing public opinion*, especially in local affairs. In some cities they have conducted campaigns against corrupt political leaders. In others they have exposed crooks and racketeers through the publicity of the newspapers. They have crusaded for improved housing and better streets. The public has been educated and steps were taken to remedy the condition. To consider newspapers a source of information, however, we need to realize that they all are biased in some way. Because they are human, newspaper publishers have very definite political, social, and economic beliefs. Many editors use their newspapers to promote these beliefs. Sometimes the same publisher has a chain of newspapers in various parts of the country allowing these beliefs to be spread to an even larger audience. William Randolph Hearst is a good example of a newspaper owner who used his newspaper for more than just reporting the news. Accused of "sensationalism" in his publications, Hearst nevertheless used blaring headlines and high-emotion articles to draw readers to his paper. Controversy surrounded his newspaper, the New York Journal, as it was accused of overreacting to the sinking of the battleship Maine on February 15,1898. The sinking was an occasion for the New York World and Hearst's New York Journal to print extra editions with shocking headlines and news items. Both rival newspapers warned readers that America was attacked by Spain and suggested that retaliation was the only alternative. There is still speculation today as to whether the newspapers of New York unethically helped contribute to the Spanish-American War. The sensational reactions of the New York World and the New York Journal helped people understand the power of a newspaper that goes beyond merely reporting the news to supporting a specific agenda. We should be aware of the very real danger of newspapers that abuse the truth in news to accommodate its own goals. The political viewpoint of a newspaper can quickly be learned by reading its *editorial page*, where it takes a stand on the issues of the day. If it is a good paper, it will attempt to keep its editorial viewpoint out of its news stories, and you can read them to get the facts. Because so few newspapers succeed in being unbiased, one should usually read several newspapers for a variety of viewpoints. To read "behind the headlines" is especially important. *Headlines are at times misleading, for the simple reason that it is impossible to tell the whole story in only a few words.* We should therefore look at headlines only as attention-getters. To be informed requires careful reading of the facts behind the headlines. Select news magazines can be very helpful at this point. *Magazines can also carry a bias.* Each week and each month dozens of magazines come off the presses to find their way into the homes. offices, and schools of America. Some of these publications sell millions of copies. Though magazines are of many types and subjects, all affect readers and thus public opinion in some manner. Contemporary political, social, and economic issues are addressed in such news magazines as Time ®, Newsweek ®, and U.S. News and World Report ®. Magazines of critical opinion are such magazines as American Spectator ®, National Review ® , The Weekly Standard ®, and The New Republic ®. Monthly magazines which often contain articles on national and international matters are Harper's ® and Atlantic Monthly ®. Like newspapers, all magazines have their particular biases. These prejudices may be political, social, economic, religious, racial, or otherwise depending on those of the publisher and the group of readers to whom the magazine is addressed. Base your opinions on as many real facts as you can assemble from different sources. In reading any newspaper or magazine, search for the truth. *Television and radio carry a "see it now" impact.* The impact of television and radio cannot be understated. The access which we now have in the 21st century is something that was barely dreamed of not too many years ago. When a new spacecraft lifts off in Florida, images can be viewed all over the world. Images from around the globe - whether political unrest, a natural disaster, or free democratic elections in a new republic - are beamed into our homes every day. Television is even more effective than the radio as an agency for influencing public opinion. On the radio you can only hear the speaker; on television you can see him as well. The movement of the head, his gestures, his eye movement - all of the tricks of public speaking or dramatic performance can now be employed to the greatest possible advantage. During the 1960 televised presidential debates, experts attributed John Kennedy's success as much to his appearance and manner as to the substance of his remarks. The same was mentioned in Bill Clinton's television debates and forums against challenger Bob Dole in 1998. Never has there been a greater instrument for influencing public opinion than television. This power is recognized by both political parties, which pay millions of dollars to build up and project the proper television image for their candidates. The danger lies when inaccurate or incomplete information is presented as absolute truth. During 1989, the CBS℠ television program "60 Minutes℠" broadcast a program on a major environmental and health risk issue, the spraying of Alar on apples. The sensational comments made on the news show created a furor among the American public. A group called the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) claimed that eating Alar-laden apples significantly increased a child's risk of developing cancer, and as a result scores of school districts across America dropped apples from their menus and parents poured apple juice down the drains. Apple sales plummeted and a lawsuit was brought against CBS in order to address the claims that were made. After all the data were reviewed, the World Health Organization stated that Alar was shown to be noncarcinogenic and cleared it for reinstatement on food crops. In fact, the only way that Alar could have been shown to be carcinogenic was if a person would have Alar in doses in the equivalent of drinking 4,000 gallons of apple juice per day for life. The Alar "scandal" was a lesson *for many broadcasters in learning the importance of providing responsible journalism, not unstable claims.* The official policy of broadcasting companies is to present all sides of a controversial political issue. By Federal Communications Commission rules, at election time both major parties are entitled to equal amounts of time to present their programs. If one political party makes charges against the other, the broadcasting companies are bound to grant equal time to the other party for its answer. This is known as equal access. News commentators can greatly influence public opinion. These men and women might be classed as "editors on the air." Sometimes they air their own opinions, and sometimes they slant their interpretations to suit their sponsors. Therefore, to get a true picture of events, we should listen to more than one commentator and read background articles in books and magazines. The radio and television media perform a public service in the field of political education. The many discussion programs bring different viewpoints before the people. Interviewing persons who are in the headlines, such as on "Meet the Press," or "Face the Nation," is especially informative.

the executive branch

When you see the president on television or in the newspaper, you are looking at a representative of one-third of our governmental powers: the executive branch. He has the power to do more than make speeches and throw out the first ball of the World Series! The power of the executive branch includes the right to enforce federal laws and even remove high officials from office. *The executive branch of the government enforces the laws.* It is one of the three parts of our government: executive, legislative, and judicial. The legislative branch establishes or retracts laws, and the judicial branch interprets the laws and either upholds them or negates them. The executive department works in coordination with the other two branches of the federal government. The Constitution of the United States laid out the framework for the powers allowed under the Executive branch of the government. *The Constitution laid out a fine framework in explaining the Chief Executive and the Executive branch.* The Constitutional Convention of 1787 dealt with a touchy subject; they wanted a strong leader, but they did not want a king. The groundwork laid out in the Constitution for the executive branch maintains a balance which helps to hold the powers in proper check. The writers of the Constitution wanted the chief executive to represent the nation in diplomatic relations, but did not want him to get so high-minded that he started writing his own laws. In the Constitution they clearly laid out plans for the executive branch to make recommendations of legislation, but the branch could not start creating laws on its own. *The President of the United States is the chief executive.* He is one of the three parts of the executive branch. The other two are the executive departments and the independent agencies. The president is also known as the chief of state. As chief executive, the president must handle the foreign affairs which includes appointing Americans to be representatives to international organizations. The president commands the armed forces and also serves in ceremonial duties around the world and in our country. *He serves a four-year term and may only serve a total of two terms in this office.* Who takes over if the president should die or otherwise become unable to fulfill his role in the White House? The vice president would be next in the line of succession. If something were to prevent him from serving, the Speaker of the House would fill the role. The offices following the "line of succession" would be in this order: President Pro Tempore of the Senate, Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of Defense, and then the Attorney General. This line of succession helps the executive branch foresee any emergency that might keep it from fulfilling its proper duty. Knowing this order helps the government operate even in times of national emergency. *The Executive Office of the President is more than just the Oval Office where he works.* The Executive Office includes not only the *White House Office, but the Office of Management and Budget, the National Security Council, the Office of Policy Development, and the Council of Economic Advisers among others.* Some of these departments will take on the responsibility of handling overview of financial matters. There is even an office that will set the standards of scientific research. *The 15 executive departments handle the duty of administering the national government.* Even though these departments are headquartered in Washington, D.C., most of the employees work outside the headquarters. Having field offices throughout the country helps the executive maintain communication with the various regions of the nation, and stay alert and sensitive to the needs of the citizens no matter where they may be. If the office headquarters stayed in one region and did not keep a pulse throughout the land, there is a danger of what some American political analysts call the *"Beltway mentality,"* which is in reference to the highway beltway around Washington, D.C. The phrase means that *officials would think that everyone is the same as the city of Washington D.C. and not distinct or different in any way*. The executive department also oversees a number of independent agencies which serve the different needs of the nation. These agencies are accountable to the executive branch. *The Executive branch is best described as seeking to reflect the will of the people.* The Chief Executive or his departments may suggest policies in regards to what they receive in the way of communication from the population, but they will not enact a law or demand legislation; they have no power to do so. Once again, we see the wisdom of the Constitutional authors by instituting checks and balances so that no small group can take control of the democracy.

Boys State

Youth organization designed to inform and encourage young men to learn about the ways of government

What is a coalition?

a temporary alliance of political parties

debating team

an organized group that competes with others in order to study the value of communication

Young people can get involved in politics by:

attending town hall meetings staying informed by reading the newspapers volunteer in political clubs

Three Congressional powers include:

coining money overriding a presidential veto making laws NOT: commanding the armed forces

T/F: Federal governments will take charge of the street construction in small towns.

false

T/F: The Republicans controlled the House of Representatives, but not the Senate in 1948.

false

T/F: The republic was also known as a socialist government.

false

T/F: The Democrats won the Presidency in 1976, 1980, and 1996.

false -- 1980

bandwagon

giving the impression that everyone is involved so that the listener would feel the "danger" of missing out EX: 87% of the people support me for governor.

State governments

help tangibly by creating state parks and recreation areas, and maintaining public utilities. You see your state tax dollars at work whenever you see the construction crews working on a new lane or constructing a rest stop on the state highway. Intangibly, they license and oversee businesses and occupations. Very few people would trust a dentist who did not have his state license, giving him permission to practice in the state. Likewise, few people would trust a lawyer whose state license was revoked.

****** BEGINNING OF QUIZ MATERIAL

https://quizlet.com/80622467/the-american-party-system-flash-cards/

amended

improved; changed; made into a better quality.

Ex Post Facto Law

is a law passed or decreed after a deed has been committed making the original act illegal even though it was not illegal at the time it was originally committed. Article 1, Section 9 of the US Constitution outlawed ex post facto laws. A bill of attainder allowed a government to cease the property of a criminal and use it for whatever purpose they chose without due process. Article 1, Section 9 also guarantees no bills of attainder.

politics- the science of government

olitics is the science of government, and every citizen can take part in it. Knowlegeable party workers are needed to serve on the local, regional and national level. Debbie Henniger, when a graduating college student, began working in politics for the Ronald Reagan presidential campaign in the early 1980s. She was able to be an active participant in the national election campaign and transferred to the central base of operations in Washington, D.C. In 1980 Ronald Reagan successfully unseated Jimmy Carter in the presidential elections. When Reagan won the office, Debbie was asked to remain in Washington under the Reagan administration. She became the personal assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, Bay Buchanan. Debbie's duties included being a liaison to the Savings Bond Division and handling all of the Secretary's personal correspondence. Think of it -- serving in the nation's capital in service to our country - right out of college! Debbie had an exciting year of political action on a national level. You never know what opportunities might arise. The best way to make representative democracy work is to become active in politics and to encourage others to do so, too. "I am not a politician. And my other habits are good, too." - Artemus Ward (19th century American humorist) *Politics is important to each citizen in the United States.* The above quotation is a humorous stab at politics, and it's how many people feel. Many people consider politics a dirty word because of some past abuses by certain politicians. History has shown us that the citizens of our country grew cynical towards politics with the scandals of President Nixon in the 1970s and President Clinton in the 1990's. However, the majority of the people who serve in our government are honest, hard working, conscientious civil servants who have a desire to see the American way of politics stay strong. We should have the best qualified people to serve on every level of government. There are many organizations in which young people can participate that can help them learn more about the responsibilities we each have as citizens. *Why politics is important?* An understanding of political science is probably more important in a representative democracy than in any other form of government. The need for well-educated civil servants has become extremely important in our nation. An even greater need exists for quality people who are willing to participate in our government. As a nation, world leadership has been thrust upon the United States. To meet the challenge of that leadership, the best trained, leaders are needed - leaders with solid character. No other profession can match the roll of honor comprised of great American presidents, cabinet members, senators, representatives, governors, and judges. Every group of people has some dishonest people; however, the good, sincere, honest people far outweigh the bad. *How can I get started in politics?* We should recognize the importance of politics as a noble profession. Good, dedicated leaders are needed in all levels of government. But there are also other opportunities to be involved in political campaigns and government elections. You may be able to help on the local level, in helping prepare a polling place for a vote. Many local politicians would be anxious to have a crew of young volunteers to help with some simple tasks and you can learn more about campaigns as you serve. The American Legion has a number of programs devoted to promoting well-infomed citizenship. Every year some twenty thousand high school boys and girls take part in Boys State and Girls State. They run mock state governments in nearly every state in the nation. Then representatives from each of the states go on to take part in Boys Nation and Girls Nation in Washington, D.C. Since this program began in 1935, about 5,000,000 boys have taken part and have learned how legislatures are organized and how bills are passed. These experiences help them appreciate the possibilities of a career in government. These two programs are great training for those who are willing to serve and learn the importance of politics. *Should you decide to make politics a career, aim your education in that direction.* College courses in *civics, government, history, economics, political science, sociology, or problems of democracy* are excellent. These courses give you a great advantage when you major in political science. If there is a debate club offered, take advantage of it. Seize every opportunity available to work part time on the local level to help improve the government of your town or city. Attend school board meetings, as well as town or city hall meetings if you are able. You will be able to find out about the needs and issues of the town, as well as the political happenings, such as a possible vote on a concern to the local citizenship. The local newspaper will give you information as to the time and place when the meetings are being held. Above all, volunteer. You will find many doors open if you are willing to donate your time. You can study the situation in your community and find where your efforts are needed. *What are some other organizations?* Various political clubs that help to increase party loyalty are found throughout the country. In 1996, for example, the Democrats had their "Volunteers for Clinton Re-Election" groups; and the Republicans organized the "Citizens for Dole." Precincts in each city often look for leaders to help organize localized efforts to do small jobs. Throughout the country each year, Democrats hold "Jackson Day" dinners, and Republicans hold "Lincoln Day" dinners. These dinners serve as a means of organizing the party and helping to refill the party treasury. Loyal party officials, job-holders, and those whom the party has served well look upon the sum as an investment. Sometimes it takes years to pay off campaign debts, so there are many areas of service to help with fund-raisers and volunteer work. Other active groups are the Young Republicans and the Young Democrats.

plain folks

projecting an image of being one of the common people EX: I pay my bills, paint my house, and mow the lawn just like you.

card-stacking

the candidate recalls all the good things he has done, omitting facts that would justify his defeat EX: I lowered taxes, improved the highway, and brought in three new businesses last term!

propagandizing

to inform and make known the opinions and feelings of oneself

T/F: During the election of 1824, Andrew Jackson won the most electoral votes, but not the majority needed to be elected President.

true

T/F: Of the three branches of government, the president is under the direct responsibility of the executive branch.

true

T/F: The "March on Washington" took place on August 28, 1963.

true

T/F: The beginnings of democracy were seen in Athens a little more than 400 B.C.

true

factually

without any danger of error; basing actions on the truth

license

Authorization by law.

Communist Manifesto

Book by Marx urging workers to overthrow upper classes; textbook for communism and socialism.

judiciary system

System of courts and the upholding of the laws of the land.

tariff

Systems of taxes placed on imports or exports of a country.

Aristotle's kinds of government

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle is known as the *"father of political science"* because of his writings concerning the formation and directions of governments. Aristotle divided the types of governments into numerical and moral groupings. Numerically, he claimed that all governments fall into one of three categories: 1. One person rules. 2. A few people rule. 3. Many people rule. Morally, Aristotle suggested that each of the above groups would be named according to how the government was run. *He based his morality upon whether the ruling party ruled for the benefit of the people (good) or for the benefit of only the ruling party (bad).* If one ruling person served the people, the good governing was called a *monarchy*. If the governing was bad then it was a *tyranny*. In the case of a few people governing, working for the people was known as an *aristocracy*. Selfish group leadership was known as an *oligarchy*. When a government was ruled by many people, Aristotle called it a *polity*. Interestingly enough, if it was a dangerous, selfish mob-type rule, he labeled it a *democracy*. However, through the ages, the term democracy has lost its dangerous connotation.

commerce

The business and exchange of goods by purchase, trade, or sale.

morality

The character of being in agreement with the standards of right conduct.

accountability

The character of being responsible to the people; being answerable to others.

Das Kapital

Book written by Karl Marx promoting the working class uprising. A text for Marxism and Communism.

impeachment

The charging of a public official of a crime or misdeed before a judging body of officials. Charging an official with a misdeed.

federal

Government formed by a union of smaller groups (states) in agreement.

parliamentary

Government with a Prime Minister and two houses of Parliament elected by the people.

Institutional Revolutionary Party

Ruling political party in Mexico from 1929 to 2000.

activism

Action taken to strengthen or weaken a political ideal.

Local governments

*help in tangible ways with creation of mass transportation, libraries, local parks, and town streets.* The local government of Delmar, Delaware set up a public library for the citizens of the town. The municipal government in Glendale, Arizona purchased a "trolley-bus" to take visitors around to the various shopping areas free of charge, in order to enhance the shopping experience and bring in more tourist dollars. Governments enact intangible laws and ordinances for the welfare of the citizens. The city of Knoxville, Tennessee strictly enforces a "quiet zone" and speed limit around the hospitals in the city. Look at the picture on the right and you'll see the actual proclamation by the mayor concerning the need for order during the days after the San Francisco earthquake of 1906. If he had not enacted strict law enforcement immediately, many innocent citizens would have been the victims of robbery and violence. The local government fulfilled its responsible to protect its citizens.

Anarchism

*is a form of government where those in leadership have little or no power over the general population.* Perhaps it is more accurate to say that an anarchist form of government is actually no government at all. To anarchists, the government is an institution that has no merit, and is merely the avenue by which people can grab and exploit power. Those in favor of anarchism believe that government should have no jurisdiction over them at all. Personal liberty is of the utmost importance to anarchists, and they believe that any public government is unnecessary and dangerous. Anarchism is an extreme form of government, obviously, and is difficult to find in effect today. Anarchism rose from thought to an actual revolutionary movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its goal was to destroy any government which held rule over the people and start a collection of "common-man" organizations which would produce and distribute economic and social needs. Regional and nation-wide federations would govern themselves, replacing the need for a state-run power. While following the radical freedom fighting of the French Revolution, the anarchists at first embraced the ideals of Marxism. However, the Marxist "dictatorship of the proletariat," the idea of the capitalist state being used to achieve a classless society, was repulsive to the anarchists. Political groups were seen as corrupt, so the anarchist believed that anyone who was faced with the thought of overseeing a party would fall prey to the desire for power and glory. This disagreement led to a clash of ideas between Karl Marx and the Russian anarchist Michael Bakunin in the early 1870s. While Marx favored State-run Socialism, Bakunin argued for the total destruction of the State as the primary goal for those who want to guarantee freedom. Soon anarchism and Marxism went in different directions. Anarchism had a great impact in Russia, where many anarchist groups participated in the revolutionary movement both before and during the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution.

What are four things the Communist Party does through its party organization?

-recruits members and leaders -develops policy -indoctrinates the people -maintains discipline

Congress

An elected legislative body of a country.

welfare state

A country in which the government assumes a large share of the social caretaking of the people. Arguments continue back and forth as to the limits of the American government in making the country a welfare state. Many people feel that the government has done too much for people who could otherwise work; others feel that we have a long way to go in order to help those in need. Some states in our country have instituted a workfare legislation, which states that if you are physically able to work, you must find employment in order to receive welfare benefits.

pluralism

A form of government where the public has input in the various areas of interest of the country.

totalitarianism

A government where the authorities require complete obedience and total submission.

Fiscal Policy and International Trade

A government's fiscal policy is the way governments spend and tax. This will influence the economy. When the government spends more than it receives, it runs a deficit. Governments finance deficits by borrowing money. When they spend the money such as when they decide to fund a project, the results are jobs for workers. This helps the economy because money is pumped into the economy. If the spending creates competition for workers and resources that are already scarce, it may cause inflation in wages and prices. International trade has led to greater competition among producers in the United States. By selling worldwide, the United States can reach more customers. Government restrictions are sometimes necessary to protect national interests. Government action may occur in response to the trade policies of other countries or may occur to protect specific industries. Nations try to maintain a positive balance in which they export more than they import. Products are bought and sold in the international market with national currency. To increase reserves of its own currency and reduce the amount held by foreigners a country may limit its imports, thus limiting the amount of currency that leaves the country. Several trading communities have been established to promote trade among countries that have common economic and political interests or are located in a particular region. *The North American Free Trade Agreement* (NAFTA) agreed to by Mexico, the United States, and Canada in 1993, was designed to bring about a free market in everything produced and consumed in these countries. Other trade agreements in other parts of the world were created such as the European Union.

bureaucracy

A system of leaders who carry out the work of the government through the use of departments. 1. The Canadian province of Quebec had a bureaucracy which desired to gain independence. Because of the Quebec citizens' desire to break from the rest of the country of Canada, leaders formed committees to search for reasonable ways to make secession work. Although the vote had not been approved, each election sees the bureaucracy of Quebec work harder to gain independence. 2. The Central Intelligence Agency is an example of a bureaucracy at work. The C.I.A. is an independent agency whose director is appointed by the President. The C.I.A.'s mission is: "We are the eyes and ears of the nation and at times its hidden hand. We accomplish this mission by: -Collecting intelligence that matters -Providing relevant, timely, and objective all-source analysis -Conducting covert action at the direction of the President to preempt threats or achieve United States policy objectives"

10 steps to communism

In 1848 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote "The Communist Manifesto." Marxism's basic theme is that the proletariat (the working class) will rise up against the "bourgeoisie" (the middle class) and overthrow "capitalism." After a brief period of rule by "the dictatorship of the proletariat" a classless society of communism would emerge. In his Manifesto, Marx described the following ten steps as necessary steps to be taken to destroy a free enterprise society: 1. Abolition of private land property; application of all rents of land for the public purposes, not private 2. A heavy progressive or graduated in-come tax 3. Abolition of all rights of inheritance 4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels 5. Centralization of credit in the hands of the State, by means of a national bank 6. Centralization of the means of communications and transportation by the government 7. Farms and factories are owned by the State 8. Government control of labor 9. Corporate farming and regional planning of farming systems 10. Government control of education. No more private education

Palace of Westminster

Meeting site of both Houses of the British Parliament.

Select the two statements that agree with Mexican politics.

Mexico actually has several small political parties.-? Mexico's Institutional Revolutionary Party was in control since the 1920s.-? FALSE: -Mexico's main political party is the Institutional Reconstruction Party. -Mexico has a parliamentary government with a one-party system. -Mexico's president has an official term of seven years.

House of Representatives

One of the two houses of Congress found in a Presidential government.

revolutionary

One who tries to create radical change in government and existing political, social, or business structure.

foreign exchange student

Pupils who go to another country to study its culture for a set amount of time, usually a year.

Government Revenue

The government must have funds or revenue to pay for all these services. They raise revenue in many ways, such as, charging you an entrance fee to one of the national parks. Most of the revenue comes from the following sources: 1. *Income taxes* are placed on an individual's income. About half of the total local, state, and federal revenue comes from this source. 2. One common form of *capital tax* is paid by businesses that generate a profit. Another example of this kind of tax is property tax on houses and boats. 3. *Sales tax* is a tax you pay when you purchase items. It is usually a percentage of the total price. 4. *Excise tax* is levied on a specific product such as alcohol, cigarettes, and gasoline. There are *three types of income tax*: Progressive, regressive, and proportional. 1. In a *progressive tax system*, the tax rate or the proportion of earnings taken out in taxes is greater for higher incomes. Greater demands are placed on those who earn the most, and proportionally fewer demands on those who earn less. The United States, Canada and many countries have progressive federal income tax systems. 2. In a *regressive tax system*, people who earn less pay a larger part of their income in taxes than people who earn more. A person earning $20,000 per year might pay $2,000 per year in taxes or ten percent of their income. A person earning $100,000 per year might pay $8,000 in taxes, which is 8 percent of their income. Although the person earning more pays more in taxes, the tax is actually a smaller portion of their total income. 3. In a *proportional tax system*, all people pay the same percentage of their earnings in taxes. This is also known as a "flat" tax system.

Prime Minister

The leader of the majority party in the House of Commons. Elected leader in a parliamentary democracy.

Parliamentary Government

The legislature in Great Britain is called the *Parliament*. Where the American Congress has two houses called the House and the Senate, the Parliament has two houses which are called the *House of Commons and the House of Lords.* Elections for those in these houses may occur at any time, not just on a fixed basis. *The Prime Minister and his Cabinet of top officials are controlled directly by the Parliament.* The rest of the government's ministers, the cabinet, may be selected from either house. Thus, the executive branch is, in effect, a committee of the legislature. Elections must be held every five years; the Prime Minister may call elections earlier, although no more frequently than once a year. If the party in power fails to obtain a parliamentary majority on an important issue, it must call a general election. The major parties in Parliament are Conservative, Labour, and the coalition of Social Democrats and Liberals. The top leader is known as the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons and is elected on a different basis than the United States president. While America's president is elected every four years, *the Prime Minister holds office for either as long as Parliament supports him, or for up to five years.* A general election is held every five years, but if an issue arises which may bring a vote against the Prime Minister, the vote may be at any time. The Prime Minister is directly answerable to the Parliament and must work closely with its members. The judiciary system of Great Britain has some vast differences from the Supreme Court of the United States. *The High Court in Britain consists of members of the House of Lords who may not judge the constitutionality of any law in the land* whereas in America, the Supreme Court judges the constitutionality of the laws that come before it. Unlike the U.S. Congress which has the power to override a veto from the President, no British court may have an overriding power over the Prime Minister or the Parliament. In the House of Lords, *like the Supreme Court, the members may stay for life or until retirement.* The people of Great Britain elect the officials who will be going to the House of Commons. The 651 members of the House of Commons members are called members of Parliament and are voting members of the legislative branch of government. The members are voted in from same-sized districts throughout England. Statutes, laws and taxes are under the power of the Parliament. Cabinet members, including the Prime Minister, are members of one house or the other and are collectively responsible to the House of Commons. Both Houses of Parliament are situated at the Palace of Westminster, a royal palace containing nearly 1,200 rooms. Formerly the residence of kings, the palace was turned over to Parliamentary use in 1965 for the function of both Houses. Over 100 staircases and 2 miles (3 kilometers) of passageways are contained within the palace. Within the palace area is the historic building known as Westminster Hall, which is known for hosting major public ceremonial events. The House of Lords is not as powerful as the House of Commons. The main function of the House of Lords is to review and examine bills that are passed by the House of Commons. While the House of Lords will amend bills from the House of Commons, it rarely changes a bill drastically. It can delay a bill but has no power to veto a bill that has been approved by the House of Commons. The House of Lords has a different type of membership than that of the House of Commons. While the House of Commons has members that are voted upon by their districts, the House of Lords has *hereditary peers* who received their membership by inheritance, going back a number of generations. There are also members who are called *"life peers"* who have a lifelong seat in the House of Lords, given to them through an honored achievement they have accomplished. A third group is known as "lords spiritual"; they are senior officers from the Church of England. The "law lords" make up the fourth group. Law lords are selected high-ranking magistrates from around the country, who hear final legal appeals, much like the American Supreme Court. Britain's legislature is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments" because of its influence on the parliaments of other countries. Parliament began in medieval times as a body of noble and ecclesiastical advisers to the monarch. The Curia Regis, or great council, evolved into the House of Lords. The Fourteenth century Parliament split into two houses and started gaining more control over laws and taxes. In 1376 it created impeachment and even presided over the *abdications of Edward II and Richard II* during that century. Parliament gained significant power under Henry VIII in the 1500's. The House of Commons grew in strength, helped by the overthrow and execution of Charles I and in 1688-89 by the English Revolution, which set the foundation for parliamentary sovereignty. In the 19th century the House of Commons moved away from the monarchy and became *democratic*. The Great Reform Bill of 1832 opened the door for the common person to get involved in politics; the bill gave the vote to the middle class for the first time. The following decades saw more freedoms in voting, including the creation of equal electoral districts in 1885.

general election

The people of the country voting for the members of the House of Commons. This follows the primary election; voters determine which of the nominated candidates shall hold office.

theology

The study of religion.

regulate

To control, adjust or govern according to a system.

loathe

To hate or abhor.

override

To surpass a veto.

collaboration

Working in a unified intellectual effort on a joint project.

multiparty political systems

are found in many countries that have parliamentary governments. Countries with multiparty political systems include *Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, and Sri Lanka*. Most multiparty countries have four or five major parties, and, in addition to these, there may be several minority parties. In most cases, each of these political parties has particular economic or social goals. Multiparty systems vary from country to country. Most multiparty systems consist of a few left-wing parties, which hold liberal views, some center parties, which have moderate views, and a few right-wing parties, which support conservative views. In multiparty countries, one party seldom wins enough seats in the legislature to form a majority. Therefore, two or more of the parties will join forces and form a coalition government to direct the nation's affairs. Often the coalition parties fail to agree on policies and programs because of the differences in their political beliefs; therefore, the government may be weakened and may ultimately fall. Although there are many minority parties in the United States, their influence is generally insignificant. As a result, the American system of government is considered a two-party system. The checks and balances of one party against the other are fairly even. In an election, one party may win some legislative gains, and then the other party may win in the next election. The multiparty system is not as simplified as the two-party system. The multiparty system tends to produce a less stable government than does the two-party system.

The Supreme Court

is an integral part of our country's presidential government. It is the highest court in the land and *its members are appointed by the president.* The Senate, however, gives final approval for the candidates of the Supreme Court to be admitted. Once a candidate is approved, *he or she will keep the appointment for life or until retirement.* The Supreme Court may review certain laws of the country and decide whether they are within the guidelines set forth by the Constitution. The Supreme Court even has the right to decide whether certain actions of a high official or even the president himself are either unconstitutional or against the law. The overriding veto power of Congress and the Supreme Court's power are two ways that the government provides a system of checks and balances. In a presidential government such as America's, the people elect the president and the members of Congress. The president is elected separately from the members of Congress. His authority is fairly great under this system of government, but he must cooperate with the Congress, or he may see a lack of support for some of his plans and goals. The powers of the United States presidential government are defined in the U.S. Constitution. The president is to be accessible to the people of America by way of communication at all times; the public has the right to express their feelings and concerns to the White House. Anyone may contact the White House!

congress

is another part of the presidential government. Congress is also known as the *Legislature*, and consists of *two houses - the Senate and the House of Representatives*. The members within both houses serve for a fixed term. The Legislature has the power to pass laws and to override presidential vetoes. Let's go back to the story about the 80 miles per hour law. If the president vetoes the bill, it can be sent back to Congress. If Congress wants the 80 miles per hour law passed, they can try to get a *two-thirds majority* of those present to vote to approve the vetoed bill and it will become a law despite the veto. The United States has built its government on four elements: 1. popular sovereignty, meaning that the people are the ultimate source of the government's authority 2. representative government 3. checks and balances 4. federalism, an arrangement where powers are shared by different levels of government. Congress also shares control over the military with the president (which guarantees civilian control of the military). Congress has the authority to declare war and provide funding for soldiers and weapons, but the president serves as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

Aristotle

is considered to have been one of the greatest and most influential thinkers of all Greek philosophers. His teachings had a powerful effect on the Western culture for ages to come. Born in Greece in *384 B.C.*, Aristotle was considered brilliant from childhood. He attended the philosophical school of Plato and at one point in his life *he supervised the early education of Alexander the Great.* His political works include *Nichomachean Ethics and Politics*, in which he proposed that citizens should be given the right to happiness and to pursue their dreams and goals. *He believed that when any person is given the liberty to pursue his purpose in life, he will achieve a great happiness and fulfillment. Aristotle called this fulfillment finding one's "function," what one can do best.* For example, a kite's function is to fly and a bow's function is to shoot arrows. Aristotle argued that if a person were given a reasonable chance to follow and achieve his function, he would be truly happy.

Totalitarianism

is the opposite extreme from anarchism. In a totalitarian government, the authorities want complete obedience and total submission. Totalitarian governments try to regulate everything in a person's life. If you were under a government like this, your workplace, school, and even your family would be under severe restrictions and regulations. Totalitarian governments have no limits in their power within the country. Their control is not only over personal freedoms but also personal thoughts, for many of these rulers want the citizens to adhere and agree to a strict set of ideas.

kitchen debate

occurred on July 24, 1959, in Moscow. While attending the opening ceremony of the American National Exhibition, United States Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev found themselves engaged in an impromptu debate. The war of words erupted as the two men toured an exhibit featuring the latest American color television sets and continued as Nixon and Khrushchev moved into the kitchen exhibit of an up-to-date model American home. Khrushchev mocked the American appliances on display and asserted that American workers could not afford such luxuries. Nixon refused to let Khrushchev's comments go unchallenged and told him that practically any American worker could afford to buy them. The verbal exchange between Khrushchev and Nixon highlighted the competing systems of the Soviet Union and the United States. Khrushchev represented the Soviet Union's one-party, communist system, and Nixon represented the democratic, capitalist system of the United States. While the "kitchen debate" failed to settle the differences between the superpowers, we now know that the Soviet Union's one-party system failed to provide the freedom that was necessary for its citizens to grow and prosper

Governments are important because:

they enforce rules that control conduct within a population

NAFTA established a community to promote ______ among countries that have common economic and political interests in North America.

trade

T/F: Habeas Corpus is an important law relating to prisoners' rights.

true

Friedrich Engels

was a radical thinker and is best known for his contributions to the Marxist theories of government. Engels was born in Prussia in 1820 to a fairly well-to-do family, but *established himself as a revolutionary*. He was so involved in revolutionary work that he was forced to flee Prussia in 1844. *His writings include The Condition of the Working Class in England, but it was his collaboration with Karl Marx in the Communist Manifesto which gave him fame.* Engels also *helped edit Marx's Das Kapital*. Engels' writings told of the need for the common worker to arise and resist the powers of leadership, especially of the business owners. Engels promoted the idea that the working class should revolt if necessary to get the rights and benefits he felt they deserved. His writings were revered by many revolutionaries in countries where oppression was evident. Ironically, *his writings inspired some of the most oppressive governments* within the last century, including the former Soviet Union.

Thomas Aquinas

was born in Italy around 1225 and is considered to be one of the greatest medieval philosophers. After attending the University of Naples and entering the priesthood, he studied philosophy and theology and began writing. Although Aquinas is best known for two of his theological writings, he also wrote about the nature and role of government, especially in *On Kingship*. Aquinas' writings on government boldly stated the government's responsibility to its citizens. He wrote that it was the requirement of the government to serve people and help them to live rightly. He thought this was more than just a good idea; the governments had a moral responsibility to be obedient to divine laws. Aquinas believed that no law could justifiably contradict God's teaching on virtue. Aquinas felt strongly about human rights such as life, education, and freedom of religion.