History of Funeral Service #4 - Coffins, Embalming, and Transportation

What were the early methods of preservation?

"Refrigrator for corpses" was patented in May 1846 by Robert Frederick and C.A. Trump. It was a cooling board with concave ice-filled box placed over the torso of the decedent. It was also called a "corpse cooler". Blocks of ice were also placed on the bottom section of the cooling board. There were holes on the bottom for cold air to come up. The structure was wooden, folded like a massage table with a handle to carry to each home. The corpse cooler was portable, economical, used after dressing, it later became an embalming table but retained the "cooling board" name.

How was a hearse constructed between 1850 to Civil War?

1850's: hearses were a rectangular box with double thick French windows and curtains along the side. Civil War: styled changed to longer and higher with full plate glass side and scroll work along the top with metal columns. Close of the Civil War: the design changed to large massive hearses with bent glass and full circle ends.

How was a hearse constructed post-Civil War to today?

1875 - no hearse was complete without plumes. Plumes were later replaced with ornaments and emblems. Most hearses were black. Children's and women's hearses were white. From 1860's and on, the hearse designs changed every 15 years. It was fashionable and kept up with wear & tear of the times.

What is the American Board of Funeral Service Education?

ABFSE was incorporated in 1961. In 1924 the NFDA and National Selected Morticians formulated the "Joint Conference Committee" and the committee issued its first report in 1925 proposing educational and licensing requirements. The purpose behind this organization was to be an official accrediting agency for all mortuary science schools and also establish curriculum for all mortuary science schools.

What were the early embalming chemicals?

Arsenic based compounds Metallic salts (zinc-chloride) Chlorides (Bi-chloride of Mercury) Most were very poisonous. The chemicals were used in England as early as 1836 which was 20 years earlier than in America. These materials were outlawed in Europe in 1846 and America followed suit 50 years later. Most people rejected embalming chemicals and preferred ice. Ice for the undertakers were satisfactory. Physicians were the only ones who used chemicals because it was considered mutilation to the public.

Where and what were the early embalming schools?

At first, chemical companies had traveling salesmen to sell their embalming fluid and taught embalming, followed by other "traveling schools". The first school was established in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1882 which still stands today.

How did burial vaults come about?

Burial vaults were developed during the grave robber and "ghouls" paranoia. It began with grave liners with rock, stone or brick. The coffin had cement poured around it. Numerous patents appeared from 1900's-1920's. Concrete vaults were invented after 1900's.

How was code of ethics introduced in the funeral industry?

Code of Ethics for the funeral industry was introduced in the first meeting of the 1882 Funeral Directors National Association. This was to prevent unscrupulous acts in the profession and to protect the families being served.

How did coffins change funeralization at the time?

Coffins helped preserve bodies, allowed distant relatives to return home, and cemeteries moved due to city growth. Bodies were placed in holding vaults "for the winter". Civil War impacted the use of caskets when fatalities were returned home from battlefields. Embalming was also affected by this surge as well.

What was Crane & Breed Mfg. Co.'s role in hearse production?

Crane & Breed Mfg. Co. exhibited the most elaborate funeral car of the 19th century at Chicago World's Fair in 1893. It was designed for the West Indian and South American trade. The design was church-like, massive carvings, gilded, gold fringes/tassels, laden with golden angels, cherubs, crucifixes and statues. The hearse weighed 2,400 lbs. It required 8 horses to pull it. It was not intended for American use. While the hearse was being exhibited, the Chicago Mayor was assassinated so the hearse was used in his funeral. The hearse was then sent to Cuba and it is unknown if it remains there.

Who was Dr. Richard Harlan?

Dr. Richard Harlan was a Professor of Comparative Anatomy. He was based in Philadelphia Museum. He studied epidemic disease control. Traveled Europe. He published an English translation of Jean Gannal's "History of Embalming" in 1840. It was considered a standard reference of embalming at the time.

Who is Dr. Thomas Holmes?

Dr. Thomas Holmes was the "father of American (modern) embalming". He experimented with embalming methods and fluids. He embalmed during Civil War. He demonstrated techniques and trained other people. He patented a hand pump which served as an injection pump in 1861 to insert embalming fluid in bodies. A social demand for embalming appeared, thanks to him. He also invented a body bag and a formula for root beer.

How was modern embalming introduced?

During 1800's, embalming appeared, spread and accepted quickly. Due to importance of burial in family plot and gathering of relatives at funerals, the corpse became a central figure therefore preservation was essential.

What were the early forms of caskets in early 1800's?

Early colonists buried without a container, but later used coffins. They used an octagonal shape with flat sides to make it seem less boxy. The tapered style which looks like a vampire coffin is usually used in Europe and South America. They were handmade by carpenters and cabinet makers as a sideline. The trimmings and fittings were imported from elsewhere. The quality of wood indicated economic status.

What is the summary of embalming?

Embalming began with barber-surgeons. The technique by Holmes was popularized during Civil War. Chemical companies emerged. Embalming schools were established. Techniques improved. The duties were assumed by undertakers and accepted by the public.

How did the need for funeral directing evolve in the 19th century?

Embalming was in a specialized facility. Smaller living units in big cities. Transportation to church for funerals Funeral home provided clinic, home and chapel Funeral directors coordinated the details

What other grave vaults were invented?

End sealer with hinged door Wooden "outside" or "rough" box. Unsanded and unfinished wood. 5-10% of grave vaults were included in all funerals by 1915. Fear of grave robbing was replaced by protection of casket and body. Cemetery managers were required for upkeep.

How were funerals viewed in the nineteenth century?

Family reactions and behaviors changed towards death of a loved one, coupled with mood of formality and gloom. This mood of formality and gloom originated in England and was transplanted in America.

What changes in funeral attitudes were done in the 19th century?

From gloom to beauty More aesthetic caskets. Use of fresh flowers and "immorteles" Inscriptions on bouquets. Cemeteries were outside city limits. Catholic and Protestant cemeteries had more elaborate markers with inscriptions and decorations. Funeral director emerged as a distinct occupation.

What were the vault terminology over time?

From the late 1840's, it progressed from mummy case>burial case>coffin case>casket case>casket-burial case>grave vault.

What other transports were used in funerals?

Funeral trolley cars were used in 1890's. It was mainly used in large cities. It was mostly too fast for people so it became a flower car to transport flowers from hearses to the funeral service either in a church or graveside.

Who was J. Anthony Gaussardia and Prince Greer?

Gaussardia patented the first embalming process in 1856. Prince Greer was the first black embalmer. He embalmed anyone, not exclusively his people.

Who invented the metal grave vault?

George W. Boyd invented the "burial case" and was patented in 1879 with a cover on the bottom, an air seal and a "diving bell" principle.

Who was the carriage master?

He was a livery stable operator. He originally rented out carriages and hacks, which eventually evolved to include undertaking functions. The first noted in the Baltimore city directory dated in 1824 and read "Carriage Master Undertaker".

Who was A. Johnson Dodge?

He was trained in St. Louis medical schools where he served a dual role as a demonstrator and student. In 1893, he was appointed as an original principal of Massachusetts College of Embalming until 1904. In 1907, he established the Dodge School of Embalming in Boston. In 1910, the school name changed to New England Institute of Anatomy, Sanitary Science & Embalming. The Dodge family is still prominent in fluid manufacturing today.

Who was Hudson Samson?

Hudson Samson's manufactured a 8 poster, oval-decked funeral car in 1889. By 1898, all funeral directors had his car.

What is the International Conference of Funeral Service Examining Board?

ICFSEB was established in 1904. The original purpose was to test students in the funeral industry. Currently responsible for writing and administering the National Board exams and also writes some state boards. They also have proctor centers for people to take their National Board exams.

How was the ambulance involved with funeral transportation?

In 1909, the first ambulance called the Cunningham Motor Ambulance was displayed for sale in the Western Undertaker. Patents were also approved and issued for limousine hearses. Not until after WWI did a limousine hearse actually appear.

How did the hearse develop over time?

In New England, glass hearses were being used. By 1850's, the hearse manufacturing in the colonies was a stable sideline for carriage makers. Hearse designs and fashion were not a concern. After the Civil War, major changes evolved. 1850-1910: Horse-drawn hearses were the predominate funeral vehicle. 1875-1900: Children's and women's hearses were WHITE and were introduced by Stein Patent Burial Casket Works. 1908: First hearse was patented by Fred Hulberg of New York City. A hearse and passenger vehicle combined. It was truck-like; 16 feet long and cost $6,000. 1910-1920: the automobile dominated the funeral transportation virtually eliminating all other vehicles.

What were colonial hearses like?

In the colonial period, the body was carried by hand. Some used a wagon. Hearses were not available in underdeveloped regions. In the New England and Middle colonies, the wealthy hired glass coaches, imported from England.

What was the funeral procession like?

It is a solemn social act - imparting dignity and importance to the ceremonial disposal of the dead. It is a "dramatic movement, involving many actors" It may be simple, noisy or gloomy. It is the oldest of all processions. It originates from the Latin word "funeralis" meaning torch-light procession.

What is a bier?

It was the predecessor to the hearse. The word bier developed from the word "bear" - to carry. Hand-stretchers were used to carry the body. Due to distances and weight, two sets of men were used: bearers and underbearers (relieved the bearers)

What is the Jewish Funeral Director Association?

JFDA was established in 1928. This association tries to bring awareness to Jewish funeral directors and to recruit new ones from the Jewish community or mortuary schools.

Who were the early hearse manufacturers?

James Cunningham Hudson Samson Crane & Breed Mfg. Co.

Who was James Cunningham?

James Cunningham founded a company called James Cunningham, Son & Co. in Rochester, New York. In 1838, the hearse was a sideline then in 1884, he exhibited at the New Orleans Cotton Expo a new "funeral car" which was rectangular, 5 urns (strictly decorative, not for storage of cremains), and each corner had a gilded column with green ivy. His company also manufactured ambulance vehicles.

Who was Joseph H. Clarke?

Joseph H. Clarke is considered the father of mortuary education. He was a druggist and a medical student. After the Civil War, he became a house and road salesman for White Water Valley Coffin Co. in Connersville, Indiana. He purchased embalming fluids and received instruction on arterial injection from Professor George Rhodes. In 1881, he suggested to Dr. C.M. Lukens of Pulte Medical College of Cincinnati to establish a school and Dr. Lukens agreed. Cincinnati School of Embalming was born and the first ten classes graduated 122 undertakers.

How was embalming viewed in the 19th century?

Many considered it a mutilation. Misconceptions ensued about the process. Embalmers allowed a close friend or a male family member to observe in the early days and eventually gained acceptance.

How did large scale manufacturing for caskets begin?

The mass production resulted from popularity of the Fisk metallic coffin. Crane, Barnes and Co. was one of the manufacturers who began production of their own caskets in August 1853. The company took over the Fisk coffin patent when it expired and renamed it "Fisk mummy case". The name changed to Crane, Breed Mfg. Co., in 1882. This ushered the change from coffin shops to mass production.

How were funeral arrangements done at the time?

The relatives were notified either by messenger, correspondence with black borders, or newspaper notices for other mourners. Selection of caskets were done and other funeral details were handled for clergy, casket bearers, livery, flowers, cemetery, etc.

How did the coffin style and function change?

The style changed around the 1800's during the Industrial Revolution from "gloom to beauty". This was when the change from coffin to casket occurred. Functions included: Utility Status Preservation Protection (Avoid saying "sealing" when talking about rubber gaskets. Use the word "protective") Aesthetics - pleasant appearance.

What is the hearse?

The term hearse is from the French word "herse" which was obtained from the Latin word "hirpex" which meant "rake or harrow". Originally, the hearse was a stationary framework for candles and decorations, it resembled a rake upside down. It then developed into a "hearse on wheels".

How did the coffin making emerge?

The trend grew with urbanization. People wanted coffins for burial and it created coffin shops and coffin warehouses. People who made furniture became "furnishing undertakers". People who were in coffin shops in Europe and the US in early 1800's-1900's had swatches of wood, fabric, name plates, and hardware for families to choose. Coffins were a major funeral item in early 1900's.

How were the funeral procession and burial performed in the 19th century?

The undertaker organized the procession. The focus was on the hearse. The immediate family were the closest to the hearse. Number of carriages indicated social status. At the cemetery, clergy or sexton led the procession, performed the committal service, followed by lowering the casket into the grave. In cities, the grave was filled after the mourners left. In rural areas, the grave was filled while the mourners watched.

Who were grave robbers?

They were also called "resurrectionists" or "body snatchers". They would get fresh cadavers for money from medical colleges or anatomists who wanted to dissect bodies. A company named "Clover Coffin Torpedo Mfg. Co. created an iron coffin with explosive device to prevent grave robbers from taking their client's body.

What is the National Funeral Directors and Morticians Association?

This is an African-American funeral director association. The national office is in Decatur, Georgia.

What was the Cremation Association of North America?

This organization focused mostly on cremation. Big supporters of funeral service and keeps track of cremation statistics and trains people to operate retorts. Established in 1913 and meets in August of every year. Comprised of cemeterians, funeral directors, cremation societies, cremationists and suppliers. The objective was to ensure cremations are done morally, ethically and legally correct with respect for the body and that cremations should be looked on as preparation for memorialization. Headquarters are in Chicago, Illinois.

What was the National Selected Morticians Selected Independent Funeral Homes?

This organization formed in September 17, 1917. A limited membership organization consisting of a member-owned, member-operated organization of independent funeral directors. Membership is by invitation. One per community and privately owned. The organization emblem is a pyramid.

What is the International Conference of Funeral Service Examining Boards?

This organization was created during the 1903 NFDA conference. This is located in Fayetteville, Arkansas. They work with state regulatory agencies that regulate the practice of funeral service in each respective state in accordance with prescribed state statutes. They help put together the National Board Exams for funeral directing and embalming. Professional testing service. In 1994, 48 state licensing boards recognized the National Board exams in lieu of written state board exams. It also provides testing services for state laws, rules and regulations.

What was the Undertakers Mutual Protective Association of Philadelphia?

This organization was established in January 1864. The purpose was to establish a "black book" to keep a register of objectionable or delinquent customers.

What was the National Funeral Industrial Exposition?

This organization was established in June 22, 1882. The first national convention met with Robert Atkins of Buffalo, NY who was elected temporary chairman. This was then named "The Funeral Directors' National Association of the US" during the meeting. It later changed to National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA as it is known today). This organization focused mostly on funeral directing. This is the world's oldest funeral directing organization.

What is the International Cemetery and Funeral Association?

This organization was founded in 1887. The function was to focus on government, regulatory and legal issues affecting the industry currently and in the future. In 1980, National Association of Cemeteries merged with American Cemetery Association and adopted the acronym ICFA. The name changed to include cremation after the trend grew popular so it is now ICCFA. The association is the international trade association for internment and memorialization industry.

What is the American Monument Association?

This organization was incorporated in 1925. This association is the leading quarriers and manufacturers of monumental stone products. Office is in Columbus, Ohio.

How did the need for funeral transportation appear?

Upon death in an organized society the deceased is moved from: place of death or final disposition. Transportation later included family and other mourners for the funeral service and committal.

Who were the early casket manufacturers?

William Cooley McGraw & Taylor Co. Joseph Applegate William M. Smith & Co. Crane, Breed & Co. First sheet metal casket appeared in early 1870's.

What manufacturing materials were used for casket making?

Wood Other materials began to appear after 1860 when patents were approved for the following items: iron, cement, marble, artificial stone, clay/terra cotta, glass and rubber.

Who came up with the first cloth covered caskets?

Stein Manufacturing Co. which created the Stein Patent Burial Casket in 1871. The casket was displayed in the Philadelphia Centennial fair in 1876. The company merged with National Casket Co. in 1890. They produced 600 caskets weekly. They created a casket for Ulysses S. Grant for his funeral in 1885 which was called "Style E State Casket".

Who were the chemical companies and what were their products?

The Champion Chemical Company (Originally The Hill Chemical Company) The Hill Chemical Company of Springfield, Ohio which started in 1878 by Ed Hill, a druggist. He developed an embalming chemical. He was unable to market his product so he contracted with Dr. A.A. Baker. Dr. Baker's son, Scipio, was Chief Exec. of Champion well into the 20th century. This company became Champion Chemical Company and further changed to Champion Company today. The Clarke Chemical Works Egyptian Chemical Company (not the actual ethnicity but the prestige came into the name) They invented three types of indexes in the chemicals called Utopia, The Oriental and Egyptian.

What was a Fisk Metallic casket?

The Fisk metallic casket was invented by Almond D. Fisk in an arthropod-style. The size was smaller because back then, people were of small stature. The design was patented in 1848. It was used widely. It was advertised as "an air-tight coffin of cast or raised metal". Form-fitting style created reduced weight and reduced air space. The patent for this design expired in 1862.

What were the early techniques of preservation?

The body was disemboweled, and charcoal was used to fill the cavity. The body was soaked in alcohol (either spirits or rubbing alcohol - whatever was available at the time). A sere sheet which was soaked with alum was wrapped around the body. "Air-tight" receptacles (some with gas) and electroplating was used. Electroplating was similar to bronzing or adding a metallic material over the body.

What was the development process of the casket?

The casket came from the word "casse" in French which meant "jewel box" or "chest of valuable possessions". The word casket appeared in 1849 and widely used by 1890's. The idea of beauty led to its development. "Ogee" design reduced weight.

How was the casket selection conducted in the 19th century?

The caskets were ordered either in a catalog, undertaker's selection room or a manufacturer's showroom. A variety of styles and materials were available in wood, metal, and cloth covered. Delivery problems were a big issue for catalog caskets. It is still true for today.

What changes were made in funeralization?

The hearses shortened long trips to the place of disposition. This led to development of elaborate horse-drawn and motorized hearses. Funeral directors became "director" of funeral cortege.

How were funerals like in the nineteenth century?

Most deaths occurred at home. The home became a centralized point of mourning. In cities, the undertaker prepared the body, washed, dressed and laid out. They used the "corpse cooler" or were embalmed. They assisted with funeral details. Couriers notified people and most funerals were held in the home. The undertaker provided chairs and supervised funeral details. Prayer, scripture, hymns and eulogy were said at the funeral service. Casket bearers placed the casket in the hearse. In rural areas, there were fewer undertakers. When a small town had no undertaker, family and neighbors prepared the body. Family frequently laid out the dead. The undertaker, if he didn't prepare the body, played a smaller role. He just ordered the casket and casketed the body. The clergy dominated the funeral. Most funerals were in the home or church. There was a big difference between big cities and small towns and it continues to today.

How were "life signals" used during the 1800's?

People feared of being buried alive. They had a morbid preoccupation about the topic. The first patent for a form of life signal appeared in 1843. Many ideas and inventions appeared but none were sold.

What other materials or ideas were used for caskets?

Problems appeared during mass production for wood, cement, glass, papier mache, wicker, rubber, cruciform type of casket and adjustable. So these aren't as popular as the metal ones.

What funeral service publications were out there?

Publications in the late 1800's to early 1900's included these: The Casket The American Undertaker The Western Undertaker which changed to The American Funeral Director The Shroud The Embalmer Shadyside The American Funeral Director is the only publication still in circulation today.

Who was Dr. August Renouard?

Renouard is considered the "dean" of early embalming instruction. He opened the Rochester School of Embalming in 1882 in New York. He demonstrated and instructed embalming at the first meeting of the Funeral Directors' National Association in the U.S. It is now called NFDA (National Funeral Directors' Association. He authored the first embalming text in the U.S. titled "How to Embalm Dead Bodies".

How was the trocar developed?

Samuel Rogers invented the trocar. His design was patented in 1878. The trocar was not popular until after WWI. Arterial embalming was still popular with physicians and embalmers. Cavity embalming was performed mainly by undertakers. The trocar was also called the "belly puncturers."

How was mourning symbolized in the 19th century?

Solemn and gloom. Personal dress which was black, gray and violet. Widows wore a veil. Widowers wore a black suit and mourning band on the hat. At the home, black funeral crepe and veils were on the doorways and in the same room where the decedent was in. Periods of mourning: First six months were "deep mourning" Two years for widows One year for widowers Stationary with black border. The width of the border indicated mourning period. First year: 1/4 inch Next six months: 1/8 inch Last 6 months: 1/16 inch Calling cards indicated relationship to decedent. Funeral participants wore black or dark clothing. Badges were worn for pall bearers and undertaker. Funeral music: "Death March" was played by a brass band. Religious songs and tolling of the church bell