Greece: Democracy; Art and Architecture

Art: Archaic Period: Girl Preparing to Bathe

Onesimos, Chiusi, Italy ca. 490 BCE. A kylix (drinking cup). Demonstrates an interest in foreshortening, as the girls torso and breasts are displayed in a three quarter view. Also notable is the genre scene depicted. This does not depict any Gods or heroes, but rather a everyday woman doing an everyday activity. Images such as this would only be displayed privately and would never be the subject of public art.

Disadvantages of Radical Democracy

Radical democracy was open to manipulation. To address the Ekklesia one had to be skilled in debate. This led to: the rise of the sophists - teachers of rhetoric who taught for a fee and were consequently restricted to the rich. Professional rhetoricians were known as politicians. A clever speaker could monopolise debate and sway the voters irrespective. The votes of the poor could be bought. Decisions on war strategies should not be left in the hands of 6,000 citizens, who could be easily persuaded to make the wrong choices. Athens lost the Peloponnesian war to Sparta due, in part, to poor decisions made by the Ekklesia urged by unscrupulous politicians.

Solon

Re-wrote Draco's laws in 594. Helped the poor. All citizens could participate in the legislature. Ended debt enslavement: the "Seisachtheia". Cancelled land mortgage. Limited amount of land a person could own. Classes based on income NOT birth (effected who could claim power). Showed social awareness - examines well-being of various social classes. Not everyone was happy - the poor were not helped entirely, the rich lost privileges.

Athenian Radical Democracy: Ephialtes and Perikles' Reforms

Reduced the power of the Council of the Areopagos. Introduced extra courts for the people's court: Helaiai. Selected juries by lot from the 6,000 volunteers aged over 30 years - these were the same men who sat in the Ekklesia. Introduced jury pay. By the mid-5th century the Ekklesia and the Helkaiai sat almost daily except on public holidays and unlucky days. Democracy was now more prone to corruption than before.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: The Boule; Organisation and Duties

Responsibilities: prepared the agenda for the Assembly (Ekklesia), the main political body. Supervised the magistrates. It met daily except on holidays and unlucky days. Duties: proposed laws, policies, and any action to be taken. Business was prepared by a committee of 50 of its own 500 members. Each day one of its group was elected chairman (rotation). The supervision of the Council was performed by each contingent of 50 Council members from one tribe, serving in turn (decided by lot) as prytaneis for 1/10 of the year (called a "prytany"). The 50 prytany members met in the tholos. Members served for one year; they could serve again after an interval.

Strategoi Post-Cleisthenes

The Athenians realised that the democratic system was unsuitable for choosing military leaders and in time they were no longer elected by lot but chosen for their capabilities, and could be re-appointed an unlimited number of times.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: The Boule

The Council. Cleisthenes introduced a council of 500 to run the day-to-day affairs of the state (polis). The Boule: 50 members were from of each of the 10 tribes as representatives. Members were chosen by lot from names previously chosen at a deme level. Demes were represented proportional to their size - the larger the deme the more the members. The minimum age was 30 years. In contrast with the magistracies, a citizen could serve twice as a councillor in his lifetime. Met in the Bouleuterion in the Agora.

The Great Dionysia

The Festival took place at planting time in March. Crowds of 15,000 people regularly attended the performances, and even criminals were released from prison in order to see the plays. During Perikles' time, the theorikon secured even the poorest citizens could afford the ticket. Rich citizens sponsored the events-choregoi. By the 5th century, plays at Dionysia. People go to the theatre to get educated, not entertained. Women probably not allowed.

Architecture: Temples

The Greek temple was the house of a God/ Goddess, not of his or her worshippers. Marble used more and more in temple buildings. 3 styles: Ionic, Doric, and Corinthian. Temple layout: columns on all sides (so you could enjoy the view of the temple from all sides) - this basic layout continued for 500 years. Greek temples had low pitched roofs with terracotta tiles.

Polis

The polis is the Greek city-state as a political entity. The Athenian polis comprised: a citizen body of free men (males over 18 years of age), citizens without rights (women and children), metics (resident aliens), and slaves. The polis was regional: it had a definable constitution; it was independent/self-governing. The focal point of the polis is the largest city: this is the polis proper. It is the seat of political, administrative and religious life for all of Attica. Features of the polis include: an open market-place (agora); a place of general assembly; a seat of justice and government. The inhabitants of Attica collectively were the known as the demos.

Literature: Lyric Age

The so called "golden age" of Greek lyric poetry spans from 650 to about 450 BC, this is the first period from which the names of individual lyric poets survive. Write about things such as personal feelings, sadness for shortness of life, poverty, politics, and getting drunk. Initially Sparta contributed significantly.

Erichthonius

"The man of wool and earth". Born when Hephaestus tried to rape Athena, came on her thigh, and Athena wiped the semen away with wool. He was given in a concealed basket to the daughters of Cecrops (Aglauros, Hersê, Pandrosus), who were told not to look. Only Pandrosus refrained from looking - Aglaurus and Hersê were driven mad and jumped to their deaths from the Acropolis.

The Athenian Myth of Ancestral Succession

1. Cecrops springs from the earth, is the first king of Athens, has three daughters (Pandrosos, Aglauros, and Herse) and a son, who dies young without issue. 2. The kingdom passes to Cranaus, who springs from the earth, has three daughters and no sons, and is driven out by his son-in-law Amphictyon. 3. Amphictyon, who has also sprung from the earth, has no issue and is expelled by Erichthonios. 4. Erichthonios, both sprung from the earth and the child of a sexual transaction, has one son, Pandion, by Praxithea. 5. Pandion has two sons and two daughters by Zeuxippe. 6. Pandion's son, Erechtheus, has three sons and four daughters by Praxithea II. 7. Erechtheus'son, Cecrops II, has one son by Metiadusa. 8. Cecrops II's heir, Pandion II, has four sons by Pylia.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: Law Courts: Council of the Areopagos

Aristocratic court: heard major crimes (treason and religious crimes); it was the oldest and most prestigious court. Met on the Hill of Ares.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: The Ekklesia

Assembly. The major decision-making body in Athens was the Ekklesia. Met on a hill called the Pnyx. Dealt with day to day affairs. Anybody was eligible to serve for one year and it was expected that all male citizens would serve eventually. Every male citizen over 18 could attend every meeting of the Assembly with the right to speak and vote on all matters. But practical considerations and lack of will meant not all citizens attended. In the fifth century, public slaves would proceed through the Agora carrying a long rope coated with fresh red paint. Any citizen who was marked with this paint and was caught not attending the Assembly was subject to a penalty.

Art: Vase Painting

Black style eventually gives way to red style. However, black paint still features. Prior to the Classical Period (479) vases were the only medium for painting. Black Figure technique originated in Corinth in the 8th century and was copied by the Athenians from the late 7th or early 6th century. White-ground lekythoi (pottery used for storing oil) appear ca 480 BCE - used in a funerary context and contained unguents (oils). By the 5th century wall-paintings were probably executed in a similar manner - impressionist.

Architecture: Temples; Doric Style

Doric column introduced in the 7th century. A fluted column with or without a plinth (base). Represents simple authority. The Parthenon was built in this style.

Athenian Theatre

Drama was born when Aeschylus added a second individual actor to the performance, thereby creating the possibility of conflict. Sophocles added a third actor, introduced painted sets, and increased the size of the chorus to fifteen actors. By Euripides' time painting was an important part of the set, often commissioned to famous artists of the time, such as painter Polygnotus. The first three plays were tragedies, which dealt with religious or political questions. Old myths were used to replicate contemporary dilemmas and social issues. The fourth play was a "satyr" play that poked fun at the serious subjects and characters of the three earlier plays. The audience made their preferences clear by booing or cheering, and the playwrights were judged by ten judges, each one selected from one of the ten tribes of Athens. Aristotle embraced theatre for its ability to arouse pity and fear in the audience so that we may be purged, or cleansed, of these unsettling emotions (catharsis). Plato disliked theatre as much as he disliked democracy.

Obligations of Athenian Citizenship

Each citizen was: tied to the life of the community and the polis; required to perform military duty; required to pay taxes; required to obey the laws; required to practise the polis cult (cult of Athena.)

Erechtheus

Grandson of Erichthonius. The first legendary king of Athens. Linked to Poseidon - war with Eleusis. When he dies Athena prophesises he will be worshipped as god.

Architecture: Theatres

Greek theatres are cut into the side of a hill. Theatres were built in every city and were dedicated to Dionysos.

Art: Sculpture

Kouros - nude male youths - derives from Egypt. Kore - young women (always clothed) - derives from the Near East. Monumental marble sculpture appears at the end of the 7th century. Placed in temples and in tombs. Orientalising influences. Rigid forms. Commissioning tomb stones/funerary stelae was very important - only the hugely loved received these.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: Magistrates

Magistrates were people who occupied a public post and formed the administration of the Athenian democracy.The Athenians were especially worried about the power of magistrates becoming a threat to the democracy, especially archonship. Archons were the most honoured/prominent magistrates. There were nine archons chosen by lot from citizens who put themselves forward, rather than elected. Magistrates were elected annually; they were held accountable to all citizens. Magistrates often lacked actual training. A citizen could hold an office only once in a lifetime.

Peisistratus

Mentee of Solon (but Solon later opposed his ambition). Became leader of Athens' poor in 565 BCE. Initial attempts at seizing control of Athens failed. Seized power in 560 BCE. Became tyrant by 546BC. Made many popular reforms: reduced taxation; introduced festivals; increased trade and commerce; produced coin money; beautified the city; ordered copies of Iliad and Odyssey. Early golden era with his reign. Citizens have a sense of common belonging.

3 Different Mythical Origins of Athens

1: Descended from Athena; 2: Autochthonous (from the earth itself); 3: Descended from Cecrops (after this Athena and Poseidon compete for the protection of the city).

Athenian Radical Democracy

460s - rival generals vying for power: Kimon; Ephialtes and Perikles. Kimon had the support of the aristocracy. Ephialtes and Perikles wanted to increase their chances of election. In 462, they introduced reforms by increasing the power of the Ekklesia, giving more power to the poor. This is radical democracy.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: Ostracism

A process aimed at checking the power of the generals. A method of banishing prominent politicians. Proposed by the Boule; carried out at the Ekklesia meeting. The name of the person to be ostracised was written on a potsherd (ostraka). 6,000 votes were cast and the man whose name appeared most had to go into exile for 10 years. He could then return to public life without loss of his property. Very important for the people to react against over-bearing politicians. Eventually was abused.

Cleisthenes' Reforms

507-500 BCE. Constitutional changes to curb the power of the wealthy: abolished the old clan or tribal system on which citizenship was based; introduced 10 new tribes (phyles) to replace the old ones; divided Attica into 3 regions (trittyes): urban, coastal and inland; placed all communities (demes) into one of the new phyles; membership of the deme became hereditary. The phyle formed the basis of public life.

The Origins of Greek Theatre

6th century BCE. Choral performances of dancing and singing often in honour of Dionysus. In these carnival-like festivals, dancers would often wear goat-skins to resemble the followers of the god, the satyrs. Goat = tragos and Ode = singing, hence tragodia = goat singing (or maybe ode to the goat-god, Dionysus). Thespis transformed the chorus's hymns into songs that still honoured Dionysus but also told a story of a famous hero or even another god. Then Thespis added another innovation: one of the chorus members would step away from the others to play the part of that hero or god. This individual actor wore a mask and entered into a dialogue with the chorus.Interestingly tragedy began as the competing arena of the masses rather than the noble. When democracy was adopted as the constitution of Athens, naturally tragedy gained prominence. Dancing choruses of worshipers began competing for prizes.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: Law Courts: the Helaiai

A court of appeal for serious cases. Introduced by Cleisthenes. The jury was chosen from the citizen body (this is the Ekklesia acting in a judicial capacity). This is trial by jury, jury being one's peers.

Cecrops

A founding ancestor of Athens who brought laws, civilization, and proper worship of the gods. He was autochthonous (born of the earth).

The Persian Wars

After the Battle of Marathon, under Xerxes (486-465 BC) the Persians launched a punitive expedition against Athens. In 481 BC, Xerxes gathered together a huge army. The Athenians, however, were prepared thanks to Themistocles. Of several hundred Greek city-states, only thirty-one decided to resist the Persian army; these states were led by Sparta, Corinth, and Athens: the Greek League. Sparta was made leader of all land and sea operations. The Persians won the battle of Thermopylai in 480 BCE (headed by the Spartan king Leonidas on the Greek side). Themistocles, however, understood that the battle would be won or lost at sea. This led to the Battle of Salamis and Persian disaster. However, one Persian general, Mardonius, remained. He wintered in Greece, but he was met in 479 BC by the largest Greek army history had ever known. Under the leadership of the Spartan king, Pausanias, Mardonius was killed in the battle of Plataea, and his army retreated back to Persia.

Draco

An Athenian noble. Credited with putting down the first written laws of Athens in 621 BCE. The laws were very severe (modern English term draconian meaning "severe" or "harsh") - written "in blood, not ink". Theft resulted in execution. Written laws meant that judges could not show favouritism or make up laws.

Themistocles

An Athenian politician and general. A very important general to the Persian Wars.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: The Ekklesia; Composition and Duties

An assembly of 6,000 citizens; that is, males over the age of 18 years. They ratified the laws and the policies proposed by the Boule. In theory they could override any proposal of the Boule put to it. Under Kleisthenes the Ekklesia met 40 times a year.

The Origins of Greek Theatre: Thespis

Ancient Greek society and 'agon.'

The Flaws of Athenian Democracy

Athens' adult population: Circa 300,000; 150,000 foreigners and slaves (not citizens); 100,000 women and others; 50,000 male citizens with voting rights. Direct democracy - the citizen had to be there to vote (typically 5,000-6,000 voted at a time). Women had few rights and opportunities. Slavery played a major role in the economy. Orators often used forceful and coercive language, rather than logic, to sway voters.

Art: Archaic Period: François Vase

Chiusi, Italy ca. 570 BCE. Attic black-figure volute crater. Created by Kleitas and Ergotimos. Many of the depictions on the vase are of Achilles, the great hero from Homer's Illiad. Also present is the centauromacy, or battle of the centaurs and the Lapiths (a northern Greek tribe). Figures are depicted in profile with frontal eyes and frontal torsos. Early stages of Greek thinking. Inspired Homer. Most prominent piece of Greek literature at the time.

Art: Archaic Period: Three Revelers

Euthymides, Vulci, Italy ca. 510 BCE. Attic red-figure amphora. Euthimides was a contemporary and rival of Eurphonious. This wine storage jar contains imagery of drunkenness. The artist has rejected the conventional frontal and profile composite views. Uses foreshortened three quarter views of his subjects. His signature reads: "Euthymides painted me as never Euphronious could do!" Difficulty in depicting the human body in movement. Rivalry between the two artists.

Literature: Poetry

Following Homer and Epic Tradition - lyric poetry. Greek Lyric Poetry refers to poetry sung to a stringed instrument (usually a lyre but also flutes and other stringed instruments). Drama in honour of Dionysus : tragedy and comedy. Lyric poetry - people can't compete with Homer's epic poetry.

Rhetoric

Formal invention of rhetoric by Korax and Tisias (Syracuse). In Athenian Democracy there was a need for public speaking: law courts [no lawyers or judges / large juries], funeral orations, embassies, generals addressing the troops, epistolary (prepared) political speeches, panegyrics.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: Strategoi

Generals. Board of 10 strategoi, or generals: one from each tribe, chosen annually by lot. Commanded the military. Unlike other magistrates, the board of ten generals were elected. One general was never appointed commander-in-chief of a given expedition. There was constant scrutiny and threat of prosecution for generals. Ten times a year, the generals had to undergo a vote of confidence in the Assembly and they were also subject to prosecutions for crimes like bribery and treason. Exile and fines were common for generals.

The Peloponnesian War

In 461 BC, under the leadership of Pericles, Athens overnight changed direction in domestic and foreign politics. In foreign affairs, Athens began to define its role in direct relationship with Sparta rather than in relationship with Persia. The Athenians formed an alliance with Argos, along-standing rival of Sparta, and Megara. This led to the first Peloponnesian War. The Delian League had imperceptibly become the Athenian Hegemony; the alliance was more about Athenian power politics in Greece. Athens made peace with the Spartans. In 449 BC, Athens stopped the war with Persia. Megara and Boeotia soon revolted from the alliance; in 445 BC, Pericles, however, diverted disaster by making a thirty year peace with Sparta. Both sides got they wanted. Athens gave up political power over the states on the Greek mainland; in return, Sparta recognised the Athenian Hegemony as a legitimate political institution. Sparta, however, growing increasingly wary of Athenian prosperity, would soon find itself entangled once again with its old rival. The thirty year peace managed to hang on for only fourteen years before hostilities broke out again. In 431, a second war broke out, called simply The Peloponnesian War; this war saw the death of Pericles in its second year, but eventually witnessed the foolish destruction of the Athenian navy, the defeat of Athens, and the end of Athenian democracy. In 404 BC, the Athenians surrendered totally to the Spartans, who tore down the walls of the city, barred them from ever having a navy, and installed their own oligarchic government, the Thirty.

The Persian Wars: the Battle of Marathon

In 490 BC, the Persians launched an expedition against Athens, and were met by Miltiades. This battle, the battle of Marathon (490 BC), is perhaps the single most important battle in Greek history. From Marathon onwards, the Athenians began to think of themselves as the centre of Greek culture and Greek power. This pride, or chauvinism, was the foundation on which much of their cultural achievements were built.

Architecture: the Parthenon

In Athens. Dedicated to Athena Parthenos. Built under Perikles in the 5th century with funds taken from the Delian League. Pheidias is episkopos (building supervisor). Iktinos and Kallikrates the architects. The earlier Parthenon was built by Peisistratos in the 6th century but destroyed by the Persians in 480. The themes are often violent and include images of gorgon. Everything in the acropolis speaks loudly of propaganda. The metopes have allegorical scenes representing the defeat of the Persians The scenes include: the Trojan War, the Battle of the Gods against the Giants, the Gods against the Centaurs, and the conflict between the Greeks and the Amazons. The temples and statues were originally painted. The paint survives on some of the sculptures. Architects and sculptors of the Parthenon: Ictinus, Kallikrates and Phidias.

Leadup to the Persian Wars

In the middle of the sixth century BC, the Greek city- states along the coast of Asia Minor came under the control of the Lydians and their king, Croesus (560-546 BC). However, when the Persians conquered the Lydians in 546 BCE, all the states subject to the Lydians became subject to the Persians. The Persians controlled their new subject-states very closely; they appointed tyrants, they required citizens to serve in the Persian army and to pay high taxes. Struggling under these new burdens and anxious for independence, the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, began a democratic rebellion in 499 BCE. Aristagoras was an opportunist. He went first to the Spartans, since they were the most powerful state in Greece, but the Spartans seem to have seen right through him. When he approached the Athenians, they promised him twenty ships. In 498 BC, the Athenians conquered and burned Sardis, which was the capital of Lydia, and all the Greek cities in Asia Minor joined the revolt. The Athenians, however, lost interest and went home; by 495 BC, the Persians, under king Darius I (521-486 BC), had restored control over the rebellious Greek cities. Greeks didn't think things through → Persian war.

Democracy

Power of the people: demos - people; kratos - power. - Athenian democracy came about through a series of reforms over a period of 130 years.

Architecture: Temples; Ionic Style

Product of a society in affluence and luxury. The Corinthian style is very similar to the Ionic Style. The Ionic order is based upon orientalising patterns. Ionic capital - the scroll is called a volute.

Cleisthenes' early democracy

The citizens themselves ran it. Representative democracy, people who were appointed didn't represent anyone but themselves. Democracy didn't last long, had inherent flaws.

Architecture: Temples; Columns

The column shaft was the main part of the column, the capital was placed above the shaft. The columns are built of drums, fluted and tapering towards the top for a sense of lightness and height.

Demos

The common people of an ancient Greek state, the populace of a democracy as a political unit. Plural: demoi. The inhabitants of Attica collectively were the known as the demos. Citizens (males over 18 years) throughout Attica were known as Athenians. Women were called "women of Attica".

Cleisthenes' Democracy: Demes

The demes (communities) functioned as town councils. Membership to the demes was hereditary. They operated under the leadership of a demarchos who: was elected annually by the people from amongst their numbers; kept a register of all people within the deme as well as any foreigners. This system gave most citizens an opportunity to participate in government at some level.

Architecture: Temples; Characteristic Elements

The entablature separates the capitals and the pediment (the triangular roof-like section). Triglyphs and metopes (sculptures) alternate in the entablature; sculptures are placed in the pediment.

Architecture: Temples: Archaic Period

The first stone temples date to the mid-7th century. They had clay tiled roofs. Mainly made from mud bricks. Narrow because difficult to roof. Most of the temples would contain decorative sculpture that tell something about the deity symbolised within. The columns contained pronounced entasis, or swelling of the column at the middle. This bulky and less elegant architecture is result from the lacking architectural knowledge of the Archaic Greeks. Archaic temples often decorated with Gorgons - this does not happen later on. The themes of archaic decoration are often violent.

The Herald

The herald invited members of the Ekklesia to give advice. There were self-restraints - no-one wanted to make a fool of himself.

Cleisthenes' Democracy: Law Courts

There were two courts: the Council of the Areopagos and the Helaiai. Just as with the magistracies, the court system was run by non-professionals. There were no professionally trained judges and lawyers.

The logographoi

Those who write speeches

Cleisthenes

Took power in the 5th century with Spartan help after Peisistratus's son Hippias was exiled. Reformed the government. Previously, there were multiple tribes (phylai) and conflict among the city folk, hill folk, and plain folk. He organised ten entirely new communities/town councils (demoi) each composed of people from the three regions (trittyai) and of different family tribes. Broke old tribal or class loyalties and reoriented people towards the state. With the establishment of the assembly, Athens became a representative democracy. He was succeeded by his sons. His sons oppressed the Athenians, one was murdered, the other exiled.

Phylai

Tribes

Art: Archaic Period: Exekias, Achilles and Ajax playing a dice game

Vulci, Italy ca. 540 -530 BC. Athenian black-figure amphora created by Exekias (painter and potter). Exekias was considered by the Greeks to have been a Master of black figure painting. No series of horizontal bands - instead a simple large band that contains the didactic image. The earliest of these types of vase paintings were called bilingual due to their depiction of the same subject on both sides of the vase. One in red figure, and the other in black figure. The "calm before the storm", a concept that is repeated throughout classical period. Initially black figures only. Red figure - easier to make.

The Delian League

While the Spartans were principally responsible for the Greek victory in the Persian Wars, the Athenian fleet was probably the most important component of that victory. This victory left Athens with the most powerful fleet in the Aegean, and since the Persians hadn't been completely defeated, all the Greeks feared a return. The alliances that Athens would make following the retreat of the Persians, the so-called Delian League, would suddenly catapult Athens into the major power of the Greek city-states. This power would make Athens the cultural centre of the Greek world, but it would also spell their downfall as the Spartans grew increasingly frightened of Athenian power and increasingly suspicious of Athenian intentions. The Athenians saw themselves as restorers of tradition, and the centre of Greece. They capitalise on their navy and sold naval protection.