History

Tension between Britain and Germany over South Africa

1899- Kruger demanded the withdrawal of British troops and full independence for the Transvaal. Britain dramatically increased its forces in South Africa, they were successful in reliving several cities and captured the Transvaal capital, Pretoria in June 1900. After this the Boers adopted guerrilla tactics carrying out surprise raids on British held railways and storage depots. They were equipped with German rifles causing further anger in Britain. After two years of fighting, the boers were forced to surrender, Britains victory in the second Boer War 1899-1902 was confirmed by the Treaty of Vereeniging 1902, which placed Orange free state and Transvaal firmly under British control.

Impact of imperial expansion on international relations Algeciras Crisis

1905-06 1905 kaiser made an agressive speech in the Moroccan city of tangiers, making it clear that Germany favored an independent Morocco. This did not cause a split between Britain and France, Britain continued to support French claims over Morocco shown in an international conference in Algeciras in early 1906. Increase suspicion of Germans intentions, Britain and France developed an even closer relationship. 1911 Kaiser sent a gunboat to the Moroccan port of Agadir with the intention of undermining French power in the region. Britain sided with France, the Kaiser backed down, although many Germans wanted to go to war.

Reparations

After being agreed at the Paris Peace COnference that repartions would be imposed on Germany and the other defeated nations, the task of setting the actual amount that each country would have to pay was designated to a repartions of commission that would meet in 1921. It was clear that the most of the reparation requirements would be imposed on Germany and Bulgaria. The treaties of Saint Germain, Trianon and Sevres acknowledged that Austria, Hungary and Turkey had very limited resources and would find it difficult to pay reparations. Repartions commission met in 1921 it considered the resources available to each of the defeated nations and took the view of their representatives into account. Considering the major economic problems facing Austria and Hungary, no repartions were imposed on them. Limited reparations were imposed on Turkey, but these were eliminated under the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. 100 million pounds was set for Bulgarian repartions, only a fraction of which had been paid by 1932 when the requirement was abandoned. Keynes leading economic of the early 20th century and member of the British delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, argued that repartions were vindictive and would lead to problems because of Germany's inability to keep up with payments and reparations would lead to high inflation. Heaviest burden in terms of reparation payments fell on Germany, instructed to pay a total of 6.6 billion. The German representatives at meetings of the Reparations Commission were horrified. They argued that with the German economy devastated during WW1, the country was in no position to meet such demands.

Poland

After more than a century of being partitioned by foreign powers, such as Germany and the Habsburg and Russian empires, Poland re emerged as an independent nation in November 1918. Paris peace conference conference confirmed its independence in June 1919. Of its population of 27 million, less than 18 million were poles, more than one million were German. These statistics, and with the fact that there were 14 political parties in the country meant that attempts to maintain true democracy led to weak and unstable governments. In 1926 Pilsudski led a military coup and established himself as dictator. Border disputes brought conflict with Germany, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania and Russia. Polish leaders wanted to extend Polands territory beyond that which had been agreed at the Paris Peace Conference, it wanted to gain control over Ukrainian and Lithuania, areas that had been part of Poland prior to its partition in the 18th century when they came under the control of Russia. Poland invaded Ukraine, stopped by Russian counter offense, were eventually successful and the war between Russia and Poland ended by the treaty of Riga 1921 which added a strip of land around 160km to Poland eastern borders.

Nature of New Imperialism: Maintaining peaceful relations

Although there was a rush to acquire new overseas possession inevitably involving rivalry between European nations there was a real attempt to prevent this leading to the constant warfare that had characterised earlier imperialism. The treaty of Berlin 1885- effectively laid down ruled by which European nations should carry out their plans for expansion in Africa- attempting to avoid possible confrontation.

Mercantilism

An economic policy based on the belief that there was only limited amount of wealth in the world. European nations aimed to increase their share of that wealth at the expense of their rivals, a situation that encouraged imperialism and led to frequent wars.

Economic growth and the need for trade in the late 19th century

As a result of these factors USAs output in key industries grew rapidly Coral 50 million tuns in 1870, by 1890 262 million tons produced Steel output rose from 380 000 tons in 1875 to 13 million tons by 1890 Cotton 1870 4.25million bales of cotton by 1890 risen to 10.6 million 1900 US was outstripping its main European rivals in the output of key products. Nevertheless, US economy suffered from an unstable baking system and over dependence on the domestic marked. 1893 bankruptcies in industries ranging from banks to railways sparked a crisis causing a shortage of cash. Unemployment rose from 3.7million in 1892 to 12.3 million in 1894 Sudden economic downturn alerted businessmen to the dangers of over-reliance on the domestic market and should start selling more goods abroad. Farmers argued that they needed access to overseas markets in order to maximize their profits, and campaigned against the governments policies of protecting American industries from foreign imports by imposing high tariffs. Arguing that this policy prevented them from selling their products abroad and increased their costs due to the high price of imported agricultural machinery. Democratic Party also campaigned for the abolition or at least reduction of import tariffs arguing that free trade would be more beneficial to the American economy. Republican part largely dominated by business and manufacturing interests remained in favour of protecting American industry from foreign competition. Republican dominance of American politics during the late 19th century meant that import tariffs not only remained but at a high level

Economic motives for imperial expansion: industrialisation 3

As the industrial revolution spread across Europe, Britain's advantageous economic situation ended. Second half of the 19th century, Britain began to face growing competition from its European rivals, and from the USA, which was rapidly emerging as an economic power in its own right. Germany by 1871 had emerged as a serious industrial and commercial challenger to Britain. France was slower to industrialise than Germany, but was making a concerted effort to extend its international trade. With a well establish trading outpost in Senegal, France increased its commercial interests in Altria with the conquest of Algeria (1830-47). Between 1850 and 1870, France developed the second most powerful navy in the world, surpassed only by Britain, and established naval bases in the Indian Ocean and Indo China to enhance and protect French trade with Asia

Impact of the closing of the frontier on US foreign policy

At the beginning of the 19th century USA was a small nation whose independence had only recently been formally recognized. By 1890 the USA had expanded across much of the North American continent. For most of the 19th century USA focused on internal rather then international issues. It was preoccupied with westward expansion on the North American continued and from 1861 to 1865 fighting a civil war. America had no real interest in wider international affairs and followed a policy of isolationism.

Imperialism introduction 2

Britain had lost control over its 13 colonies in North America following the American war of Independence (1775-1883), while Spain no longer had extensive influence in South America. Nevertheless, the desire to identify and exploit profitable journeys overseas remained. Interest in the Americas declined, European nations began to look in places such as Africa and Asia. Leading to the the new wave of imperialism in the period from 1871 to 1914.

Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion, Britain

Britain possessed a vast overseas empire far larger then any other European nation. British people were accustomed to the fact that their country had influence in and control over distant foreign lands. Empire was a symbol of national pride, power and prestige and was heavily stressed. Popular support for Britain imperialism was encouraged from a young age through the introduction of compulsory state education. Teaching the basics of reading and writing, and also encouraging national pride and loyalty. maps of the British Empire were proudly displayed on classroom walls. Literacy levels increased, new technology reduced printing costs, more people had access to news papers, which aimed to shape public opinion in favour of overseas expansion. Stories about mysterious foreign lands, strange inhabitants seen as 'barbaric', were hugely popular. Exciting accounts of how British heroes were fighting against 'savages' in order to 'civilize'. The newspaper articles were often exaggerated and untrue, but reinforced belief in European racial superiority and eco outraged nationalistic feelings.

Tension between Britain and Germany over South Africa

Britain took control of the Dutch colony, capte colony following the end of Napoleonic wars 1814. British immigration began in 1820, shortly afterwards english became the official administrative language in the colony and a new tax system was imposed. Farmer of Dutch decent known as boers, resented the British and left cape colony and moved towards the republic of Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Maintaining control of cape colony involved constant bloody broder wars with native tribes during the 19th century. 1877 following a failed attempt to persuade the gold and diamond rich Transvaal and Free Orange state to join cape colony in a federation, Britain claimed possessions of the republics. At first there was the threat of war with the neighboring Zulu Kingdom, however once the threat was removed, Transvaal boers rebelled and claimed independence. First Boer War 1880-1881 - ill prepared British troops were defeated. Pretoria convention 1881, Transvaal and Orange free state were given self-governing status under British oversight. Britain retained the right to maintain a military presence within the region and to protect it from foreign intervention.

Nature and purpose of 'the scramble for Africa' Britain

Britains orignal concern was to protect its vital Indian Ocean trading routes, so focused on Egypt and South Africa. Discovery of gold, diamonds and other valuable minerals in the Transvaal alerted Britain to the economic rewards that might be gained by acquiring further land in Africa. Determined to prevent other European countries, particularly France and Germany from gaining these potentially mineral rich areas for themselves, Britain moved quickly to secure as much of Africa as possible. Britain took possession of most of southern and East Africa in the last 20 years of the 19th century. By 1900 Britain possessions in Africa included, Egypt, the Sudan, British East Africa, British Somaliland, Souther and Northern Rhodesia, Orange free state, the Transvaal, British Gold Coast. These countries accounted for more than 30% of Africas population. Rhodes ambition was to build a railway and telegraph line from Cairo in the north to the Cape in the south thus reinforcing Britains commercial gain from its African possessions.

Political motives for imperial expansion: imperialism as social policy

By 1870 political power in Europe remained largely in the hands of wealthy landowners, businessmen and entrepreneurs, many stood to gain from overseas expansion. However now their political control was being threatened, industrialisions had led to the emergence of a large and increasingly organised working class which demanded social economic and political reform.

Political motives for imperial expansion: growth of nationalism

By 1871, the political map of Europe had been settled. New nations states were declared in Germany and Italy and borders with Europe had been agreed. Only war could change these borders, and war was something al nations were trying to avoid. Countries needed to look overseas in order to enhance their own industrialisation and increase their wealth power, prestige and influence.

Impact of imperial expansion on international relations Fashoda Incident 1898

Clash between the rival African ambitions of Britian and France almost led to war. While France was expanding rapidly eastwards from French West Africa, the British were expanding southwards from Egypt towards the Cape. Paths crossed in Sudan, French and British expedition met in the village of Fashoda, both claiming Sudan. This incident led to wide spread outrage in both countries, with each country accusing the other of unjustified aggression. Both nations began process of mobilising their fleets in preparation for war. Compromise was eventually reach, France recognised British possession of Egypt and Sudan, while Britian formally acknowledged the French presence in Morocco.

Economic motives for imperial expansion: The 'Long Depression'

Competition was enhanced by what became known as the 'Long Depression', a period of price deflation that lasted from 1873 to 1896. As a result of rapid industrialisation across Europe and the USA, principally in Germany and Britain, the production of goods was outstripping demand. Businessmen and industrialists were forced to lower their prices, which in turn led to declining wages and job losses. Governments were put under enormous pressure to protect and promote their nations' economies. European countries, therefore began competing for new overseas positions that would provide guaranteed markets for their industrial products.

Reasons for the USA entering the war: German submarine warfare

Convinced that the USA was supplying Britain and its allies with weapons and other military equipment, in 1915 German U-boats (submarines) began regularly attacking ships crossing the Atlantic. This threatened to undermine USAs attempt to maintain its trading links with Europe. At first Germans would issue warning so passengers could be evacuated, but in 1915 the Lusitania was sunk without warning, killing more than 120 Americans. Outrage across the USA, Wilson issues a stark warning to germany. Wilson response caused a split in US government, some fearing that it was too strongly worded and likely to be interpreted as the prelude to a déclarions of war against Germany, moreover there was some evidence that the Lusitania had been carrying munitions which Germans argued made it a legitimate target. 1916 another passenger ship suffered the same fate, the Sussex, 3 Americans died, Wilson threatened Germany with breaking diplomatic relations if the same were to happen again. Germany promised not to attack passenger ships in response. Germanys use of unconditional attacks against all passenger and merchant ships entering an exclusion zone imposed around Britain and France had an effect on what the USA considered legitimate trading interest. However immediate trigger into entering WW1 came in 1917.

Attempts to resolve tensions between imperial nations The Berlin Conference 1884-85

Countries were prepared to compromise and negotiate rather than going to war, example in the Berlin Conference. Organized by the German chancellor Otto Von Bismarck, the conference was designed to regulate European imperialism and trade in Africa in order to prevent direct conflict breaking out between Europeans nations. Representatives of 13 European nations met in Berlin between 15 November 1884 and 26 February 1885. Main articles stated: Free passage should be given to all ships on the Niger and Congo rivers, both of which provided access to African interior. Slavery should be abolished throughout the African continued. Done to justify the right of European countries taking land in Africa, and providing a justification for imperialism in Africa.

US, Wilson

Country had suffered far less severely that its European allies during the war, wanted a lenient peace based on the 14 points, "peace without victory". He believed that imposing a harsh treaty on Germany would cause resentment and make future conflict more likely. Wilson though that the greed and selfishness of the rival European nations and been a major contributing factor to WW1, he saw himself as a mediator between these nations. In truth, he had very little understanding of the complex problems facture Europe in 1919. He could no longer claim to fully represent the government in the USA, as the Democrats had lost control of the Senate in the midterm elections. The war had become increasingly unpopular in the USA. The Republican Party was strongly against American involvement in the Paris peace talks, believe that these were a European matter. By the time Wilson arrived in Paris the Republican Party held a majority in the Senate. Under these circumstances, what emerged from the Paris peace talks brought only limited resemblance to Wilson's vision of a fair settlement.

Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion, Germany

Different situation, only became unified in 1871, chancellor Bismarck, initially reluctant to become involved in imperial expansion, fearing that it would bring Germany into conflict with other European nations threatening the newly formed country's security and development. Pressure from German businessmen who saw the economic advantage it began to take interest in imperialism. Germany gov also also aware of its usefulness in promoting nationalism. The country had a mic of different social, political, religious and cultural background, needed to unite them, enforce German nationality. Government was keen to stress enormous social and economic advantages it would bring. Establishment of organisations such as the colonial society and the navy league were clear attempts to encourage public support. With the justification of bringing Christianity. German nationalism and the country's right and responsibility to extend its influence into foreign lands, promoted in newspapers, literature, art, postcards.

Economic motives for imperial expansion: industrialisation

During the 19th century however a new economic motive for imperial expansion developed. The industrial revolution, based on mechanization, meant that European industry expanded rapidly. Goods were mass-produced on such a scale that it became essential to find new sources of raw materials with which to make them and new markets in which to sell them. Entrepreneurs who had made rapid profits from industrialisation, sought new places in which to invest their wealth.

Treaties of Trianon, Neuilly, Saint Germain and Sevres

Each of the defeated nations was dealt with separately through a series of four treaties. The treaty of Saint Germain was signed with Austria in September 1919. By the terms of the this treaty, Austria lost: Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina to Yugoslavia Bukovina to Romania Galicia to Poland Trentino, Istria, Trieste and parts of the South Tyrol to Italy The Treaty of Neuilly was agreed with Bulgaria in November 1919. Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania, had to reduce its army to no more than 20 000 and was instructed to pay reparations of over 400 million. The Treaty of Sevres signed in August 1920, Turkey lost territory to Greece and Italy. Other part of the former Turkish Empire was mandated to France (Syria) and Britain (Palestine, Ira, and Transjordan). The treaty also stated that the Dardanelles were to be permanently open to all shipping. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, the Turkish National Movement was established with the aim of overturning the terms of the Treaty of Sevres and expelling foreign soldiers from the country. Both had been achieved by October 1923 when the newly formed Republic of Turkey was proclaimed with Kemal as its first president. The Treaty of Trianon with HUngary August 1920 stated that Slovakia and Ruthenia were to become part of Czechoslovakia. Hungary also lost Transylvania to Romania, and Croatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia.

Reasons for the US entering the war: the Zimmerman Telegram,

Early 1917 British intercepted and decoded a telegram from the German foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmerman, to the German ambassador in Mexico. The telegram appeared to instruct the ambassador to discuss with the Mexicans the possibility of Mexico invading the USA from the south if it entered the war on the side of Britain and France. Germany appeared to be offering to help Mexico to reclaim territory lose to the USA from the Mexican American War of 1848. American anger was crowing as there was no sign of the German submarine campaign ending, and now informed on the telegram, President Wilson was convinced that American interests were now very much under threat. 6th April 1917 USA declared war on Germany, American politicians was in support of the decision to declare war, public opinion was largely supportive of the decision. Anti Mexican sentiment was strong in the USA, anti German feeling had frown following the express reports of U-boats attacks on American ships.

Theory of racial superiority

Early 19th century scientists devolved theories regarding the classification of races. White people were classified as racially superior to other groups, such as Asians and Africans. Publication of 1859 Charles Darwins influential book, on the origins of species was widely interred as providing further scientific justification for such theories. Implying that certain races were inferior- being less evolved and thus less human than others. These views presented through poor science were widely accepted in Europe and USA. Convinced of their racial superiority, many Europeans believed that they had a duty to bring order, stability and civilisation to the lives of Africans through Commerce, Christianity and Civilisation. The claim that European nations were gaining overseas possessions in order to improve the lives of local people provided convenient justification for actions that were in reality motivated by self interest and characterized by exploitation. Many believed that it was 'a great cultural mission'.

Nature and purpose of the 'scramble for Africa' Germany

Entered the scramble later than its European rivals. It had only become a unified nation following the Franco Prussian War in 1871. Its location in the centre of Europe, surrounded by potential enemies, led its chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, to concentrate on national security by forming alliances and avoiding unnecessary rivalry with other countries. By 1881, pressure from German businessmen and industrialists forced the government to change its precious policy of resistance to gaining territory in Africa. Germany was in control of Kamerun, German East Africa, German South West Africa, and Togoland. By the time it entered the race most profitable areas had already been taken over by other nations, Germanys colonies in East Africa cost her considerably more than they were worth.

Imperialism Introduction

European nationals had a long tradition of increasing their wealth, prestige, and power by seeking overseas possessions. By the early 19th century, European involvement in overseas expansion had declines. The costs involved in maintains control over their overseas possessions, which frequently involved expensive wars proved too great for Europe's imperial national.

Deflation

Falling prices caused by drop in demand. This leads to falling wages and unemployment, which in turn further reduces demand as less people can afford to buy goods.

Economic motives for imperial expansion: industrialisation 2 Britain

First country to undergo industrial revolution, Britain, enjoyed enormous economic advantages during the first half of the 19th century. The development of steam-powered machinery revolutionized Britain's textiles industries, while new techniques were introduced for the production of iron and steel. Railways and steamships enabled Britain to transport its products more efficiently. Britain was the workshop of the world', it was able to produce goods more quickly and more cheaply then any other country

Czechoslovakia

First republic emerged from the collapse of the Habsburg emprie in October 1918. Independent state was confirmed by the settlement. In addition to Czechs and Slovaks it contained Russians, magyars, Poles, Jews and more then 3 million German Speakers. German speaking population made up a sizeable minority group that persistently claimed it was being discriminated against. Despite these issues Czechoslovakia was able to maintain a democratic system of government. Blessed with raw materials, right agricultural land and productive industries, it remained relatively prosperous throughout the 1920s. It developed protective alliances with Yugoslavia, Romania, Italy and France

Treaty of Versaille

For Germany economically devastating and politically humiliating. The country was geographically split in two by the 'Polish Corridor', had lost control of the major industrial region in the Saar and been forced to return the economically lucrative Alsace and Lorraine to France. Many German speaking people moved from areas that now came under the control of other countries. Those who eeweamined were often persecuted for Germanys role in the war. In addition to these land losses, the treaty imposed several other humiliating terms on germany. German armaments were limited to a maximum of 100,000 troops, no tanks, military aircraft or submarines and a maximum of six battleships. This was intended to weaken Germany's armed force so much that it could not pose a threat to other European countries in the future. For this reason. Anschluss (union) between Germany and Austria was forbidden in an effort to prevent the two German speaking countries uniting. A further déçue stating term of the TOV was the 'War guilt Clause'. This blamed Germany and its allies for the outbreak of WW1 and allowed the victorious nations to impose reparations for the damage the war had caused. Imposing reparation on Germany was also intended to economically weaken the country so that it could not threaten other countries in the future.

Yugoslavia

Formally established in December 1918, made up of the previously independent kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, together with territory that had been part of the Habsburg Empire. It became of various ethnic and religious groups like Christian's, Jews, Muslims, Romanians and Macedonians. Religious and ethnic disputes were inevitable and developing effective democratic institutions was virtually impossible. Bordering Italy, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece and Albania, Yugoslavia became involved in territorial disputes. In an effort to protect itself it made a series of friendly agreements with other countries, in early 1920s it formed the 'little entente' with Czechoslovakia, Romania and France. In 1924, joined an alliance with Greece, Romania and Turkey. Despite these agreement, it remained a weak and vulnerable country and became heavily dependent on western loans.

Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion, France

French gov formally adopted a policy known as the civilizing mission. The Roman Catholic Church stressed the civilizing aspects of French imperialism, through different publications, showing that imperialism was helping people rather than exploiting them. It was brining Christianity, civilisation and French culture to people in distant lands whose customs included human sacrifice, slavery. The government was also proclaiming social, political and economic advantages that would gain from its overseas possessions. It would enhance wealth of France enabling to address the the social and economic hardships of the lower class. Businesses, banks and entrepreneurs paid newspapers to carry stories demonstrating how their overseas activities were benefiting the French people. Justifying late 19th century imperialism, it was stressed the belief in racial superiority of white peoples, French people should feel proud of their country's activities in distant lands such as Africa and Asia.

Imperial expansion motives

Gaining overseas possessions provided a cheap source of raw materials and labour, and valuable products such as spices and silks, which were not available in Europe. At the same time, the overseas possessions provided a guaranteed and lucrative market for European goods. Many European businessmen and private companies were able to become extremely wealthy by exploiting this favorable, government-supported trading situation.

Impact of imperial expansion on international relations Entente Cordiale

German naval development caused alarm in Britain, arguing that Germanys overseas possessions were not sufficient to warrant such a large navy. Concerned that German navy would be concentrated in the North Sea and would pose a threat to British security. Led to a naval arms race that greatly increased tensions between Britain and Germany. French still angry on their humiliating defeat in the Franco Prussian War also had reason to feel threatened by Germanys newly agressive foreign policy under Kaiser Wilhelm II. For example, France claimed possession of Morocco a region in which both France and Britain had extensive trading interests. In 1904 Britain and France signed an agreement knows as the 'Entente Cordiale' which settled the long imperialism rivalries between the two countries in North Africa. In line with this agreement, Britain supposed France's claim in Morocco. Kaiser believed that the new friendship between Britain and France posed a threat to Germany's international prestige and influence. Viewing French claims over Morocco as an opportunity to weaken the improved relationship between Britain and France.

The treaty of Versailles

Germany fully expected a reasonable settlement based on Wilson's 14 points, a peace proposal that been widely published since January 1918 and that was popular with the anti war movement in Germany. Germany representatives were not allowed to pare in the peace negations, and when they were presented with the treaty there were horrified at the terms. Despite its objections, Germany had no alternative but to accept the treaty- failure to do so would have meant the continuation of war and an attack on Germany itself. In committing to a peace process, they had already abolished the monarchy and pulled back the army-they were in no position to renew fighting, Germany signed the TOV on 28 June 1919. It lost around 70, 000 square km of land, constaining around 7 million people. Alsace and Lorraine returned to France Eupen and Malmedy went to Belgium North Schleswig returned to Denmark The Saar Valley a heavily industrialised region, was to be administered by the LON for 15 years, during which France could use its coal mines: at the end of this time a plebiscite would determine whether it should belong to France or Germany Rhineland, part of Germany along its border with France, was to be demilitarized, meaning that no troops could be stationed there, this gave France the security it wanted but meant that Germany would be unable to defend this part of its broder Much of West Prussia went to Poland, allowing it access to the sea through the 'Polish Corridor', dividing Germany from its province of East Prussia The port of Memel went to Lithuania Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania which Germany had gained trough the treaty of Brest- Litovsk were established as independent states Germany lost her African colonies, which became mandates under LON supervision.

The closing of the frontier 1890

Having gained possession of much of the North American government, the US gov now needed to encourage people to settle in the Frontier areas, which were wild, remote, dangerous and largely unexplored. Army was deployed to deal with the presence of Native Americans who resented attempts of white settlers to occupy their land. US gov regarded Native Americans as uncivilized savages and brutal methods were used. By 1900 fewer than 350 000 Native Americans were left. Early settlers in the Far west were miners, the gov encouraged more permanent settlement of the frontier by enabling people to acquire cheap land on which to live and earn a living. Donation land claim act 1850- allowing settlers to take ownership of up to 640 acres of land in Oregon without charge. More and more settlers encouraged to move westwards. 1890 detailed gov survey revealed that settlements had been established across the entire USA, and gov announced the frontier was closed. Frontier represented adventure, freedom, and the opportunity to establish new life. For the first Tim Erin history USA had no frontier. People suggested that the closing of the frontier ended a period of expansion that had been so important in shaping the character of the USA and its people.

UK, Lloyd George

He wanted a less severe settlement. It was in British interests that Germany, potential import tant consumer of British exports, be allowed to recover quickly. However, British public opinion was strongly anti-German and Lloyd George had just won an election on the promise that he would 'make Germany pay'. Britain the rogue sought a settlement that would punish Germany, while at the same time, making its future economic recovery possible. The world's leading exporter in 1913, Britain had been by the USA and Japan by 1919. Moreover, it had been estimated that WW1 cost Britain over 3.25 billion pounds, Britain desperately needed to enhance its overseas trade, and Germany provided a potentially lucrative market for British exports.

Political motives for imperial expansion: imperialism as social policy

In an effort to reduce this threat, governments portrayed overseas expansion as beneficial to everyone. With French prime minster Jules Ferry and British's Joseph Chamberlain viewing imperialism as a way of diverting popular attention away from social economic and political inequalities and argued that imperialism would provide their countries with the finance required to pay for social reform, and improve the condition of the working class by ensuring steady employment. Governments used imperialism as a way of uniting their peoples, regardless of wealth or class behind this knew common aim - development of the economic and political power of their country through overseas expansion.

Reparations

In germas of reparations, Clemenceau demands had held sway. Keyes prediction that German reparations would cause economic problems in Europe was to prove to be correct. So too were Wilsons fear that imposing repartions on Germany would lead to resentment and the desire for revenge.

Attempts to resolve tensions between imperial nations The Berlin Conference 1884-85

In order to take possession of an African territory, a European nation would have to inform other governments of its claim immediately and demonstrate that the territory was 'effectively' occupied. Done to prevent a country from claiming an area it had Bo real control simply to prevent rival countries attempting to gain it. Article XII specified any disputes regarding control over a particular African territory should be settled by negotiation rather than war. European nations rushed to 'effectively occupy' as much African territory as possible, secure in the knowledge that this could be achieved without the risk of a major war. European nations were not prepared to fight each other over them clearly shown in the Fashoda incident. The conference established rules which imperial nations could gain possessions of African territory dividing the continent between them without consulting the Africans themselves. Evident in China, where each foreign nation established its own areas of influence and control ignoring Chinese laws and the authority of the Chinese governments. Despite the carefully laid plans tensions inevitable remained seen in Germany and Britain and in Japan.

Social and Technological factors enabling 'New Imperialism': Medical advancement

In the late 19th century, Africa was knows as 'the white man's grave' due to diseases such as malaria. The medicine discovered by French scientists 1817, proved to be an effective treatment for malaria. As fears for contracting and dying of diseases gradually faded interior of Africa became more accessible to Europeans.

Reparations

In the signing of the TOV, Germany was effectively accepting its own responsibilities and that of its allies for causing WW1. Given the tensions that had gradually built up in during the late 19th century and early 20th century and the complicated series of events that led to the outbreak of war in 1914, it may seem unreasonable to expect Germany and allies to accept full responsibility for it. Germany definitely though that. By providing a war guilt clause in the TOV, it provided some form of legal justification for expecting Germany and its allies to pay reparations. Germanys enemies suffered greatly both economically and in human terms in WW1. France in particular demanded compensation. Most of the war's major battles had taken place on French soil, whole towns and villages were destroyed, and France's whole towns and villages were destroyed, and France's main industrial region in Nord pas de Calais had been devastated. Repartions would facilitate reconstruction, both in France and in other countries, such as Belgium, which had been so badly affected by the war. The issue of repartions caused further disharmony between the Big three at Versailles. Wilson was entirely opposed to inflicting repartions on the defeated nations, arguing that this would cause resentment and instill a desire for revenge in Germany. Lloyd George while agreeing with the principle of reparations, wanted to keep them as low as possible so that the Germany economy could recover quickly and re-establish its trading links with Britain. Clemenceau, whose country had suffered most during the war, demanded that high reparations be imposed on Germany, providing compensation for war damage, and viewed reparations as a way of keeping Germany weak so that it could never threaten France again.

Social and Technological factors enabling 'New Imperialism': Medical Advancement

Industrial revolution had led to the introduction of new methods of producing iron and steel cheaply and in large quantities. This facilitated developments in railways and steamship making transport quicker and safer. Iron hulled, steam-driven ship were able to navigate rivers such as the Congo, the Zambezi and the Niger, offering easier access to the African interior. Communication systems were greatly improved- telegraph network was established, by 1891 cables reach from London to North and South America, India and New Zealand. Making it easier for imperial nations to administer and control their overseas possessions. Development of arms- fast firing rifles, machine guns and heavy artillery gave Europeans a distinct advantage over poorly armed Africans. Such effective weapon art territory in both Africa and Asia could be taken with little effective resistance from the locals. Such as the Matabele war of 1893 were Britain gained rapid victory.

Nature and purpose of the 'scramble for Africa' Portugal

It had long standing contacts with the African coast from the first wave of western exploration in the 16th century and determined not to be left behind in the race to acquire African land. It extended its claims to Angola and Mozambique.

Problems in 'Successor States' created

It was hard to maintain a commitment to self determination, Wilson belief that nationality could be determined by language was too simplistic for Eastern Europe, there were so many ethnicity grouping all with conflicting ambitions. The peacemakers had left around 30 million people living in minority groups under foreign rule, making border disputes inevitable. The 'successor states' that emerged as a result of the break up of the great European empires all suffered similar difficulties in the immediate post war years. These problems were caused by the multinational composition of their populations, border disputes, economic difficulties and political instability. However satisfying the competing demands of the victorious nations was virtually impossible;. In Eastern Europe the peacemakers had little option but to recognize situations that had already emerged following the disintegration of the Habsburg, Turkish and Russian empires towards the end of the war.

Why was there dissatisfaction with the peace settlements 1919-20?

January 1918, US president Woodrow Wilson outlined his vision for future world peace in his Fourteen Points speech. WW1 was still raging and its outcome remained far from clear. In January 1919, representatives of nearly 30 victorious nations met at Versailles. Aim of the Paris peace conference was to develop a settlement that would finally end WW1. Events were taking place across Europe, revolutions occurred throughout the former Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Turkish empires. The Western powers like Britain and France were fearful in revolution in their own countries. Essential for decisions to be reached quickly, therefore decision making came to rest with the Council of Four, President Woodrow Wilson (USA), Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau France, Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando Italy. Italy had little influence, Orlando's inability to speak English restricted his participation in negotiations. More over, when it was clear that Italy would not receive all of its territorial claims, Orlando temporarily withdrew the Italian delegation from the conference in anger. Main decisions as result taken by the 'Big Three'. Most significant factor shaping the decision making process was the disagreements between Britain, France and the USA over how the defeated Germany should be treated.

Impact of imperial expansion on international relations

Late 19th century, European nationals were rivals competing for raw materials, markets, trade and territory. Intense nationalism, European governments were determined to protect their own rights and interests and to gain as much overseas territory as possible and to defend their empire. Public opinion demanded they do so. National pride was at stake and increasingly countries were prepared to adopt aggressive foreign policies to preserve this pride. Opening up rise of direct conflict breaking out between European nations.

Tension between Britain and Germany over South Africa

More discoveries of golf deposits in Transvaal in 1889 brought new settlers mostly British. They were denied political and economic rights by the Transvaal president Paul Kruger. Prime minister of Cape Colony, Cecil Rhodes hoped that settlers in the region would rebel against the Transvaal government providing justification for an invasion. The rebellion failed to matérialise, Leander Starr led his forces into the Transvaal anyway but were swiftly driven back by the boers. Other European nations resented this attempted British Invasion of what they regarded as a small independent nation. Increased tension between Britain and Germany. Kaiser sent president of the Transvaal Paul Kruger a telegram congratulating him on defeating the raiders. Motive for sending the telegram is unclaimed. Some claim its further evidence of his impetuous personality others claim he was acting on the insistence of senior members of the German government. German foreign officers did have good reasons to justify sending the telegram,, it would enhance Germanys international prestige by placing it at the forefront of European criticism of Britains action in South Africa. Second considerable evidence that Marshall (foreign secretary) planned for Germany to replace Britain as the most influential foreign power in the Transvaal. Tension arose, and Britain belief of this intention caused a lot of anger.

Austria

Most of its industrially productive areas given to Poland and Czechoslovakia by the treaty of Saint Germain, Austria experienced enormous economic problems. The country was increasingly reliant on foreign loans and inflation ran high throughout the 1920s leading to political instability. Majority of Austrians believed that the solution to their problems was union with Germany but this was expressly forbidden by the post war settlement. Foreign loans were only given in response to Austrias commitment not to seek union with Germany.

Political motives for imperial expansion: growth of nationalism

Naval defence act- 1889- British government formally adopted the 'two power standard' which aimed to ensure that the British navy remained at least as powerful as the combined strength of the next two largest navies French and Russia. European government increasing portrayed overseas possessions as symbols of national pride and power. French gov, argued that it was France's destiny to be superior to other nations and to spread its language, culture and beliefs to other parts of the world through overseas expansion. French Missionaries in Indo China however did more than just simply spread Christianity and French culture, it actively helped French military forces take control over parts of Vietnam.

Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion, Britain

Popular literature also helped shape public opinion in favour of imperialism. Showing that those people were fortunate that Britain was willing to help them. Literature produced for children, encouraging support for imperialism and patriotism. Magazines published stories of British heroes fighting to defend parts of the British Empire against barbaric local inhabitants and other Europeans determined to steal territory that rightly belonged to Britain.

Tension between Britain and Germany over South Africa

Power of the British Empire been severely challenged by small Boer farmers revealing weakness in the British army. Second Boer war killed 22 000 soldiers of the British empire and cost British tax player 200 million huge amount. Britain was condemned by the international community for deploying 'scorched earth' strategies during the war, and for the establishment of concentration camps in which the wives and children of Boer fighters were imprisoned. Although they were intended to be refugee centres, conditions were so poor and were administered badly in the hope that the Boers would surrender. Bad hygiene and little food, 30 000 civilians died during the war.

Nature of 'New Imperialism' : Geographic scope

Previous imperialism had been largely focused on the 'New World' North and South America. New imperialism was centred on Africa and Asia. Explorers showed that African interior contained an abundant supply of valuable minerals and other raw materials including rubber and tin. David Livingston- Scottish missionary discovered the source of the River Nile. Crumbling Chinese Empire offered opportunities to increase vital trade links with the Far East.

Political motives for imperial expansion: strategic control of key regions

Prior to 1869, trading with India and the Far East had involved Europeans. To supply and protect its ships on this vital trade route Britain had established a port in Cape Colony in Southern Africa. Between 1869 and 1869, the Suez Canal Company financed largely by British and French entrepreneurs constructed a canal linking the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea across Egyptian territory. Enabling European ships to travel to and from India and the Far East more quickly and more cost - effectively. The instability of the Egyptian government threatened this new trading route, and so in 1883 Britain took over the administration of Egypt. Possibly being reason for other nations to gain territories in Africa. It became a political motive for seeking overseas possessions.

Opposition to imperialism

Some people however emailed opposed to imperialism due to: religious leaders, intellectuals and writers argued that it was morally wrong to seize control of territory that rightly belonged to the local inhabitants. Challenged the view that imperial nations were civilized while native peoples were savages. Not been cost effective although some wealthy businessman and entrepreneurs had clearly benefited from it there had been little increase in Britain's trade and the advantages derived from having overseas possessions were outweighed by the expense of maintaining control over them. It increased tension with other imperial nations causing potential involvement in costly wars. Germany Bismarck ark was a clear example of this as he prioritized German security and did not want this to be threaded by conflict with other nations. Causing more social issues, and making impossible to alleviate the conditions of the lower classes. Argued that governments should reduce taxation and expenditure, and that the high costs involved in maintaining overseas possessions was unsustainable. Anti Imperialism became stronger in Britain after it became necessary to mount a long and expensive campaign to maintain control of South Africa and the Boer Wars through the period from 1880 to 1902. Arguing that it was merely supporting the greed of entrepreneurs for gold and diamonds. Government however continued to promote imperialism and deflect attention away from domestic issues such as poor living and working conditions.

Nature and purpose of the 'scramble for Africa'

The scramble began as logical strategic and commercial but it rapidly descended into a mad rush for overseas possessions. European countries seemed determined to seize as much African land as possible, regardless of its potential value, simply to prevent it falling into the hands of their rivals. More then before it became an issue of national pride and prestige.

Reasons for the Spanish American War

Theodore Roosevelt appointed assistant secretary of the Navy in 1897, continued the process of developing the size and strength of the US navy. A year before the sinking of the Maine, he had argued that it was in US best interests to eject the Spanish from cuba. Arguing that war against Spain was advisable 'on the grounds both of humanity and self interest, taking one more step towards the complete freeing of America from European dominion'. Such a war would benefit military forces by trying both the navy and army in actual practice. When president McKinley sought a diplomatic solution to the rising tensions following the sinking of the Maine, Roosevelt was already preparing for war. He ordered US naval vessels to occupy key ports such as Manila Bay in the Philippines with the aim of denying Spanish ships access to safe harbours and supplies. April 1898 McKinley formally declared war on Spain. Debate on the reasons for the decisions: Inspired by aggressive and patriotic press campaign that inflamed public opinion following the Maine Intended to protect American business interests in Cuba Inevitable given misrule of the Spanish and proximity of Cuba USA feared an independent Cuba that she could not control Desired more territory in order to extend its commercial interests Distract the American people from the effects of the economic depression

Economic growth and the need for trade in the late 19th century

Throughout the last 30 years of the 19th century the US underwent an economic transformation, based on enormous industrial growth. Number of factors made it possible: USA had large quantities of vital ras materials such as coal, iron ore and oil Population ion growth from 31.5 million in 1880 to 76 million in 1900 aided by increasing immigration from Europe and Asia, provided both labour and consumers Introduction of new methods for the mass-production of manufactured products Lack of government regulation enabled employers to manage their workforce in any way they chose Development of large-scale, highly profitable companies, known as corporations Mechnaisation of farming enabled the mass production of wheat and other crops Development of one of the most comprehensive railway systems in the world facilitating the transportation of raw materials and finished products The availability of investment capital through banks and the stock market in New York by 1880, New York stock exchange on Wall Street had become the second larges money market in the world The government encouraged the growth of American industry by protecting it from foreign competition, tarifs were imposed on imported foreign manufactured goods to ensure that they were more expensive than home produced ones these tariffs could be as high as 50% of the cost of the imported goods

Treaty of Paris and the impact of the Spanish American War

Treaty of Paris left the USA in effective control of Cuba. Spain was forced to hand control of its other former possessions including the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam to the USA. The USA had become an imperial power. Almost immediately the Filipinos rebelled, Us was forced to fight a far longer and costly war 1899-1902 then the one against Spain. Some argued that it was a betrayal of the USA isolationist traditions. Majorly supported move towards imperialism tho. Acquiring the philippines provided USA with control of a region that could act as a strategic base to supply and defend American trading interests in China and the Far East. USA became an imperial power and begun following policies designed to extend its global influence. Example being in Hawaii, following series of trade treaties in 1840s, it became important to the USA as a base for supplying American vessels and a source of sugar cane. By 1870 American interests dominated much of the local economy, 1887 USA established a naval base at Pearl Harbour. Real sing the strategic importance of Hawaii for trade in the Far East and in line with its new imperial policy, US formally annexed Hawaii in 1898. After assassination of McKinley, Roosevelt became president. Rose at fully supported the new imperialistic direction. 1901 arguing that the Cubans were not ready to rule themselves, US congress passed the Platt Amendment to the Cuban constitution, giving the USA control of Cuban foreign, financial and commercial affairs. Granted key lands in Cuba and number of naval bases. Far reaching takeover of Cuban land by Americans followed, American buisnesses began to move into Cuba on a large scale. With us soldiers still on the island Cuban had little options. 1904 Roosevelt announced addition to the Monroe Doctrine. It sanctions US armed intervention if any country in the region was threatened by internal or external factors. USA was establishing a sphere of influence within the Carrabean region, where it had right to intervene whenever at risk. Major expansion of the navy,16 new battleships, arguing strong navy was essential to protect American economic interests given that European nations and Japan were all increasing their naval capabilities. Roosevelt argued that such policies were necessary to protect Americas trading and commercial interests, and prevent European intervention in the Americas. By 1914 USA had emerged as a prosperous and strong regional powers, with an increasing influence over world financial markets and new found commitment to imperialist expansion.

Impact of the USA's navy on the course of the war

US navy played an important role in ensure that German U boats were defeated in the Atlantic so that vital supplies, such as food, iron, steel and munitions for Britain and France as well as US soldiers could cross the ocean. Over 2 million soldier crossed to france and played a key role in the fighting during 1918. SOme historians argued that arrival of American troops made little differ ce to the outcome of the war, as the allies had establish a strategic advantage. Germany was unable to increase the size of its fighting forces, these arms can soldiers, provided large numbers of French recruits. For USA WW1 was both short and successful no fighting had taken place on American soil, many of its industries had expanded to meet increased wartime demands. Supplied its allies with vital resources, and had been able to extend its markets in areas such as South America and the Far East formally dominated by European nations. US now provided loads to Britain and Allies, these loads would have to be repaid with interest once the war was over. War proved to be highly beneficial for American economy and American business. By 1918, USA was the greatest financial power in the world. USA believed it had both the right and the power to play a leading role in negations leading to post war peace settlements. USA emerged as a major world power by 1919, and arguably became the most powerful and important.

Reasons for and impact of the USA's entry intro WW1

USA democratic president Woodrow Wilson, could see no reason to become involved in a war raging thousand of miles away and which resulted from conflicts between rival European nations. American interests were not initially threatened by the war, it initially benefitted from it, taking over both German and BRitish markets in South America and making money by setting up loans to countries involved. Wilson remained firmly neutral, avoiding nay formal links with either of the two armed camps. Wilsons neutrality policy was enormously popular in the USA ne he was re-elected in 1916 based on his commitment that the USA would remain neutral and not become involved in the War. Germany had a different view of American neutrality, Britain and France had a distinct advantage over Germany in trade with USA, with its navy largely controlling Atlantic shipping routes Britain and its allies could purchase and transport food and industrial products from the USA, Germany could not. American bankers tended to be pro British, as a result Germany was denied access to US loans. Senior government began to see USA as far from neutral, believing that it was actively assisting Germanys enemies.

Continental expansion

USA was also afraid that if it did not acquire territories then some imperial power might. By the early 19th century all the Latin American positions once of the great Spanish and Portuguese empires had gained independence, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule. Concerns that Spain would try to win back control of its former possessions in South America and that it would encourage other European powers to extend their empire into the Americas led the USA to approve the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. This stated that the USA would not interfere in EUropean affairs, but that any attempt by European powers to intervene in the Americas would be viewed by the USA as an act of aggression and would be dealt accordingly.

Successor States

A newly formed state whose territory and population were previously under the sovereignty of another state

Nationalism

A sense of belonging to a nation and supporting its interests above those of other nations. The belief that your country is superior ethnically, culturally, politically and historically to all other countries.

Reasons for the Spanish American War

Although USA had officially remained neurotransmitter in the war between Spain and the Cuban rebels, it sent a battleship, the Maine, to Cuba to protect US citizens who had been caught up in the fighting. 15th February 1898 the Maine exploded in Havana Harbour, killing 268 American soldiers. This event sparked outrage in the USA, the US gov did believe that the explosion was the result of an accident, the American press argued that Spain was responsible and it was heavily critical of the govs weak response to the incident.

Nature and purpose of the 'scramble for Africa' Belgium

Belgium had only been independent since 1830 but King Léopold II was determined to enhance his country's prestige and his own wealth by claiming the enormous Congo basin. Léopold was prepared to use his own money to pay for African territory that was considerably larger than Belgium itself. He saw enormous financial advantages to be gained by exploiting the Congo's large quantities of raw rubber, something much in demand in Europe.

Decline of belief in mercantilism during the 18th century

Belief in mercantilism began to decline during the 18th century. Maintaining control over overseas possessions and protecting vital trade routes from rival nations was expensive and often led to wars. Britain in the second half of the 18th century fought expensive wars in an attempt to maintain territorial possessions in North America, it retained Canada but was forced to accept the independence of the USA. Spanish Empire in Latin America was complaining, Brazil declared full independence from Portugal in 1827 very little remained of the Latin American empires of Spain and Portugal.

Opposition to slavery

By 1820 most European government banned the slave trade arguing that slavery was 'repugnant to the principles of natural justice'. It was knows that slavery remained common in Africa. Many Europeans believes that they had a moral duty to put an end to this practice.

France, Clemenceau

Clemenceau wanted to destroy Germany economically and militarily. He wanted to have avenge for French's humiliating defeat in the Franco Prussian War 1870-71 and gain revenge for the devastation that France had suffered as a result of German aggression in WW1. He wanted to ensure that Germany could never threaten French borders again . Clemenceau wanted to secure a guarantee of British and American support in the vent of any future German attack against France.

Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion, Britain

Common items such as tea packets, biscuit tins, had pictures of exotic foreign lands and heroic images of soldiers defending Britains imperial possessions. In various ways positive aspects of imperialism was stressed while evidence of maltreatment and exploitation of native people was ignored. Particularly through slavery.

Reasons for, and impact of the Spanish American War (1898)

Cuba located in the Caribbean in close to the USA was the last Spanish territorial possession in the region. 1868 Cubans revolted and demanded independence. First of three independent wars fought against Spain, last war starting in 1895. Americans with their own anti imperial background viewed the Spanish as brutal, anti-democratic rulers. Cuba had become important to the US economy- a great deal of American money was invested in the production of sugar, tobacco, and minerals. American interest threaten by the conflict in Cuba, and guerilla tactics used by Cuban rebels. 1897 president McKinley made an attempt to persuade the spanish to reform their methods of governing Cuba but this was publicly rejected by Spain, in a manner Americans found insulting.

Why was imperialism significant in 19th century Europe?

Desire to find and exploit new trading opportunities had been one of the main reasons for imperial expansion in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Following a policy of mercantilism, the most powerful European nations aimed to increase their wealth through trade. Governments established firm control over all aspects of trade, with the aim of limiting the cost of imports and increasing the value of exports. Enabling nations to accumulate large quantities of gold and silver.

Nature of New Imperialism: New imperial countries

Earlier imperialism had been carried out by main European powers- Britain, France, Spain and Netherlands. New imperialism- desire for overseas expansion was no longer confined to the great powers of Europe. Massive industrial growth led the USA to seek greater control over Central and South America, together with access to trading rights in Asia. Requiring development of a strong navy and the acquisition of overseas bases from which it could operate. Japan embarked on its own industrial and military revolution, enabling it to seek greater power and influence within Asia.

Nature and purpose of 'the scramble for Africa'

Fear of Africa continued to reduce, the last quarter of the 19 century became labeled as the 'scramble for Africa'- a rush by European nations to take control of African territory. By 1900, over% of the African continent was under the control of European nations.

Treaties of Trianon, Neuilly, Saint Germain and Sevres

Finalized the TOV the paris peace conference now turned its attention to the other defeated nations, Austria Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. In some way Wilsons notion of giving independence and self determination to the peoples who formally belonged to the Habsburg, Turkish and Russian empires was becoming a reality. The disintegration of those empires had already resulted in the emergence of new states. The Paris peacemakers had the difficult task of trying to formalise the resulting chaos. Their decisions formally confirmed the existence of new national states- Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary- became known as the 'successors states'

5 Treaties

Five separate treaties were agreed, each dealing with one of the WW1 defeated nations none of which were invited to Paris. The Treaty of Versailles- germany, The treaty of Saint Germain - Austria, The Treaty of Neuilly- Bulgaria, The treaty of Sevres- Turkey, The Treaty of Trianon- Hungary.

Nature and purpose of 'the scramble for Africa'

In 1870, only 10% of Africa was under direct European control- most in the cultural region. Europeans knew little about the African interior, other that that it seemed to be a mysterious, inhospitable and dangerous place. As medical advancement reduced the health risks and steam ships made river transport more accessible, explorers began to venture into Africa. Some such as David living stone were missionaries, determined to bring Christianity to the 'uncivilized' African natives. Others were financed by wealth by entrepreneurs keen to find new resources and trading opportunities. Léopold King of Belgium from 1865 to 1909, financed the colonisation of the Congo Free State which he exploited in order to make money from Ivory and rubber. Léopolds regime in Africa was characterized by cruelty towards the native inhabitants and was eventually forced to hand control of the Congo to the Belgian government in 1908.

The closing of the frontier 1890

It also had profound effect on the USAs foreign policy. Americans began to look abroad for new opportunities- new frontier to tame, new economic opportunities to exploit and develop. Many politicians began to argue that it was the USAs duty to spread democracy and Christianity to less fortunate. Closing of the frontier provided an incentive for the USA to expand its influence overseas. Economic and political factors simultaneously had the same effect.

Economic motives for imperial expansion: competition for raw materials

Just as Europes industrialized nations needed to find new markets for the huge increase in their output of manufactured products, they also needed to identify and exploit new sources of raw materials, such as cotton, copper, rubber and tin. Large quantities of these materials could be found in Africa and Asia. For example, raw cotton in Mozambique and India, copper in Southern Africa, rubber in the Congo and tin in British Malaysia. At the same time, Africa and Asia offered other products that were highly valued in Europe- tea and silk in China, gold and diamonds in the Transvaal and palm oil in West Africa.

Reactions of victors and defeated powers

Justification for German objections to the TOV: At a time of intense political instability, 100,000 troops might not be sufficient even to maintain law and order within Germany itself, let alone cèdent the country against external attack, moreover while Germany was forced to disarm it was clear that none of the other Major European Power and any intention of doing so this posed a threat to German security. Although they were set up as mandates under the supervision of the LON, Germany's former colonies in Africa were effectively taken over by Britain, France and South Africa Millions of people who were German in terms of their language and culture would now be living under foreign rule in countries such a as Poland Czechoslovakia Although part of Germany, East Prussia was separated from the rest of the country by the polish corridor The war guilt clause caused particular resentment in Germany given the complicated series of events that had led to the outbreak of war in 1914 The about established for reparations was extremely high and as the Germans would argue brutally impossible for them to repay All they were harsh France was still concerned they were not harsh enough. Germanys territorial losses in Europe were restricted to those areas it had gained as a result of previous wars. Germany remained potentially the strongest economic power in Europe. Many argue that having ignored the 14points in the Treaty of Brest Litovsk on Russia, Germany had little right to expect those points to form the basis of their own peace settlement. The Treaty of Brest Litovsk was also harsher then the TOV

New economic theories emerging

New economic theories suggested that a nations wealth should not be judged by the amount of gold and silver it possessed, but by its ability to produce goods and services.

Reparations

Money that one country has to pay another as compensation for war damage. The 'War Guilt Clause' was included in the TOV in order to provide legal justification for making Germany pay reparations to the victorious countries.

Economic growth and the need for trade in the late 19th century

Opportunities for US to expand its overseas trade were restricted, European nations practised protectionism throughout their empires, making it difficult for the USA to break into potentially lucrative markets. European countries were increasing their commercial involvement, by 1900 Britain had overtaken the USA as the main trading parent of Argentina, the largest South African market. As a result access to markets in China and the Far East were increasingly viewed as vital for the USAs future prosperity. Many believed that USA should increase the size and strength of its Navy as a means of enhancing and protecting overseas trade. Many politicians supported the idea that the USA should expand its overseas interests, others argued that maintains the traditional policy of isolationism and avoiding foreign entanglements and responsibilities was the best way to protect US interests.

Self-determination

Th principle that people of common nationality should have the right to form their own nations and govern themselves. Wilsons detention of a 'nationality' (based on common language) was both too simplistic and inappropriate for the situation in Eastern Europe at the end of the First World War

Tension between Britain and Germany over South Africa

The Boer wars highlighted the problems that Britain would increasingly face in defending its large empire. British politicians and public opinion grew divided over whether Britain should continue its imperialist policies. Germany openly condemned British actions in South Africa, leaving Britain feeling isolated and vulnerable.

Continental expansion

The USAs rapid expansion across the North American continent led to international criticism in particular European nations, interpreted that USAs annexation of Texas and involvement in the war against Mexico as action of an aggressive bully attacking a poorer and weaker country. Americans justified their territorial expansion by their belief in the concept of 'Manifest Destiny', claiming that the USA was destined to expand into, settle and rule over the whole North American continent: US expansion to the Pacific Ocean was logical and inevitable Aggressive US nationalism was desirable US had the 'divine right' to continue expanding westwards until it had spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific The USA had a duty to spread its Christian values and culture Incorporation into the USA would bring liberty and freedom to other North American territories.

Reactions of victors and defeated powers

The defeated nations were not allowed to attend the peace conference, and simply had to accept the terms imposed upon them. France had wanted and expected a much harsher settlement imposed on germany. Clemenceau had argued for the creation of an independent Rhineland state, and proposed that Germany be broken up to permanently weaken it. Fear that the settlement left Germany strong enough, both economically and politically, to once again threaten the security of France was to dominate French foreign policy throughout the 1920s. Russia was not invited to send representatives to the peace conference and was not consulted at all about the the terms of the settlement. France and Britain argued that having withdrawn from WW1 by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Russia had no right to attend the conference. Moreover fearful of revolution spreading, the western powers refused to have any diplomatic relations with Russia. This left Russia feeling increasingly isolated, much of its former territory divided up amongst newly created nations, including the Baltic states of Lithuania and Estonia. Despite its membership of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy did not enter WW1 in 1914. In April 1915, Italy signed the Treaty of London in Britain in return for promises of major territorial gains along the Adriatic coast once victory was achieved. Italy joined the side of the Triple Entente, Britain, France and Russia. It's involvement in the war was not significant militarily but was to prove to be expensive, in both human and financial terms. Over 600,000 Italian soldiers were killed and 950,000 seriously wounded. Once the war was over the Italian people expected the promises made in the Treaty of London. To the majority of Italians TOV was a disappointment, major decisions had been taken by the big three, Orlando had been largely humiliated and ignored. Italy gained Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria and Trieste, it claims to parts of Dalmatia, ALbania, Fiume, Adalia and some of the Aegean islands had been denied. To Italians it appeared other countries like Yugoslavia gained at Italy's expense

Political motives for imperial expansion: growth of nationalism

The late 19th century witnessed an increase in nationalism throughout Europe. Germany and Italy were keen to establish themselves as newly unified nation states, France was determined to recover from its humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). BRitian confortée by its increasing economic competition from its European nations proudly bouts and about the side of its empire and the power of its navy.

The emergence of 'New Imperialism'

The period from 1871 to 1914 witnessed a new wave of imperial- new imperialism. Some argue that it was simply a constitution of earlier overseas expansion by European nations while others suggest that it was fundamentally different.

Imperialism

The policy of extending a nation's power by gaining political and economic control over more territory. This is sometimes referred to as colonialism and the territories taken under control are known as colonies.

Isolationism

The policy of keeping ones country separate from the affairs of other nations, by avoiding alliances and international commitments.

Impact of imperial expansion on international relations Germany's 'place in the sun'

Their were no major wars between European powers in the period from 1871 to 1941, incidents such as the Fashoda raised tensions but peace was maintained. Imperial rivalry helped to instigate an arms race, as countries began to enhance their military capabilities in order to defend their empires. Evident with Wilhelm II Kaiser of Germany in 1888 who embarked on a policy of actively seeking overseas possession. Germans late entry in the race for African passions added to the exsisting tensions. Britian saw Germans acquisitions in Africa as a threat. 1906 Germany embarked on naval development programme.

Treaties of Trianon, Neuilly, Saint Germain and Sevres

These treaties reflected the collapse of the former Austro Hungarian and Turkish Empires, but were also part of Wilson's idea of self-determination. Wilson's view of nationality was however based entirely on language and ignored other ethnic and religious factors. As a result, for example 1.6 million people who considered themselves to be Hungarian would now be living under a foreign government in Romania. Moreover, concernes were raised that many of the newly created boundaries would make it impossible for some countries, such as Austria and Hungary to be economically viable.

Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion, France

Unlike Britain, it was the government that played leading role in encouraging popular support for imperialism in France. French pride had been severely damaged by humiliating defeat in the Franco Prussian War 1870-1871. Gaining overseas possession was seen as a way of restoring French prestige. Patriotism was fostered through the introduction of a state education system. Children were encouraged to be proud of their country's achievements, its navy and its growing empire. They were taught they had a duty to their country, unique and superior to all others, had both the right and responsibility to spread its culture across the world.

Spanish American War 1898

War was short lived, US navy was modern and well equipped, destroyed two Spanish fleets and Spain recalled its remaining ships to protect their security. Without naval support Spanish were unable to resist the combined efforts of the Cuban fighters and the small number of US soldiers. US ignored Cuban contribution and maintained that it was purely American victory. They did not include or seriously consider Cubans in the final peace settlement with Spain, the 1898 Treaty of Paris

Nature and purpose of 'the scramble for Africa' France

While Britain concentrated on East Africa, France was more active in the West and North West of the continent. Early 19th century economic and diplomatic disputes and desire for a popular military success led France to invade Algeria. Partly as a result of involvement in the slave trade, France controlled the coastal regions of Senegal. Late 19th century, France moved inland in search of raw materials, such as palm oil and timber, and new markets for Frances industrial output. French politicians determined to enhance their country's wealth, prestige and power following defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, saw the development of a large overseas empire as essential.

Reasons for and extent of domestic support for overseas expansion in Britain, France and Germany

While their was some opposition many enthusiastically supported their countries involvement in overseas expansion in late 19th century. Increase in nationalism characterizing the late 19th century.

Reactions of victors and defeated powers

Wilson had played a leading role in determining the terms of the Paris peace settlement and made strenuous effort to convince the American people to support them. Public opinion in the USA was largely opposed to the settlement. Many believed that it was too harsh on germany and would cause resentment and encourage the s desire for revenge. Most argued that supporting and joining LON it would inevitably involve the USA in future wars. US senate dominated by republicans refused to approve the peace settlement and signed its own treaty with Germany. For the defeated nations it had terrible implications. Bulgaria was reduced in size and economically severely damage, the settlement was seen as a national catastrophe. Turkey no longer controlled Ottoman Empire and remained under the authority of an Allied army of occupation Austrians and Hungarians were angered that the settlement divided up the Habsburg Empire territories between newly formed nations. They argued that WW1 victorious nations had created new boundaries without regard to cultural, linguistic and ethnic factors. Austrian and Hungarian requests that plebiscites should be held to determine this wishes of local people had been ignored. The terms of the TOV caused great resentment in Germany. German representatives was not allowed to attend the peace talks they simply had to accept whatever terms were imposed upon them and terms were not based entirely on Wilsons 14 points as Germany had hoped.