History USA

By how much did the population of the US increase 1940-55?

35 million

By how much was the population rising by yearly in the 50s?

4 million

By what percent did the suburban population increase by 1950-60?

47%

How much did a fully fitted house with a garden and all the new technology (including washing machines, gas/electric cookers...) cost in a Levittown?

$9000

What was 'I Love Lucy'?

'I Love Lucy' was a 1950s American Sit-com that portrayed ideas about the American dream with traditional family values of the perfect housewife and strong gender roles. In 1953 44 million tuned in to see the arrival of Lucy's baby (compared to only 29 million watching Eisenhower's Presidential Inauguration the following day).

What was the 1970 Equal Pay Act?

1970 Equal Pay Act amended the 1963 Equal Pay Act and extended the rights of women in employment.

By how much did the non-white population of the USAs 12 largest cities increase 1955-60?

1.8 million

How many people moved to the suburbs 1950-60?

18 million

How was sport changing in the 70s?

Baseball was the national game until the 1960s with the World Series competition taking place every year and newspapers and radio frequently discussing the players and recent games. In the 1970s TV became the main media for broadcasting sports and lots more sports began being shown, attracting business sponsorship and more advertising. American Football benefitted most from this. Till the 1960s the most popular competitions were between Universities. The University of Nebraska had sell-out home games from 1962 onwards with a stadium that could hold 86000 spectators. In the 1970s Professional American Football became the national game, due to media attention from the TV.

Who were the Beatniks?

Beatnik culture became more popular in the 50s (although still a very small minority) - they were pro-communist, anti-conformity and anti-consumerism. They were known for experimenting with drugs and their support for sexual liberation. They also opposed war and violence. They had their own fashion style - berets and loose pullovers and liked new literature, politics, coffee shops and jazz music.

How did CORE become more radicalised?

CORE's leader James Farmer resigned in December 1965 and the more radical Floyd McKissick was elected in his place. In their 1966 convention in Baltimore, Maryland, CORE endorsed Black Power and declared non-violence inappropriate if black people needed to defend themselves. The following year they excised the word multi-racial from COREs constitution and by 1968 whites were excluded from COREs membership. Later that year McKissick resigned and was replaced by an even more militant leader.

What was the California Agricultural Labour Relations Act 1975?

California Agricultural Labour Relations Act 1975 gave agricultural unions legal rights and agricultural firms were legally required to negotiate with them.

Who was Cesar Chavez?

Cesar Chavez was a leading campaigner for Chicano Rights. As a Catholic he renounced violence, but was inspired to fight for justice. He joined the Community Service Organisation, which fought for Chicano rights, in 1952 and by 1962 was the National Director (but resigned later that year as CSO not willing to organise Chicano workers in to a labour union). Chavez then set up the National Farm Workers Association, aiming to establish a union to provide welfare support for Chicano workers and organise a national campaign to gain greater economic rights for farm workers.

How did the rise of the car impact American culture?

Created a new car-based culture with drive-in movies, fast food restaurants and motels. The first Holiday Inn opened August 1952, the first modern McDonalds opened April 1955 and by 1960 there were 288 McDonald Franchises, with annual sales of $37 million.

How did representation in Popular Culture change for Ethnic Minorities?

Denzel Washington won Best Supporting Actor Oscar for the film Glory (1989) about the USAs first black regiment in the US Civil War. 1992 Spike Lee directed and starred in Malcolm X (alongside Denzel Washington). Beginning in 1986, Oprah Winfrey's (a black chat show host) show became nationally popular and was eventually distributed to 140 countries. She created her own TV production company and became a partner of Oxygen Media Inc. (cable channel & interactive network presenting programming mainly for women). 1988 appeared on front page of Time magazine and was listed by Forbes magazine as the USAs first female black billionaire in 2001. The Cosby Show (starring Bill Cosby) also became a national favourite.1983, 25th anniversary commemoration of the Motown Record label, Michael Jackson performed 'Billie Jean' and did his signature moonwalk for the first time on national television. 'Thriller' (1982) was in the charts for 80 weeks, including 37 weeks at number 1, the video also won 12 Grammy Awards. Prince, Whitney Houston, Tina Turner and LL Cool J. also became very popular.

What was Disco music like?

Disco was one genre that became more popular in the 70s. It offered people, especially young members of the working-class, an escape from daily working life. Saturday Night Fever, released 1977, captured to mood of the age with the soundtrack album selling over 15 million copies and producing numerous Top 10 hits. However Disco didn't appeal to everyone - in fact The Bee Gees thought of their music as R&B/Contemporary and didn't want it to be thought of as disco music (despite its use in Saturday Night Fever) because many people didn't like disco music. Despite this Disco had a huge effect on American culture in terms of not just music but also fashion, film and club culture.

How did TV begin to challenge conformity and prejudice in the 1950s?

Dr Martin Luther King Jr was interviewed on 'The Open Mind' 1957 and news programmes showed scenes of racist violence and prejudice, for example at Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957 when black students trying to go to school were blocked by a white mob.

Why did Students begin to protest?

During the 1950s the number of over 18yr olds in further education in America rose sharply, mainly due to the economic boom. By the late 1960s 50% of over 18s went to college and 20% received degrees. College campuses became centres for political and social debate, activism and protest. Students were concerned about Civil Rights, the Cold War, the Vietnam War, atomic/nuclear bombs and government hypocrisy (America was fighting a cold war for 'freedom' yet many Americans were still oppressed) as well as the status quo.

What were the Race Riots in the 1960s?

During the summers of 1964-68 riots erupted across US ghettos with 239 race riots in over 200 cities. The first major race riot was in Watts, LA, in 1965 and resulted in 34 deaths, 1000 injuries, 3500 arrests and over $40 million damage to (mainly white-owned) businesses. From 1964 to 1972 ghetto riots led to over 250 deaths, 10000 serious injuries and 60000 arrests. After Martin Luther King was assassinated in 1968 Black Americans across the country reacted violently. Racial violence broke out in 130 cities across 29 states.

Who won the 1952 Presidential Election?

Eisenhower

How did the introduction of the Credit card impact the American economy?

Introduction of the credit card in the 1950s made it easier for people to spend and people also became more willing to take out loans, spurring economic growth. However personal public indebtedness also rose from $180 billion to %263.3 billion 1950-60. Household debt increased from $7000 per person 1955 to $11000 per person 1963.

Who was President Jan 1977 - Jan 1981?

Jimmy Carter (Democratic)

What was discovered in the Watergate Scandal?

It was discovered that Mitchell controlled a secret fund (of $350 000 to $700 000) to be used against the Democratic Party by forging letters, leaking fake news, stealing campaign files... The Gulf Oil Corporation, ITT, American Airlines, and other big American Corporations had made illegal contributions to the Nixon campaign. Members of the Nixon administration - Howard Hunt and Gordon Liddy - had burgled the office of Ellsberg's psychiatrist, looking for his records, after he leaked the Pentagon Papers. One of the Watergate burglars, Bernard Barker, had also been involved in a plan to physically attack Ellsberg while he spoke at an anti-war rally in Washington. After the Watergate burglars were caught, Nixon secretly pledged to give them executive clemency if they were imprisoned, and suggested they received up to $1 million to keep them quiet. They actually received $450 000. Nixon tried to stop the FBI investigating (Haldeman and Ehrlichman told a deputy director of the CIA to tell the FBI to stop investigating) and his nominee for head of FBI, L. Patrick Gray, had turned over the FBI records on the investigation to Nixon's legal assistant, John Dean. Certain material had also disappeared from FBI files - including illegal wiretaps ordered by the new Attorney General Henry Kissinger, placed on the telephones of four journalists and thirteen government officials, and was found in the White House safe of Nixon's advisor, John Erlichman. When Nixon was asked to hand over tapes of all personal conversations and phone conversations at the White House he refused, and when he finally agreed they had been tampered with. Nixon's Vice President resigned in October 1973 after he was found to be receiving bribes from Maryland contractors in return for political favours. Nixon had used over $10 million in government money in his private homes, on grounds of "security", and he had illegally taken a $576000 tax deduction for some of his papers. For over a year 1969-70 the US had engaged in secret bombing of Cambodia, which it kept from the American public and Congress.

Who was President Jan 1961 - Nov 1963?

John F. Kennedy (Democrat)

How did the NAACP decline in the 1950s?

John Patterson won an election as governor of Alabama in 1958 on a 'Kill the NAACP' platform. Between 1955 and 1957 membership of the NAACP fell by almost ½ in the South and was outlawed completely in Alabama.

What were Levittowns?

Levittowns, produced by Bill Levitt, were mass produced houses built in suburbs all over the country. The houses were not all the same, but were made from the same materials making them easier to construct and more affordable. Lots of shopping services, schools and recreation centres were also built to serve the new home-owners.

How did Latino and Chicano rights change in the 80s?

Latino and Latina activists campaigned for better labour conditions, representation in local governments, tenants' rights and bilingual education in schools, throughout the 80s and 90s. They set up a bilingual radio movement and had 14 Latino stations by 1991, 12 of which were bilingual. In New Mexico they fought against real estate developers (who were trying to throw them off the land they lived on) for land and water rights. In 1988 there was a confrontation and the people organised an armed occupation even building bunkers for protection. They won support from other communities and the court finally ruled in their favour. Cesar Chavez of the United Farm Workers fasted for 35 days in 1988 to call attention to the conditions of, mainly Chicano, farmworkers in California after abnormal rates of cancer were discovered. Mexican workers were often brought in because they could be paid lower wages and would work under terrible conditions. The Farm Labour Organising Committee, which had won the largest ever agricultural strike in the Midwest in Ohio tomato fields in 1979, united thousands of farmworkers. By 1991 80000 Latinos lived in North Carolina and 30000 in north Georgia. The Latino population soon matched African Americans 12% of the population and began to effect American culture. In 1984 artists and writers in San Diego and Tijuana formed the Border Arts Workshop to deal with issues of racism and injustice. Latinos became militant critics of US policy towards Nicaragua, El Salvador and Cuba and in 1970 three Chicanos died after the police attacked a march in LA against the Vietnam War. 20 years later, in 1990 thousands of people marched the same route in LA to protest Bush preparing for war against Iraq. In 1992 Resist, a fundraising group which protested the Vietnam War, made donations to 168 organisations around the country, including community groups, peace groups, Native American groups, prisoners' rights organisations, health and environmental groups... Food Not Bombs groups also sprang up in communities across America, distributing free food to poor people.

What led to a rise in the 'Silent Majority'?

Many Americans perceived protests as a threat to their society and this was exacerbated through the media, which helped to form public opinions in the US. Protest also became more radical - for example The Weathermen, who bombed the New York Police Department and the Bank of America. 'Yippies' and other demonstrators trying to disrupt the Democratic Party National Convention in August 1968, and their other anti-war demonstrations, also appalled Americans, as did women's-rights groups, calling for a legalisation of abortion, and the youth "counter-culture" attacking traditional family values and advocating drug taking and pre-marital sex. In fact there was a rise in support for the Republican Party (Nixon, Ford and Reagan were all Republicans) due to hatred for the counter-culture movement. Older generations felt they had worked hard to bring America out of the great depression and many middle-class white families now had beautiful suburban homes, so couldn't understand why their teenagers were rebelling against the consumerist culture they had worked so hard to afford. They also thought so many acts had been passed to help disadvantaged groups such as African-Americans and women and so couldn't understand why people were still protesting.

What problems did Hispanic Americans face?

Many Hispanic Americans worked in the Californian farming industry (worth over $4 billion & generated 43% fruit and veg sold in US by 1965). However this meant they worked seasonally (on average 134 days per year) and often had to travel around to find work. They were paid low wages and often lived in extreme poverty. The average annual income for Chicanos in California was just $1378 but many Americans believed they earned so little because they were lazy, and so did little to help. Chicano families made up 80% of Californian welfare cases.

Why were drugs a problem during the Vietnam War?

Many soldiers turned to drugs while in Vietnam because they couldn't understand why they were fighting and were frustrated by the length of the war. 5 000 soldiers were treated for combat wounds compared to 20 000 for serious drug abuse.

What was the Southern Manifesto?

March 12th 1956 all but 3 Southern Senators signed the Southern Manifesto, promising to 'use all lawful means to bring about a reversal of this decision [Brown]'

How did home-ownership change in the 1950s and 60s?

Mass produced houses in the suburbs made home ownership more accessible for the middle class

What was Nixon's impact on poverty?

Poverty decreased from 12.8% of the population in 1968 to 11.1% in 1973. Nixon wanted 'New Federalism' - his 1972 "revenue sharing plan" gave block grants of federal money to states and localities, which were given greater freedom to spend it how they wanted.

How successful was Reagan in heaping the poor?

Poverty levels were at their highest in 1982 since 1965 and had not reduced by 1989. In 1980 the poverty rate was 13% but even higher for minorities - 26% for Hispanics and 33% for Black Americans. 13 million children living below poverty line in 1984. Homelessness doubled from 200 000 to 400 000 in 1980s.

What was Bus segregation like in Alabama in the early 1950s?

Public transport across the South was highly segregated, although especially strict in Alabama - the first 10 rows were always reserved for white passengers and black passengers could not sit next to or parallel to white passengers (they had to stand instead). All bus drivers were also white.

Who was President Nov 1963 - Jan 1969?

Richard Nixon (Republican)

How did music change in the 1950s?

Rock 'n' Roll became very popular with artists such as Elvis Presley, provocative dancing and suggestive lyrics. Some regard "Sh-Boom" as the first Rock 'n' Roll hit and it became the 5th best selling song of 1954. "Rock around the clock" also took off to the top of the charts and ultimately sold 16 million copies.

Who was President Jan 1981 - Jan 1989?

Ronald Reagan (Republican)

What was Save Our Children Inc.?

Save Our Children Inc. was a political coalition formed in 1977 to overturn recent legislation in Miami, banning discrimination based on sexual orientation in housing, employment and public accommodation. Celebrity singer, Anita Bryant, who claimed the law discriminated against her right to teacher her children biblical morality, headed the organisation. The anti-homosexual campaign was successful - the repeal went to vote and was passed by 70%.

How did Johnson improve voting for the poor and African Americans?

The 24th Amendment to the US Constitution outlawed the use of poll taxes at elections, which had prevented many poor people (particularly blacks) from voting in Southern States. In 1965 Congress passed the Voting Rights Act, outlawing literacy tests for voter registration and appointing federal examiners to ensure voter registration was handled correctly. Before this act only 6% of blacks were registered in Mississippi and this rose to 605 after the act. In Alabama the figures were 18% before and 54% after.

How did medical advancements in the 1960s benefit women?

The Birth Control Pill was approved by the Food & Drug Administration in 1960 and, for the first time, gave women control of when they wanted to have children. In 1966 6 million American women used the pill, by 1968 11 million women were using it. The invention made it much easier for women to have a family and a career and they could decide how many children they wanted. 1965 Supreme Court strikes down the 1 remaining law prohibiting the use of contraceptives by married couples in Griswold Vs Connecticut.

What was the SNCC?

The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was formed to help organise the sit-ins.

What was the Equal Employment Opportunity Act?

The committee on Equal Employment Opportunity Act allocated a percentage of federal jobs to Black Americans and unemployment fell from 6.5% in 1960 to 5.3% in 1964.

What was the economy like at the beginning of the 70s?

The economy was booming and per capita income increased by 41% between 1960 and 1970. Poverty declined rapidly from 22% of the population in 1960 to 12% in 1969. Although unemployment among 16-19 year olds rose, overall unemployment stayed low, falling to 3.5% in 1969.

How did Carter impact inequality?

The top 10% of the American population had an income 30x that of the bottom tenth and the top 1% of the nation owned 33% of the wealth. The richest 5% also owned 83% of the personally owned corporate stock. Carter improved tax 'reforms' in 1979, signing in to law an $18 billion tax reduction, which benefited mainly big corporations and affluent individuals.

How did Reagan impact the environment?

There was a 50% fall in prosecutions for illegal disposal of hazardous waste, causing huge damage to the environment.

What happened in the 1968 Presidential Election?

There was a low turnout at the 1968 Presidential election (under 60%) and Nixon only won the support of 27% of American voters, mainly in the 'Sun Belt' states in the South - North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas... as well as California, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Arizona, where the population and technology were booming. These states were mainly evangelical Protestants and Conservatives. Nixon appealed to the 'Silent Majority' because he disliked hippies and anti-war activists. He sent in the FBI to infiltrate and destroy the BPP and other revolutionary organisations. Nixon was a Republican.

What were homosexual rights like?

Until 1963 homosexuality was illegal in the US and 'Don't ask, don't tell' operated in the US military until 2011. The first major gay rights group, the Mattachine Society, was established in 1950 and was shortly followed by a lesbian rights group, the Daughters of Bilitis. However the movement was really sparked by riots, lasting 5 days, in New York following a police raid on the working-class gay bar, Stonewall, in June 1969.

What was the Post-War Baby Boom?

1945-64 huge increase in population

What was the Federal-Aid Highway Act 1944?

Authorised the construction of a 40 000 mile National System of Interstate Highways but offered no way to pay for it.

What was the Draft?

Conscription in to The Vietnam War. The draft was regarded unfair - African Americans made up 1/5th of the army despite only being 1/10 of the population of America. The wealthy could also avoid the draft and so it was mainly the working class who were drafted. A 'lottery of birthdays' was used to decide who would be drafted first. The average age of an American GI was 19 years old.

What was the SDS?

Students for a Democratic Society were one of the most important New Left student protest groups. Tom Hayden and Al Haber founded SDS at the University of Michigan in 1960. In 1962 Hayden produced the Port Huron Statement, setting out the organisations aims. He rejected a government led by a few elected officials in favour of a participatory democracy calling for decision-making by all Americans. Civil Rights activists, such as Ray 'Rap' Brown, and the Black Power Movement inspired many SDS supporters. In 1965 Hayden organised a March on Washington against the Vietnam War, but had little impact.

What achievements did Homosexual Rights groups make in the 70s?

The first on screen kiss between 2 men was shown in Sunday, Bloody Sunday (1971). In 1972 That Certain Summer became the first American TV Movie about homosexuality and Cabaret, the first movie to celebrate homosexuality was also released. In December 1973 the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from the list of mental illness after a unanimous vote by the association board. In 1975 Homosexuality was legalised in California. New York's public TV station WNET featured a live 3hr special called Outreach: Lesbians and Gay Men in 1976 and although it may be considered homophobic by modern standards, it did show a move towards trying to understand and accept homosexuality. In 1977 Harvey Milk became the 1st openly gay American to be elected to public office. 120 of the largest corporations adopted personnel policies prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by 1980. 40 towns and cities had also passed similar legislation or issued executive orders and Oregon and Colorado were the first two states to repeal the Sodomy Law in 1972, ending all restrictions on sexual relations between consenting adults, and by 1980 22 states had repealed (although many states kept the sodomy law as late as 2003).

Why were Kings methods less successful in the North?

The focus of protest was beginning to shift towards promoting de facto change, not just de jure change, however King was well educated and middle class and didn't appeal to the lower classes (who he needed for his 'Fill the jails' campaign - the middle class protestors did not want to go to jail and risk losing their jobs). The working class were beginning to lose faith in Kings peaceful methods and thought more had to be done. Attendance to mass meetings dwindled and an economic boycott had little effect. King went to jail over Easter 1963, but even this did not mobilise support.

What was Teenage culture like in the 1950s?

There appeared to be a desire amongst the younger generation to rebel against the conformity and consumerism of the 50s. Teenagers had their own culture for the first time - with teenager becoming a widely used term, creating a separate group and culture for young people. They also had financial power to buy thanks to the post-war economic boom, more independence (rise in transport e.g. cars so could travel further, motorbikes also v. popular leading to motorbike gangs...), their own tastes in music and fashion, and even their own language with a huge rise in the use of slang.

How far did TV and advertising encourage gender roles in the 1950s?

There was an increase in marriage between 1950 and 1960 and by 1957 97% of Americans of marriageable age were married, which could suggest that generally TV and advertising were encouraging conformity. However divorce rate was also increasing dramatically. Furthermore there was a large increase in women in the workforce between 1950 and 1960, although the majority of the increase was from married women with children, suggesting that they were working out of necessity or to help achieve the American Dream for their family, rather than trying to challenge traditional gender stereotypes. A recurring theme in 1950s sitcoms was the undesirability of middle-class women going to work (e.g. in shows like 'The Honeymooners' and 'Father Knows Best'). Young American women in the post-war period were conditioned to believe that the best vocation to which they could aspire was that of wife and mother.

Why were the Interstate Highway Acts introduced?

To make travel quicker and more efficient, as well as making it easier to evacuate big cities in the case of an atomic attack. It also allowed the USA to compete with Germany, who had an impressive network of high-speed roads which had impressed Eisenhower when he was stationed there in WWII. It also served to replace "undesirable slum areas" with pristine ribbons of concrete. The new highways were controlled access expressways with no at-grade crossings (overpasses and underpasses rather than intersections), at least 4 lanes wide and designed for high speed driving. Overall the Interstate Highway system is more than 46000 miles long.

What was the YCCA?

Young Chicanos for Community Action was influenced by the BPP and campaigned for better education and employment practices. They were involved in the Chicago Blowouts 1968 - a series of school walkouts demanding better education for Hispanics.

What proportion of the US population lived in the suburbs by the end of the 60s?

⅓

How did laws and attitudes to abortion change in the 70s?

- In 1973 the Supreme Court decision of Roe vs Wade declared state laws forbidding abortion were unconstitutional as women had rights to privacy and control over their bodies. The ruling allowed abortions to take place in the first three months of pregnancy. Following the Court decision, the number of abortions increased dramatically (rising to 1.7 million legal abortions in 1977). However the Human Life Amendment Act later that year attempted to repudiate the Supreme Court decision and in 1974 the Hyde Amendment to Health, Education and Welfare department budget outlawed the use of federal funds for abortion unless the mother's life was threatened. The US Supreme Court upheld this position in 1977, which caused the number of abortions to fall. Pro-life campaigners were actively involved in elections in 1976, opposing pro-abortion candidates - Senator Frank Church of Utah's defeat was partially due to this opposition. There was political backlash through a variety of mediums, including many religions and even films, such as 'What happened to the human race?' (1979), which urged voters to oppose abortion and was screened in 20 US cities. In 1979 the Moral Majority, a new right pressure group, opposed abortion rights and supported Regan's candidacy for president.

What did Kennedy do for the Environment?

- In the early 1960s there was a growing awareness for the environment, partially due to the Hippy movement. Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson also highlighted the dangers of pesticides on the food chain, resulting in the Department of Agriculture and the Public Health Service launching an investigation into whether pesticides caused illnesses in humans and setting up an advisory committee on pesticides. Kennedy's Science Advisory Committee recommended a phase-out of "persistent toxic pesticides" however DDT was not banned until 1972. While Kennedy was not responsible for banning DDT he did get the ball rolling. 1963 Congress passed a Clean Air Act, limiting emissions from cars and factories. JFK also expanded the National Park Service. January 1961 he appointed Steward Udall as Secretary of the Interior. Udall published 'The Quiet Crisis' in 1963, warning of the dangers of pollution and the threats to the USA's natural resources. He helped acquire 3.85 million acres of land for the National Park Service, as well as adding 6 national monuments, 9 national recreation areas, 20 historic sites, 50 wildlife refuges and 8 national seashores.

What proportion of families owned their own home in 1960?

3/5

By what percent did the population increase in the 50s?

19%

How did the rise of the car impact the US?

1946 - 1955 car production increased from 2 million per year to 8 million per year. General Motors became the first company to make $1 billion. the rise of the care helped boost the economy and gave people greater freedom, allowing them to travel further and faster. They quickly became part of the American dream, a sign of wealth and status. As greater choice in cars was introduced they became more affordable and began to reflect the owners personality - and became a way to compete with neighbours to get the best and newest cars. By 1960 80% of families had at least one car, 15% had 2 or more and there were 73.8 million cars registered (increased from 39.3 million in 1950).

What was the Mexican American Political Association?

1960 the Mexican American Political Association was created to encourage Mexican Americans to register to vote and support them running for public office. In 1962, their president, Edward Roybal, was elected to the House of Representatives.

What was NOW?

1966 Betty Freidan founded the National Organisation for Women, seeking to end sexual discrimination. It soon became the largest women's rights group in the US.

What were the limitations to the Native American Civil Rights Movement?

1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act allowed practicing of traditional religions but restricted the use of eagle feathers, bones and peyote (commonly used in rituals and spiritual practices but considered a drug). Federal Forces physically removed Native Americans from Alcatraz. In 1969 the Indian History Press evaluated 400 school textbooks and found that none gave an accurate depiction of Native Americans.

How did advertising impact sport?

1979 National Basketball Association signed contract with ESPN Television Company as well as USA Network Cable Company, helping to pump millions of dollars in to the sport. Coca-Cola and Pepsi became major sponsors of sport. Coca-Cola sponsored 1978 FIFA World Cup (in Argentina), NASCAR, basketball and American Football. Many beer companies also became key sponsors of sport (both beer and sporting equipment were traditionally marketed to men).

How did Reagan deal with inflation?

1981-83 double digit inflation and 10% unemployment. Reagan introduced his 'Program for Economic Recovery', headed by the Director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), David Stockman. Reagan won the 1984 election by a landslide suggesting his economic policies were successful and he was a popular President. His campaign suggested that, in his first term as President, inflation had halved, more people were able to buy houses and unemployment had decreased dramatically. Although inflation and unemployment fell, this was partly due to the fall in world oil prices rather than Reagan's policies.

How did Reagan impact education?

1983 declining school test scores and poorly equipped schools produced 23 million illiterates. Reagan decreased education block grants to States by 63%. The aid programs that were cut particularly affected poor children, including school meals, education, and support for single parents.

What was the Tet-Offensive?

31st January 1968 a 7-day ceasefire was called, however the North Vietnamese then launched a surprise offensive against the US, attacking 126 Southern Vietnamese controlled cities simultaneously, including the city of Hue and it was estimated it would take 1 month for the US to get it back. The Vietnam Cong reached the American Embassy and shot in to it. According to the government, America defeated the North "winning" the tet-offensive, however the North did not see it like this and public opinion in the US shifted against the war. 15000 American soldiers were killed in 1968 and people were beginning to realise the US might not win the war.

How did Reagan impact employment?

500 000 people were deleted off the list of registered disabled. Reagan also obstructed attempts to increase minimum wage and was very hostile to trade unions. Deregulation policies also increased health and safety risks for workers. Personnel in the Consumer Product Safety Commission was cut by 38% so were less active in ensuring the safety of products sold to consumers. 1980 to 1988 unemployment fell from 7% to 5.2% and 16 million new jobs were created.

What percentage of homes were owner-occupied in 1960?

61.9% (compared to 43.6% in 1940 and 55% in 1950).

Why was the Montgomery Bus Boycott so successful?

75% of the local bus company's revenue came from black people (white people were more likely to own a car or be allowed to buy a house closer to the place they worked). The boycott lasted over a year and the Supreme Court ruling Browder v Gayle (1956) found segregation on Montgomery busses to be unconstitutional. It could be argued that this ruling came just in time - the boycott was beginning to feel the strain by November 1956. City leaders in Montgomery were trying to ban the MIA carpool - King insisted the carpool was voluntary however this was undermined by evidence that the MIA had $189000 in a Montgomery Bank and so if it could have been proved the carpool was legally a private business it could have been banned by local authorities. The boycott was significant because it showed that the black community could take action and make a difference, through peaceful protest.

What was Kennedy's Commission on the Status of Women?

83000 copies of Kennedy's Commission on the Status of Women (led by Eleanor Roosevelt) were issued, highlighting problems women faced. Eleanor Roosevelt's report criticized inequalities facing the American woman in a 'free' society and showed substantial discrimination against women in the workplace, making specific recommendations for improvement, including fair hiring practices, paid maternity leave and affordable child care, but also made clear the importance of women's traditional gender roles.

What were the Hard Hat Riots?

8th May 1970, 200 construction workers demonstrated in the 'Hard Hat Riots' to support Nixon's policies calling for the US to bomb Hanoi (Capital of North Vietnam), chanting patriotic slogans, such as "All the way USA" and "Love it or Leave it". In June 1971 the New York Times published 'The Pentagon Papers', leaked by Dr Daniel Ellsberg, showing that the US government, under Johnson, had not been told the full story of the Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964, which had been used to justify greater military involvement in Vietnam.

Who were the Ku Klux Klan?

A radical organisation of white supremacy, viewed as heroes in the South and would terrorise and lynch black people who were seen to be 'disrespecting whites' - including prosperous blacks, blacks who were challenging segregation or people in interracial relationships. In 1900 there were 115 lynchings in America, in the same year the total number of murders was only 230. Several members of the Ku Klux Klan were very powerful - police, senior politicians, judges, local officials etc. and so there was little justice for blacks.

What was Kennedy's New Frontier?

A series of programs and laws introduced by Kennedy

How many casualties were there in the Vietnam war?

A total of 3 million were killed during the war - ½ of which were Vietnam civilians and 58000 were American Soldiers. 500 000 of the soldiers who served in Vietnam suffered from PTSD.

How did the media impact the 'Silent Majority'?

A very popular show in the 70s was All in the Family, which first aired in 1969. The leading character was Archie Bunker, an opinionated, white, working class father who hated the counter-culture and social changes of the 1960s. His views reflected those of many Americans at the time, contributing to the shows popularity. Furthermore News Reporter, Walter Cronkite, witnessed the Tet Offensive and on his return to the US said on National television that he thought the only rational option for the USA was to accept that they hadn't won the war and negotiate a honourable withdrawal. A poll after the broadcast suggested that 70% Americans trusted Walter Cronkite more than any other public figure. Lyndon B Johnson said if he had lost the support of Cronkite, he had lost the support of the American people and a month later he ordered an end to the bombing of North Korea.

Who was the typical owner of a Levittown home?

A young, white, middle class, American family (Levittowns created community BUT also caused increased social segregation)

What was the AIDS crisis?

AIDS can be transmitted through sexual activity, contaminated needles and blood transfusions. Scientists identified HIV in 1984 but couldn't offer any cure and as a result sufferers of AIDS were virtually given a death sentence and were often socially ostracised, as people didn't understand the disease. Most of those who had AIDS were young, gay men (although many drug takers also contracted the disease through contaminated needles, adding to the perception that AIDS was caused by immorality). Over 46000 Americans had died from it by 1989 and there were over 80000 confirmed cases and possibly ten times more who were infected. When President Reagan's movie actor friend Rock Hudson died from AIDS in 1985 Reagan ordered a report on the disease. The report suggested three remedies - abstinence, monogamy or condoms, and called for sex education in schools. However Reagan refused to advocate the use of condoms or speak to Congress to get funding to research the disease. The AIDS scare also encouraged many gay men to stay in the closet - in 1985 three-quarters of Americans said they didn't know any homosexuals. However the crisis soon accelerated gay rights activism and in 1987 ACT UP (AIDS Coalition To Unleash Power) followed up the first gay pride parade in NYC with demonstrations, demanding equal rights and more research in to AIDS. However it was individuals such as Ryan White, a haemophiliac teenager from Indiana who contracted AIDS through a blood transfusion. He became a very persuasive national spokesman for AIDS sufferers and helped change public perceptions. After he died in 1990 Congress passed the Ryan White Care Act, granting $220 million to help victims of AIDS.

Why did advertising boom in the 1950s?

Advertising boomed in the 1950s largely due to the rise of the TV but also because the economy was improving and more people had spare cash to spend on luxury items. Products that were in short supply during the war were becoming plentiful again and the war had also brought new innovations and technology. The baby boom after WWII also meant a huge increase in the population so there were more people to buy more new products. Labour saving technology was very popular as it could increase leisure time - part of the American Dream.

What was advertising like in the 50s?

Advertising was hugely influential and powerful. A life of luxury was becoming normal with consumer goods, cars, house ownership etc. beginning to be considered rights. Advertising promoted freedom and the American Dream. It often presented rich, attractive, middle class, white families in suburban settings, promoting clear gender roles. "Unique Selling Propositions" became increasingly important and "New and Improved" was also a key phrase used in advertising - people kept buying slightly adapted designs in order to stay in style. Advertising in the 50s reflected a return to traditional family values as well as promoting the need for leisure time and new appliances to remain modern.

What was Agent Orange?

Agent Orange was a chemical used by the US to destroy the jungle hideouts that the Guerrilla fighters in the Vietnam Cong used to hide in. 42 million litres were dropped, resulting in hundreds of thousands of hectares of jungle destroyed. It was also associated with birth defects.

What was the Albany Campaign (November 1961) and why was it unsuccessful?

After Federal agency ordered desegregation of interstate travel the SNCC sent in students to test the ruling, but the students were arrested. Martin Luther King and the SCLC began assisting however as they were trying to help other campaigns at the same time Albany soon became frustrated with their inconsistent support. When King tried to organise a non-violent protest in Albany he expected police brutality to gain attention for their cause. However Albany's chief of police was different. Pritchett had researched Kings tactics and came up with a plan to give Kings movement as little leverage as possible. King was sent to jail in July 1962 with a 42 day sentence, he was determined to stay in jail for the duration to gain attention for the cause however was released after 3 days when someone mysteriously paid his fine (allegedly done at Pritchett's request to dampen Kings support). Later that month a Federal judge issued a restraining order to stop the demonstrations that had been going on almost 9 months. King left Albany in August deciding it would be hard to have any clear cut victories there, but the movement continued without him.

What domestic and social change was there under Bush?

After the Supreme Court declared in a 5-4 decision that flag burning was a form of symbolic speech, which was protected by the First Amendment; President Bush called for a constitutional amendment to prohibit the flag being desecrated in this way. Bush also wanted to deal with social issues such as drugs. He appointed William Bennett, to lead the fight against drugs. However the money the administration received from Congress for the campaign was insufficient.

How did Workers Rights progress 1973-80?

After the notable progression in workers' rights in the 1960s (especially for minorities) with the 1963 Equal Pay Act, the Chicano movement and the 1964 Civil Rights Act, the period 1973-80 represented a comparatively less successful time for workers' rights. The shift of industry from the Rust Belt to the Sun Belt had a huge impact on workers' rights, as the southern unions were far weaker than those in the north. This meant that worker's held far less power in the 1970s than they had previously in the 1960s as the lack of trade union authority in the South resulted in strikes proving ineffective and workers being unable to protect their rights. The number of major work stoppages fell from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980. In addition to this, union membership shrank dramatically across the period. Moreover, largely due to America's economic position in the 1970s, the Republicans began to push legislative blueprints through to curb the power of public employees and eliminate business regulations. Therefore, the union weakness in the South undermined the rights of workers across this period as the move of industry from the north to the south led to an unprecedented decrease in authority and position of workers across this period.

What was Agent Blue?

Agent Blue was another chemical sprayed on crops to prevent the Viet Cong growing food. The US also used saturation bombing - intense area bombing intended to destroy everything in the target area - and Napalm, a weapon, used to start fires, containing petrol, phosphorus and other chemicals, which could burn human flesh through to the bone.

What problems were facing the American Economy when Ford came to power?

America was in economic downturn, resulting in inflation and unemployment. American industry, especially the car industry, was declining. Car sales dropped by $11 million in 1973 and unemployment rose to 7.2% in 1974. Nixon's efforts to improve the economy, such as the devaluation of the dollar in his New Economic Policy, were unsuccessful. An energy crisis had then shook America following the 'Yom Kippur War' between Israel and Arab enemies in October 1973. The dollar was normally used to pay for oil, so Arab leaders were upset by Nixon's devaluation of the currency and decided to raise their charges, causing worldwide inflation. They also imposed an embargo on shipments of oil the US due to their support for Israel. In December the Organisation of Petroleum. Exporting Countries raised its prices so they were 387% higher than before the Yom Kippur War. By the end of the embargo, prices for heating oil and gasoline in the US had risen by as much as 33%. In 1974 alone retail prices increased by 11% and wholesale prices 18%. Unemployment reached 8.5% by 1975 and Real gross national product fell by more than 2% in 1974 and almost 3% in 1975.

How did television and film change in the 70s?

As in the 70s some films and TV shows focused on escapism, while others focused on social issues and concerns of the time. For example The Day After, released November 1983 (during the Cold War), dealt with concerns about Nuclear Holocaust and encouraged Reagans Strategic Defence Initiative. On the other hand, escapist films such as Indiana Jones and Rocky were also very popular. The Cosby Show (1984-1992) was a show about the life of a middle-class black American doctor and his family, showing how far civil rights had come as the show was extremely popular. Murphy Brown (1988-1998) on the other hand was more challenging and controversial as the main character was an ambitious single mother who worked for a magazine. Bush's Vice President Quayle claimed it undermined family values. Sickwood (1983) was a film about a worker in a nuclear power plant who got radiation sickness, challenging health and safety and workers rights. Rainman (1988) dealt with autism and My Left Foot (1989) dealt with disability. Cry Freedom (1987) was about the struggle against the apartheid in South Africa. Mississippi Burning (1988) dealt with the murder of white and black civil rights activists during the 'freedom summer' of 1964. Boyz in the Hood was a film about the race riots in Watts, Los Angeles in 1965 and 1992. New Jack City dealt with drug taking and gangs in New York. In 1992 black American director, Spike Lee, made a film about the life of Malcolm X. Kiss of the Spider Woman (1985) was released in the middle of the AIDS crisis and portrayed a gay man incarcerated in a Latin American Jail.

How did the Media impact the Vietnam War?

At the beginning of the 1950s only 9% of American homes owned a television, but by 1961 93% of homes did. By 1964 58% of people living in the US got most of their news from television. New recording technology such as video cameras and audio recorders became increasingly popular allowing journalists and reporters to take more photographs and record video material. As a result Vietnam was the first war to be so broadly televised, shocking people back in the US. The Government struggled to control and censor all the new media for the first time, leading to increasingly negative public views about the war. Walter Cronkite delivered his famous anti-war opinion on-air during his CBS broadcast, February 27th 1968. After the Tet-offensive in particular, media coverage became increasingly negative and reports became more sympathetic towards soldiers. They no longer just showed figures but pictures of casualties and a comment would accompany the numbers, explaining that they were not just figures but each one of them men who will never fulfil their dreams and their families would never see them again.

What was the Feminine Mystique?

Betty Friedan, a New York Academic, wrote The Feminine Mystique blaming problems for women on society. It described the sense of frustration and lack of fulfilment that hundreds of thousands of women felt as well educated, middle class, housewives. Some women were happy with their lives and didn't agree with her ideas, but for others they identified completely with Friedan and her book.

How successful was Johnson's 'War on Poverty'?

Between 1965 and 1968 spending to help the poor doubled and within 10 years the percentage of Americans living below the poverty line declined from around 25% to 12% (although many figures disagree on the exact numbers, and government figures are often extremely flawed, it is clear there was a large decrease). However the poverty rate did not remain low over the next 50 years, fluctuating greatly, and certainly did not completely disappear. When measured against Johnson's aims for his War on Poverty, "... not only to relieve the symptom of poverty, but to cure it and, above all, to prevent it", this was a failure. However many of Johnson's policies remained in place for a long time.

What achievements had Black Americans made by the 1980s?

Black Americans made up 11.7% of the population but were 43% of those receiving Aid to Families with dependent children and 35.1% of people receiving food stamps at the beginning of the 80s. 1992 number of black-owned businesses in USA had risen to 621000. 3rd November 1983 President Reagan signed a law designating the 3rd Monday in January Martin Luther King Day a national holiday and the first celebration occurred in 1986. Enough Black Americans had been elected in to the House of Representatives in the 1980s that they formed a black caucus (informal group) of 20-25 Congressmen and women, working for black American Rights. Andrew Young, one of MLKs most important colleagues was elected mayor of Atlanta, Georgia in 1981. In 1983 a black American, Harold Washington, became mayor of Chicago, where black Americans only comprised 40% of registered votes so Washington had to attract white voters, so was moderate in his social policies to help the advancement of black Americans. Washington put together a coalition of black American groups including the local NAACP, the National Urban League, People United to Save Humanity (PUSH - led by black Baptist Minister, Reverend Jesse Jackson) and the Chicago Black United Communities, who helped to enrol 100000 new votes between 1982 and 1983 - there was 80% turnout from inner-city blacks at the election. In 1984 and 1988 Jesse Jackson, ran for the Democratic Party nomination for the Presidency. Rainbow Coalition, which grew to become PUSH helped Jacksons cause. Jackson failed to gain the support of some prominent black American leaders (e.g. Andrew Young) in his 1984 bid due to his affiliation with Martin Luther King, and received just 21% of the vote in primary election contests and just 8% of the delegate votes at the Democratic National Convention - a white politician was chosen. However Jacksons 1988 campaign was stronger, better organised and he won a number of primary elections showing that blacks could be serious contenders for the Presidency and have equal political power to whites. After first black American Supreme Court Justice, Thurgood Marshall, retired President George Bush Senior nominated black American Clarence Thomas in 1991. However Thomas was a conservative and opposed to affirmative action. He had also been accursed of sexual harassment. His nomination was opposed by Civil Rights organisations and women's groups, however was approved by the Republican-controlled Senate.

Why did Northern inner city areas begin to turn in to ghettos?

Black Americans moved to Northern cities to escape the poverty and discrimination of the South. The USAs 12 largest cities gained 1.8 million non-white residents 1955-60. As a result inner city areas became cheaper and more cramped, eventually turning in to ghettos where the poorest in society, mainly African Americans, lived.

What is meant by Black Power?

Black Power and Black Nationalism became increasingly popular ideas. They looked to new leaders like Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael. Malcolm X was a key leader of the Black Nationalist movement. He claimed that the key consequence of civil rights campaigns so far was that black people could "sit down next to white folks on the toilet". Black Power emphasised racial pride and wanted to create Black political and cultural institutions. Black Power was a term coined by Willie Ricks of the SNCC, but most associated with Stokely Carmichael, a Black Nationalist leader in the 1960s. Some African-Americans saw it as a cry against whites, others saw it as a way of elevating the status of African-Americans in society, and there were some took it to mean they wanted no integration with whites whatsoever, a purely black society. Some argued that Black Power was positive because it inspired many other minority groups to campaign in a more militant fashion for their own rights and it helped to force social and economic issues up the political agenda. Furthermore it gave the black community a greater sense of pride and confidence in their race and its culture. However it also brought divisions in the movement and by accepting violence they lost much of the white sympathy that King had worked so hard to gain. Furthermore they had less clear aims than earlier movements, creating confusion.

How did Sport change for Ethnic minorities?

Black sportsmen excelled in the NFL - 1980s Randell Cunningham (a black American) became the quarterback off the Philadelphia Eagles. By 1988 black Americans made up 80% of players in the NFL. Earvin 'Magic' Johnson (Los Angeles Lakers, basketball) was the star player of the NBA. Black Americans made up 60% of players in the NBA and 25% in Major League Baseball by 1988. 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Carl Lewis (black American) won four gold medals (100m, 200m, long jump & 4x100m). 1988 Seould Olympics Gold medal in 100m. 1984 Los Angeles Olympics black track and field athletes won 40 of 49 medals awarded to US athletes. Black Americans also won 10 out of 11 US medals for boxing.

What was Brown II?

Brown II (1955) ruled that schools had to be desegregated "with all deliberate speed" - rejecting the NAACPs plea for tight deadlines and giving segregationists the opportunity to organise resistance. Brown was a turning point in Civil Rights because it marked an end to the doctrine of 'separate but equal' however it did not mark straightforward progress and Brown II was a step back.

What did Bush do for the economy?

Bush wanted to deal with National Debt, which was at $2.7 trillion, but he also wanted to cut taxes. The Gramm-Rudman Act 1985 required the federal government to balance the budget, but Bush had failed to do this by the time he left the office. By 1992 the federal budget deficit had risen to $400 billion. A crisis in the savings and loans industry had required massive bailouts. Bush's plan to save these companies from bankruptcy predicted expenditure of $50 billion. By April 1990 the Federal Bailout Bill was $325 billion. In 1990 Bush raised the rate of federal income tax by 3%. Military and domestic expenditure was cut by $492 billion. The Federal Reserve Board (USA's Central Bank) lowered interest rates to 3.5% in an attempt to stimulate economic growth, however it had limited impact. Under Bush, GDP increased at a lesser rate than expected, as did job creation. Median income decreased dramatically and debt as a percentage of GDP rose by over 20%, however the American stock market did improve more than expected and, in comparison to other NATO countries, Americans GDP rate was better.

How did employment change from blue-collar (labour) to white-collar (office) work in the 1950s?

By 1956 white collar workers outnumbered blue collar workers for the first time. This was partly due to the increase in female employment (mostly employed as secretaries etc.) which doubled between 1940 and 1960.

How did SNCC become more radicalised?

By 1966 SNCC members were impatient with the slow progress of blacks towards equality and turned to more militant action, replacing their leader John Lewis with more radical Stokely Carmichael. Later that year they voted to expel whites from their organisation. In 1967 Carmichael was replaced by Henry 'Rap' Brown, who advocated armed self-defence and, in a speech in Maryland that July, he encouraged the black audience to take over white-owned stores in the black ghetto, using violence if necessary. In 1968 the SNCC effectively merged with the Black Panther Party.

How successful was Reagan in dealing with the budget deficit?

By 1982 there was a budget deficit of $200 billion. He cut federal aid programs but the cuts were not sufficient to ease the deficit so it continued to grow. Reagan failed to deal with, and actually worsened, the budget deficit, which almost tripled to over $2.6 trillion by the end of Reagan's presidency from $1 trillion in 1980. Federal expenditure was also increased from $699.1 billion in 1980 to $859.3 billion in 1987. Mid 1980s USA went from being one of the worlds largest creditor nations to the world's largest debtor nation. Trade deficit rose from $38 billion in 1982 to over $150 billion per annum 1985-1990 and the annual trade deficit with Japan passed $50 billion in 1985.

How successful was Reagan in improving the economy?

By 1984 $1.5 billion had been spent on defence, helping to create jobs and fuel economic recovery. Number of strikes plummeted 1980s (although due to companies following Reagans anti-union policies). 1980 to 1988, inflation fell from 13.5% to 4.7%, unemployment fell from 7% to 5.2% and 16 million new jobs were created.

Why was there a drug problem in 1980s America?

By the 1980s around 40 million Americans used illegal substances and half of the population under 45 had tried marijuana at least once. There were around 12000 drug related deaths (compared to 200000 alcohol related deaths and 300000 tobacco related deaths annually). Federal government expenditure on a war on drugs during Reagan's Presidency was around $15 billion annually.

What problems were there with the economy at the end of Carter's Presidency?

Carter also cut public works programs and delayed tax reductions. Despite this in 1980 the economy stagflated, unemployment rose to 7.5%, mortgage rates increased to 15%, interest rates 20% and inflation averaged 12-13%.

What were the limitations of the 70s African American Civil Rights Movement?

By the 70s, white Americans mainly saw the civil rights battle as won or too costly in terms of sacrifices white people would have to make. Poor black Americans particularly suffered in the economic crisis in the 70s. Schools were supposed to be desegregated, but states refused to pay for buses for black children to go to white schools. In 1974 white mothers screamed abuse at black children being bussed in to their neighbourhood. Most Atlanta suburbs were still white (95%). Many laws were ambiguous and not strongly enforced, allowing people to still treat blacks badly.

Why were Students protesting and how did the Silent Majority react?

By the end of 1968 over 500 000 US troops had been sent to Vietnam and thousands of soldiers had died. The draft was still very controversial, as many young men feared being sent to Vietnam. The Tet Offensive in 1968 was a military failure. Television was able to show what was really happening in war for the first time. In 1969 Newspapers began reporting on the My Lai Massacre of March 1968, which the army had attempted to cover up. April 30th 1970 Nixon announced that there would be an invasion of Cambodia, requiring 150 000 extra US troops. 4th May 1970 there was a major student demonstration at Kent State University in Ohio, 900 National Guardsmen were sent in to stop the rioting. 28 National Guardsmen fired on the students, killing four. A photo of the dead students won a Pulitzer Prize. 500 Colleges were shut or disrupted by rioting because of the killings and a further 2 students were killed at a riot in Jackson State College. However many Americans believed it was the student's fault for protesting against the government and starting a riot.

What did Carter do about energy (gas and oil)?

Carter announced a National Energy Plan in April 1977, which outlined the deregulation of natural gas prices, but it wasn't till October 1978 that Congress passed an act implementing its proposal. Early in Carter's Presidency the Federal Energy Administration found that Gulf Oil Corporation had overstated its costs for crude oil by $79.1 million, passing on the false costs to the customers. The administration announced a 'compromise' had been made with them in 1978 and Gulf would pay back $42.2 million. The lawyer for the Energy Department said the compromise had been made to avoid a lengthy and costly lawsuit, however it was clear that the law was on the side of the rich. Carter then announced a new energy policy after a 10-day conference at Camp David, launching a program of research in to the production of synthetic fuel to limit US dependence on oil and gas.

How did the Religious Right impact Carter?

Carter came from a Southern background and, in terms of religion, understood and supported the Evangelicals. He once said, "The most important thing in my life is God". Many people from the North (and reporters) struggled to understand Carters religious beliefs and the Evangelicals, but he had huge support from the South, although his policies were actually more liberal. Carter lost support from the Religious Right after endorsing the Roe vs. Wade decision, allowing abortion. At this point the Evangelicals were gaining attention but not yet hugely politicised - they didn't campaign for changes in law or held any significant political power.

What did Carter do for the environment?

Carter campaigned strongly on environmental issues. He obtained legislation to prevent chemicals from polluting the environment, control surface mining, protect the outer continental shelf, expand the National Park and wilderness land, re-authorize the clean air and clean water acts, and seek alternative sources. Although his energy program did not get through Congress and his achievements were insufficient for environmentalists, Carter did have some successes. In 1977 the Department of Energy promoted conservation of domestic oil reserves and created speed limits to reduce fuel consumption. They also promoted alternative energy sources and introduced a form of tax credits to manufacturers of more energy efficient products. US fuel consumption fell 10% 1979-1983. The 1980 Alaska Lands Act set aside one-third of the state as wilderness and Congress created a superfund to spend $1 billion a year clearing up toxic sites. However Tellico Dam on Little Tennessee River was built, despite being strongly opposed by environmentalists and getting to US Supreme Court under the Endangered Species Act 1973.

What was Carter's impact on Foreign Policies?

Carter had a major success in the Middle East where he helped to create a 'framework for peace' between Egypt and Israel. He also ended the dispute about the control of the Panama Canal, agreeing to hand it over to Panama by 1999 as long as it remained a neutral territory. In 1979 the USA also formally recognised the communist government in China, leading to diplomatic and trade links. However when Carter became President 'Détente' was coming to an end (largely due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, breaking existing agreements on communist expansion), meaning that the Cold War posed a large threat to Carter. The Middle East was very oil rich, however it was also very close to the USSR. Therefore Carter was very concerned about losing oil to the communists and also needed to avoid nuclear war with the USSR to keep allies. Carter was very against nuclear weapons and SALT II would have dramatically limited nuclear weapons and slowed down the arms race, however, after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Carter withdrew the treaty from Senate consideration, refusing to ratify it and therefore the arms race accelerated again. Carter also announced a ban on grain exports to the USSR, which angered farmers (especially because Carter was a farmer himself so should have understood - Carter had often reminded the American public that he used to be a farmer in order to present himself as more down-to-earth and regain confidence in Presidency since Nixon's Watergate scandal), and on the sale of high-tech goods as well as calling on US athletes to boycott the 1980 Olympic games in Moscow.

How did Carter use Government spending when he first came to power?

Carter proposed an increase in military spending by $10 billion in his first budget, recommending the US spend $1000 billion on military forces over the next five years. The Department of Agriculture would save $25 million a year by no longer giving free second helpings of milk to the 1.4 million needy schoolchildren who received free school meals. Carter also opposed federal aid to poor people who needed abortions and when someone pointed out this was unfair he replied "Well, as you know, there are many things in life that are not fair, that wealthy people can afford and poor people cannot." Despite this Carter weakly proposed benefits for the poor in 1979, but Congress turned them down. One of every seven American children (10 million altogether) had no known regular source of primary health care and 1/3rd of under 17s (18 million altogether) had never seen a dentist.

How did new technology affect music in the 70s?

Cassettes also became popular in the 1970s allowing people to listen to music on portable players such as a Sony Walkman or Boombox (also known as a ghetto blaster). In the late 1970s the CD was introduced and became even more popular than cassettes as they were more resistant, smaller, lighter and had a better sound quality. New technology encouraged the fragmentation of popular music, television and film as it made everything more personalised and created greater choice.

How did Chavez try to enforce change for Hispanics?

Chavez's strategy was to attract media attention to expose the appalling conditions Chicano and Filipino workers were forced to endure. He organised the Peregrinacion - a 340-mile march from the vineyards to the offices of the Governor of California and fasted for 25 days in 1968. Robert F. Kennedy met him during this time and publicly supported the UFW. In 1966 they had their first success when Schenley Vineyards negotiated a fairer contract with farm workers.

How did News Media change in the 70s?

Daily circulation of all newspapers was 26 million in 1973 rising to 32 million in 1980 in a population of 200 million. Washington Post was most associated with national events, 1972-74 Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, two of its journalists, helped uncover the Watergate scandal. Most Americans received their national news from TV networks such as CBS, NBC and ABC. However in June 1980 Ted Turner set up CNN, which offered constant, up to the minute, news coverage. In 1972 the Watergate enquiries were broadcast on TV. Until 1980 there had been no National newspaper - just regional newspapers.

What was the Watergate Scandal?

Daniel Ellsberg, a US military analyst, began leaking information about the Vietnam War (including the Pentagon Papers). Worried about the effects of this on Nixon's re-election campaign in 1972, his closest 4 advisors set up "The Plumbers" to stop the leaks (mostly without Nixon's knowledge). In June 1972 five burglars were caught carrying wiretapping and photo equipment and attempting to break into the offices of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate apartment complex of Washington D.C. One of the five, James McCord (who used to work for the CIA), worked for the Nixon campaign as Security Officer for the Committee to Re-elect the President. Unaware of the high-level connections of the burglars, the police published the information to the public before anyone could stop it, and links began to be found between the burglars and important officials in Nixon's campaign committee, Nixon's Attorney General, Mitchell, and to the CIA. Mitchell denied any connection with the burglary and Nixon said in a press conference 5 days later "the White House has had no involvement whatever with this particular incident". However after the Watergate burglars were indicted in September 1973, lesser officials in the Nixon administration began to talk, fearing prosecution, and Nixon and his advisors kept lying to cover everything up. Mitchell resigned March 1972, saying he wanted to pursue his private life.

What sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott?

December 1955 Mrs Rosa Parks, a member of the NAACP, boarded a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and refused to give up her seat near the front of the bus for a white man. She was arrested due to Alabama's segregation laws. She had planned to do this to highlight segregation on public transport and this sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The NAACP chose to back Rosa Parks' case, despite others having been arrested for similar reasons before, because Parks was a highly respected woman in the local community.

What happened after the Freedom Rides were able to continue?

Diane Nash, an activist from the SNCC organised a group of 10 students from Tennessee to continue the rides and US Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy began negotiating with Governor John Patterson of Alabama and the bus companies, securing a driver and state protection for the Freedom Riders. May 20th the rides resumed leaving from Birmingham under police escort, however the police escort abandoned the bus just before it arrived at the Montgomery, Alabama, terminal and the riders were attacked by a white mob. Attorney General Kennedy sent 600 federal marshals to the city to stop the violence. The following night Martin Luther King led a service in Montgomery, which was attended by more than 1000 supporters of the Freedom riders. A riot ensued outside the church and King called Robert Kennedy for help, the federal marshals, who used teargas to disperse the white mob, were sent in and Patterson declared martial law in the city, dispatching the National Guard. May 24th 1961 the Freedom Riders departed for Jackson, Mississippi, where several hundred supporters greeted them. However those who attempted to use the whites-only facilities were arrested for trespassing and sentenced to 30 days in jail (although the NAACP appealed the convictions all the way to the Supreme Court, who reversed them). However the rides continued and that autumn, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals.

How did legislation passed in the 70s help people with disabilities?

During the late 1960s and 1970s disability rights activism became more prominent, inspired partly by the civil rights and women's rights movements. In 1972 activists protested Nixon's veto of the Rehabilitation Act by marching on Washington and, in addition to this, a further eighty activists staged a sit-in on Madison Avenue in New York. Calls and letters of protest were also made. In 1973, the Rehabilitation Act was enforced. This act protected by law (for the first time) the civil rights of disabled people. This act prohibited discrimination based on mental or physical disability in federal employment, aiming to provide equal employment opportunities through federally funded programs. As a result of this act the number of people with disabilities in work increased significantly. In addition to this, prior to the passing and legal enforcement of this act, people with disabilities and other minorities had to fight harder for the same working rights as they were less likely to be employed and had fewer legal rights. A result of this was that any qualified people part of this minority would be denied work; the Rehabilitation Act began to reduce this problem for disabled people.

Who was President Jan 1953 - Jan 1961?

Dwight D. Eisenhower (Republican)

Why was it hard for Hispanics to achieve change?

Farming unions had no legal protection and so it was difficult for labourers to organise and fight injustice. Banks and insurance firms didn't want to provide services to people living below the poverty line. Hispanics living and working in cities also suffered racial discrimination in housing, employment and education, and often lived in inner-city ghettos. They also formed only 6% of the population, while blacks formed 12%, so it was harder to achieve publicity and change. This also made Federal Governments less sympathetic as, due to their lower numbers and low voter registration, Hispanics had little voting power and therefore less political influence. The Hispanic American movement was fragmented - Hispanics included many different groups including Mexicans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans... so were divided politically and culturally.

How did Reagan's Government deal with the drug problem?

First Lady Nancy Reagan ran the Just Say No Campaign. In 1986 President Reagan signed the National Crusade for a Drug Free America (anti-drug abuse bill) in to law. In 1986 the first official Just Say No to Drugs week was held. 25th October 1988 Nancy Reagan addressed the UN General Assembly. Cocaine use by high school students dropped by 1/3rd from 6.2% in 1986 to 4.3% in 1987. In 1978 over 10% of high school leavers used marijuana daily, only 3% said they did by 1987.

What happened in the 1981 Presidential Election?

Following the Iran Hostage Crisis, Carter was perceived as a weak president. Furthermore inflation and unemployment were still very high. Carter also failed to build close relations with Congress, which made it difficult for him to pass legislation. He had become President at a difficult time with resentment about Watergate and Vietnam still strong, and he had failed to gain the trust of the American people. In August 1979 Carter was fishing on a pond when a rabbit approached his boat, hissing. Carter calmly used his paddle so splash water at it and scare it away, however in the photo the White House released to the press he looked comical and small. This led to great mocking of the President in cartoons, commentaries and novelty songs. How was a man who let a rabbit get the drop on him supposed to protect the US from an attack by the Soviet Union? The incident was like a metaphor, showing how weak Carter looked to the American people. By mid-1979 Carter's approval rating was just 26% - lower than Nixon's during the Watergate scandal. In the only televised debate between Carter and Reagan before the election, Reagan's performance was extremely strong, asking simple questions such as "ask yourself, are you better off than you were four years ago? Is it easier for you to go and buy things in stores than it was four years ago?..." and is largely credited with turning Carter's narrow lead in to a landslide victory for Reagan and the Republicans.

What was the Iran Hostage Crisis?

For three decades America had supported the increasingly repressive and corrupt regime of the Shah of Iran in order to protect Western Oil supplies and limit the influence of the USSR (who neighboured Iran). However in February 1979 the Shah was toppled by protests and strikes. An Islamic Republic was installed but the Shah escaped and Carter decided to admit the Shah to the US for medical treatment, despite warnings from diplomats in Tehran. November 4th 1979 student militants invaded the US embassy in Teheran, due to fears that the CIA were plotting to re-install the Shah on the throne (although most in America did not realise this was the reason), taking 52 US hostages, who remained in their hands for 444 days. Carter tried to mount a daring rescue mission, 'Operation Eagle Claw', in April 1980, but it was aborted in Iran after the loss of 8 Americans. Carter worked extremely hard in his last few months as President to resolve the hostage situation, and as a result the hostages were released in to US custody, but just minutes after his Presidency ended in January 1981, making him look weak. The media had also worsened the impact of the crisis in America, showing nightly updates on television.

How did Ford try to deal with the economy?

Ford introduced Whip Inflation Now (WIN) - a voluntary restraint policy for businesses, and tried to cut federal spending. However because his policies to limit inflation were only voluntary they could not fix the extent of problems caused by the oil crisis and foreign competition. Ford decided to allow multi-billion dollar tax cuts and higher unemployment benefits, which did ease the recession, however the federal deficit rose.

What was the impact of new computer technology?

From 1981 IBM sold small desktop personal computers for use in the office or at home. In 1983 Microsoft launched its Word and Windows programs making computers more user-friendly. By the early 1990s nearly ¼ of American households possessed a PC. Microsoft's employees rocketed from just 3 to almost 6000 in the same period and the annual Microsoft revenue exceeded $1 billion, making Bill Gates the richest person in the world.

How did Ford try to deal with the Watergate Scandal?

Ford, Nixon's Vice President, became President in 1974, after Nixon resigned, however he faced many challenges. After the Watergate scandal the people had lost faith in the government and politicians, and this was exacerbated by previous concerns of cover-ups in Vietnam. The press and people wanted a 'regular guy' in the White House, and Ford (and his family) fit this description perfectly. However Ford decided the best way to encourage the people to move on from and forget the Watergate Scandal was to draw a line under it completely. He didn't want his Presidency focused on a Watergate investigation. "My conscience tells me that only I, as President, have the constitutional power to firmly shut and seal this book." He made the decision to give a full pardon to Nixon. After the pardon, however, Fords rating plunged from 71% to 49% in a month. Despite this he remained relatively popular - the 1976 election was very close but he lost to Carter by just 57 electoral votes and two points in the popular vote (50% to 48%).

What was the Black Panther Party?

Formed October 1966, Oakland, California, the BPP wanted a change in attitude, not a change in rules and they aimed for Black Nationalism, not equality. Key individuals in the organisation included Bobby Seale, Eldridge Cleaver and Huey P. Newton. The group wore a distinctive black uniform with black berets and Afro-style haircuts and they appealed to youths in the ghettos, seeming cool and edgy.

What was the economy like in the 1960s?

GNP increased by 35% 1960-66 - 14x faster than the population growth. Average yearly income increased from $2000 1940 to $8000 1965. Poverty decreased from 30% 1950 to under 14% 1960. All wages increased in the 1960s BUT the gap between different races and different economic classes got bigger. Huge population growth spurred economic growth. Government spending increased from 1% of GNP 1929 to 17% by 1955. Technological advancements were also important and the Government sponsored research in science, military and space as they wanted to keep up with the USSR in the Cold War and Space Race. The Government also increased military spending post Korean War, creating employment - 10% of GNP 1954-60, spurring economic growth in the South and West, which had previously lagged behind.

Who was President Jan 1989 - Jan 1993?

George H. W. Bush (Republican)

Who was President Aug 1974 - Jan 1977?

Gerald Ford (Republican)

What was Glam Rock?

Glam Rock was very theatrical with lighting, costumes and dance. It was an escapist movement, ignoring themes of politics or reflections of modern life. Glam Rock included artists such as David Bowie, Alice Cooper and Slade. Teen culture countered the seriousness of society and other current music. It formed partially as a reaction to the singer-songwriter movement, as it was more about giving the audience an experience.

Who was Harvey Milk?

Harvey Milk was the first openly gay man to hold a prominent elected office, serving on the San Francisco City Board of Supervisors. Dan White was another official on the board, who grew hostile to Milk and was the only supervisor, to vote against Milk's gay-rights ordinance. In November 1978, White resigned from his seat, but when he asked to return several days later the Mayor, George Moscone, a progressive liberal, refused to reappoint him, partly due to a request from Milk. White decided to take revenge on Moscone and Milk and a few days later entered San Francisco City Hall and shot and killed both men. 400 000 took to the streets in protest. However the Jury comprised of mostly conservatives, showed sympathy to White, only convicting him of Manslaughter, outraging the gay community. A clause, written into Harvey Milk's will, stated: "If a bullet should enter my brain, let that bullet destroy every closet door".

What was Heavy Metal like in the 70s?

Heavy Metal was another new, popular genre. Fans tended to be fully committed to the genre, creating a sense of community. Black Sabbath emerged from Birmingham in the early 70s - there was also high inflation, unemployment, strikes etc. in Britain at this time - and so their music 'gave a voice to this feeling of desolation' and reflected the youths on the edge of society. Punk was also anti-establishment, but Heavy metal embraced escapism and fantasy too. There was an emphasis on volume and distortion. The Parents Music Resource Centre was established in response to the Heavy Metal movement, advocating a warning system for explicit content.

What was Hip-Hop?

Hip Hop emerged from inner -cities, especially Black and Hispanic groups (it stemmed from issues surrounding Black Power). It offered escapism from economic and social challenges and used limited resources to make music. Grandmaster Flash & the furious five was a popular hip-hop group.

How far did Films promote traditional gender roles in the 1950s?

Hollywood films often presented traditional gender roles, with Westerns being particularly proliferate showing heroic men, submissive women and treacherous Indians. Although Hollywood did sometimes challenge traditional female roles and middle-class conformity. For example in 'All that Heaven Allows' (1955) an upper-middle class widow shocks the country club when she marries a young bohemian gardener, rejecting middle-class materialism (although the fact she does marry him still suggests she sees her greatest role as a wife). In 'Crime of Passion' (1957) a successful journalist is desperate for her husband to be somebody and so has an affair with his boss. However when he refuses to promote her husband she shoots him dead. Some critics saw the movie as a feminist statement, however her husband does turn her in to the police, showing that Hollywood would only go so far in its coverage of non-conformity.

How did films portray teenagers?

Hollywood was careful with its treatment of teenage rebels. 'The Blackboard Jungle' (1955) showed disruptive behaviour in the classroom, however the teacher eventually re-establishes control. Despite this some localities petitioned to have the film banned. 'Rebel without a cause' (1955) depicted a rebellious teenager struggling with the adult world, however eventually recognises his father's superiority and valuable support. These films reflected the concerns of parents and many worried they would give teenagers rebellious idols.

How did TV become more popular in the 50s and 60s?

In 1949 radio had 1,600 stations compared to just 28 for TV. However the number of American households with a TV rose from 172,000 in 1948 to 15.3 million in 1952. By 1955 roughly ¾ households owned at least one TV with 32 million in use across the country. By 1960 90% of households owned a TV and by 1970 24 million homes (38% of the total) owned a colour TV. By the 1960s polls reported that TV was the favourite leisure activity of 50% of the population and on average TV sets were on for more than 3hrs a day in American homes.

What were Black Civil Rights like before 1973?

In 1954 Jim Crow laws were ended, partly due the Brown vs Topeka (1954), which found racial segregation in schools to be unconstitutional, and in the 1960s Black Americans achieved civil equality with other Americans. Quotas were made for federal jobs and, by 1972, 300000 firms worked on federal contracts. All laws to protect Black Americans were in place, however de facto change was more limited. Nixon didn't appoint any African Americans to his cabinet and appointed a southern segregationist. The National chair of the NAACP accused Nixon of being "anti-negro". Organisations for black rights became less popular by 1970 - NAACP doubled in annual fees in 1970.

What problems were facing Kennedy when he became President in 1961?

In 1960 America was in economic recession, unemployment was at 6.5% of the workforce and inflation was at 3.5%. Although in many parts of the country affluence seemed to be growing throughout the 50s, in many areas, such as Appalachia, poverty was still very high. Elderly Americans on low incomes also lacked health care provision. Furthermore the Cold War was at crisis point and America's involvement in the Vietnam war had caused splits at home as well as at the war itself. The Civil Rights Movement was also being surrounded in increasing violence, which was another cause for concern.

What was the NFL?

In 1960 Pete Rozelle was appointed commissioner of the National Football League. In 1962 he negotiated $9.3 million TV deal with CBS to broadcast NFL games, including a weekly Monday night game. Advertising in these games became extremely important for business marketing. 1960 main source of NFL club revenue was ticket sales; by 1980 it was from TV. NFL Superbowl became an unofficial national holiday - 1973 TV audience was 53 million and advertising during the match cost $88000 for 30 seconds. By 1980 there was a TV audience of 76 million and advertising cost $222000 for 30 seconds. In 1970 the average players salary was $23000 by 1975 it was $56000 and by 1980 it was $75000.

Who were CORE and what were the Freedom Rides?

In 1961 (starting 4th May) 7 black and 6 white students of the Congress Of Racial Equality took greyhound buses and ignored segregated waiting areas - they were testing the US Supreme court decision of 1960 Boyton v. Virginia which outlawed segregation on interstate buses. The freedom riders encountered tremendous violence from white protestors but also drew international attention to their cause and over the next few months several hundred others engaged in similar actions. The Freedom Rides were modelled after COREs 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, which had tested the 1946 US Supreme Court decision in Morgan v. Virginia that segregated bus seating was unconstitutional. The Freedom Rides sought to test the 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that segregation of interstate transport facilities was unconstitutional. The Freedom Rides however included female protestors whereas the Journey of Reconciliation had been a male only protest.

How did students begin to protest?

In 1964 one of the first student demonstrations took place at the University of California in Oakland. Organised by the Free Speech Movement, the protestors called for an overturn of the university's ban on political activity on campus. In 1968 221 major demonstrations took place on a wide variety of issues, including the Vietnam War, greater student involvement in University governance and greater student freedom. Spring 1967 500 000 marchers protested against the Vietnam War in NYC central park by burning draft cards and criticising American military policy. There were further protests in 1968 & 1969. In August 1968 there was widespread rioting, including activist groups such as the SDS and Youth International Party, in Chicago. The Mayor, Richard Daley, sent in 12000 police to stop the riot. In 1970 the US President's Commission on Campus Unrest was published.

What successes did Native Americans gain in terms of Civil Rights?

In 1968 the Indian Civil Rights Act gave free speech, fair trials and protection from unfair punishments. It also allowed the influential Native American newspaper to be published - members of Mohawk Nation set up Akwesasne Notes in 1968. The Indian Self-Determination Act 1974 allowed tribes to assume administration of federally funded programs. In 1976 the Indian Health Care Act was passed. The 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act gave tribes control over custody decisions involving Indian children. AIM opened 'Survival Schools' in 1972 to deal with drop out rates. The Federal government paid $81.5 million to Passamaquoddy and Penobscot (two tribes in Maine) and $105 million to the Sioux (a tribe in South Dakota) in 1980, as a result of lawsuits initiated in the 70s (although the pay-outs only quietened protest rather than solving issues). The government also permitted tribal authorities to sell cigarettes, run casinos and levy taxes. In a Census taken in 1970 there were 800 000 Native Americans, by 1980 there were 1.4 million and by 1990 there were 2 million.

What was the grape boycott?

In 1968 the UFW began a boycott of Californian grapes, which lasted until 1970 & at its height 17 million Americans stopped buying Californian grapes. In 1970 Delano grape producers increased wages to the level of national minimum wage.

What were Nixon's Supreme Court nominations like?

In 1969 Nixon successfully nominated conservative Warren Burger as Chief Justice. However Nixon then named Southerner, Clement Haynsworth, who had a record of hostility to unions and civil rights, to the Supreme Court in late 1969, although the nomination was defeated in the Senate. He then tried to nominate another racist Southerner, G. Harold Carswell, who was also rejected, although the nominations helped Nixon win Southern votes.

How did Nixon improve employment for minority groups in America?

In 1969 Nixon's Secretary of Labour established the Philadelphia Plan, requiring construction unions in Philadelphia employed on government contracts to set up goals and timetables for hiring black apprentices. In 1970 this was incorporated in government regulations on all federal hiring and contracting (including corporations which employed over 1/3 of the national labour force). The Supreme Court upheld these rulings and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act which had banned job discrimination, for example in Griggs V. Duke Power Co. in 1971.

What did Nixon do for Native Americans?

In 1969 a group of Native Americans seized the Island of Alcatraz, which they said was Indian land. Four years later activists in the American Indian Movement forcibly occupied Wounded Knee, South Dakota - the site of a massacre of Sioux in 1890 - that started a 71-day standoff with United States marshals until the government agreed to reconsider the treaty rights of the Oglala Sioux. Indians also overran and wrecked the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington. In 1970 Nixon and Congress agreed to return the sacred Blue Lake and surrounding lands in New Mexico to Taos Pueblo. In 1971 it approved the Alaska Native Claims settlement Act. In 1973 it formally reversed the "termination" policy of the 1950s, re-establishing the Menominees as a federally recognized tribe and returning their common assets to tribal control. In 1972 the Indian Education Act was passed, authorizing federally supported programs for Indian children.

Who were the Weather Underground Organisation?

In 1969 extremist terrorist group Weather Underground Organisation was formed and were engaged in a series of bombings of government buildings and universities, which resulted in many deaths of innocent people.

What was SSI?

In 1972 Congress enacted a Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program, which replaced existing federal-state assistance to the indigent aged, blind and disabled with national, uniform, payments. Benefits under SSI began in 1974 and were considerably higher to keep pace with inflation. Congress also approved substantial raises for social insurance and indexed them (to keep pace with inflation) too. Total government outlays for social insurance increased from $27.3 billion in 1969 to $64.7 billion in 1975.

How far had women gained equality by 1980?

In 1974 the Equal Credit Opportunity Act prohibited discrimination in consumer credit on the basis of sex, race, marital status, religion, national origin, age or receipt of public assistance. In Corning Class Works v. Brennan (1974) the US Supreme Court ruled that employers cannot justify paying women lower wages because: that is what they traditionally received under the "going market rate"; "simply because men would not work at the low rates paid to women". In 1976 the first marital rape law was enacted in Nebraska, making it illegal for a husband to rape his wife. In 1978 the Pregnancy Discrimination Act bans employment discrimination against pregnant women. Under the Act a woman cannot be fired or denied a job or a promotion because she is, or may become pregnant, nor can she be forced to take a pregnancy leave (there is still no paid maternity leave in the US today) if she is willing and able to work. Aspirations for women increased throughout the period - in 1974 the first female, Ella Grasso, was elected as governor of Connecticut and in 1975 female cadets were admitted in to the army, navy and air force. In 1960, 38% of women over 16 were in the workforce, by 1970 43% were and by 1980 the figure reached 52%.

Who were the Moral Majority?

In 1979 Reverend Jerry Falwell (Evangelical Christian), Paul Weyrich (Catholic) and Howard Phillips (Jewish) founded the Moral Majority to bring back 'traditional, moral values'. They were a group of Evangelicals, trying to gain more political power and campaigning for 'moral' laws (e.g. banning abortion).

How did Reagan impact Civil Rights?

In 1980 groups such as The Religious Right and The Moral Majority supported Ronal Reagan for President. He began his campaign with a speech against Civil Rights in Philadelphia (the town was famous because three civil rights activists James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner, were murdered there in 1964). While Reagan was President the government became less concerned about racial discrimination. Reagan made William Rehnquist, an opponent of civil rights legislation, the Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court. Reagans economic policies also hit poor ethnic minorities particularly hard - by 1984 42% of all Latino children and ¼ of Latino families lived below the poverty line. Copper miners (the majority of whom were Mexican) in Arizona went on strike after a cut in wages, benefits and safety measures in 1983 but were attacked by National Guardsmen and state troopers with tear gas and helicopters. They held out for three years but were eventually defeated. However in 1985, 1700 cannery workers (mostly Mexican women) went on strike in California and won a union contract with medical benefits. Latino janitors went on strike in LA in 1990 and won recognition of their union, a pay raise and sick benefits, despite police attacks.

How did Homosexuals campaign for their

In 1994 there was a Stonewall 25 march in Manhattan, commemorating the Stonewall riots five years earlier. In New York a local campaign successfully barred military recruiters from a school district in Rochester because the Defence Department discriminated against gay soldiers. A banner in the Million Man March in Washington 1995 read, "I AM A BLACK GAY MAN. I AM A BLACK MAN. I AM A MAN." Suggesting not only were people still being discriminated against for their sexuality but also for their race. Homosexuality was an important issue on the national agenda in the 1980s - the Religious Right was waging an anti-homosexual campaign and the spread of AIDS affected many homosexual men encouraging negative opinions of gay people.

Why did Johnson decide not to seek re-election?

In February 1968 many students backed Eugene McCarthy as democratic candidate for president against Johnson (who was President during the My Lai Massacre etc.). Johnson decided not to seek re-election in March 1968.

What were the Greensboro Student Sit-ins?

In Greensboro, North Carolina, February 1960, four black college students tried to order coffee and sit at the white-only lunch counter in Woolworth's. The following day twenty-nine students sat-in and by the third day all but two of the sixty-five available seats were occupied. Within days sit-ins were happening across the state and by the end of 1960 every Southern state had witnessed these protests, with around 70000 students participating. Sit-ins were more assertive than boycotts, but in the Deep South they were met with violence, police brutality and arrest. However protestors refused to retaliate leading to positive media attention and eventually desegregation in many cities. Other black students backed up sit-ins by picketing stores and staging marches and rallies. The sit-ins evoked sympathy from Northern whites, with press reports being overwhelmingly positive. San Antonio, Texas became the first Southern city to desegregate lunch counters in March 1960, Nashville did so in May and by the end of the year storeowners in at least 80 other towns and cities had agreed to serve blacks.

Why did the Moral Majority begin to lose their political influence?

In Reagan's first term his main priority was the economic recovery. He did propose an amendment to the constitution to allow voluntary prayer in public schools BUT this was not passed. Reagan also appointed the first ever woman to the Supreme Court, Sandra Day O'Connor, who was pro-abortion and also for the Equal Rights Amendment (both of which the Moral Majority opposed). Although, on the whole, Reagan still supported the ideas of the Moral Majority, Reagan had other priorities and as a result the Moral Majority began to lose their influence.

What was the New Left?

In the 1960s disillusioned college students banded together to form a political movement known as the New Left - they separated themselves from the 'Old Left', which rejected change in favour of the status quo, while rejecting the extremist conservative right.

What were the aims and actions of the Homosexual Rights Movement in the 70s?

In the 1970's homosexual rights organisations aimed to end discrimination in employment, in the church and in the military, promote more positive and widespread media representation, encourage coming-out and self-acceptance, and improve political representation. More support groups were founded for LGBT people, e.g. the Bisexual Forum (1974), and the Gay Flag was first flown in 1978. The first march on Washington for homosexual rights occurred in 1979 and drew 75000-125000 LGBT supporters to demand equal civil rights. They laid out five key demands: pass a comprehensive homosexual rights bill in congress; issue a presidential executive order banning discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal government, military, and federally contracted private employment; repeal all anti-homosexual laws; end discrimination in homosexual parent custody cases; and protect homosexual youths from any laws which are used to discriminate, oppress, or harass them in their homes, schools, jobs and social environment. Alongside the march there were also workshops including artistic events and focus groups on LGBT, as well as a 'Constituent Lobbying Day' in which over 500 participants attempted to contact every member of Congress to express support for gay-rights legislation. The participants successfully met with 50 senators and more than 150 house members.

What happened as a result of the Watergate Scandal?

In the Presidential election in November 1972, Nixon had won 60% of the popular vote and carried every state except Massachusetts. By June 1973 a Gallup poll showed 67% thought Nixon was involved in the Watergate break-in or lied about it in order to cover up. By 1973 eight different resolutions had been introduced in the House of Representatives for his impeachment. His advisors told him it would pass the House and Senate by the required majority to remove him from office. Nixon resigned on August 8th 1974. Watergate revealed the extent of government corruption (In a poll in 1964 only 26% believe the government was "run by a few big interests looking out for themselves" but by 1972 53% believed it was), but also the power of the press.

How did attitudes towards sex change in the 1950s?

It could be argued that society in the 1950s was becoming gradually more permissive - for example 100,000 copies of Playboy were sold per month within its first year. It encouraged the idea that nice, everyday women could like sex too. Hollywood films also began to become more permissive with more sexually explicit films such as 'Baby Doll' (1956). In 1952 the Supreme Court granted freedom of expression in films. However Hollywood was still more conservative than Broadway - for example in 'Blue Denim' (1959) a 15yr old girl had an abortion in the play however in the film she kept the baby and the word abortion was removed.

What was the Food Stamps Act 1964?

Johnson made the food stamps program, which was only a pilot, permanent in the Food Stamp Act of 1964 and in 2012, food stamps alone kept 4 million people out of poverty.

What did Johnson do for education?

Johnson passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1965, establishing the Title I program subsidizing districts with a large share of impoverished students, although many evaluations found little or no effect on student achievement due to this program. Johnson aimed to increase the number of children attending and succeeding in school and help them to escape cyclical poverty. He allocated $1 billion per year to schools with low-income children and gave money to church-run and low income schools. However money was often misused and there was little change in equality. Despite this the acts especially helped higher education, providing more grants. He also passed the Aid to Bilingual Education Act, helping non-English speakers.

What was the 1964 Economic Opportunity Act?

Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act 1964, establishing the Office of Economic Opportunity to coordinate educational, employment and training programs and set up the Head Start program. The Act also created, among other initiatives, the Job Corps, the Vista program and the federal work-study program. Job Corps was highly successful, seeing an average 12% increase in earnings for participants and a reduction in the rates of incarceration, arrest and conviction. However the OEO had been poorly funded - when it was set up in 1964 Congress provided it with under $800 million, less than 1% of the Federal budget. This came to around $200 per poor person, per year, however little of the money actually went directly to the poor, covering the salaries and expenses of officials in the OEO etc. Furthermore the OEO failed to focus on the reasons for poverty - it provided lots of job training etc. however this only helped those that were able to work anyway, not the disabled, elderly, single mothers (who couldn't afford child care) etc. who could not work.

What did Johnson do for Civil Rights?

Johnson succeeded in passing Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill in 1964 and made discrimination, based on race, religion or sex, in public places, illegal, as well as offering Black Americans civil equality and bringing an end to legal segregation. The Attorney General of the USA was given power to take legal action in federal courts against any violation of the Act and also gave power to the federal government to withhold federal funding from any states not complying.

What did Johnson do for healthcare?

Johnson wanted to care for elderly and poor who lacked medical insurance and expand access to medical care. In 1965 he passed Medicare for over 65yr olds - Plan A targeted Hospital Bills and Plan B introduced home visits from doctors and nurses. He also passed Medicaid in 1965 to care for the poor who had no insurance. In its first year, 19 million people registered and by 1976 it had reached 1/5th of the poor. However these acts were state administrated so were not equal everywhere - for example some states did not offer dental care. Nonetheless death rates and infant mortality dropped (although were still high for a developed country). Those on a lower income, who used Medicaid, began going to hospitals and doctors more often. However hospitals and doctors could still set their own fees and over the next decade hospital prices increased by around 14% annually. Some doctors also abused the Medicaid system by charging for unnecessary treatments.

What were the aims of Johnson's 'War on Poverty'?

Johnson wanted to give the poor a "Hand-up not a hand-out" (although some argue his policies actually made the poor more dependant). He wanted a new emphasis on area redevelopment and retraining unskilled workers, as well as an extension of the minimum wage floor to 2 million more workers. He also called for improved programs for physical and mental disease, urban blight, water and air pollution, and crime and delinquency.

What was the 1956 Federal-Aid Highway Act?

June 1956 a new Federal-Aid Highway Act was passed authorising the construction of a 41000 mile network of interstate highways and allocated $26 billion to pay for it. The federal government were to pay 90% of the cost using the recently increased gasoline tax that went into a non-divertible Highway Trust Fund.

How far was there still racial tension in the 80s?

June 1982, Vincent Chin (Chinese American) was clubbed to death by two white car workers in Detroit because they thought he was Japanese and therefore responsible for lay-offs in the car industry. 1984 Bernhard Goetz (white American) shot four 'aggressive' black youths after they approached him on the New York City Subway wanting money. One was brain-damaged. At trial in 1987 the jury accepted his plea of self-defence and he received only 8 months in prison. In a local poll 90% whites supported the verdict. March 1991, Rodney King (Black American) was stopped in his car by white police in South Central LA and brutally beaten. This was caught on video however May 1st 1992 the police were acquitted for sparking off a major race riot in which 54 people were killed, 2400 injured and 17000 arrested (1/2 of which were Hispanic Americans). 10000 businesses were destroyed and 50000 jobs lost. A hit rap song by NWA (N*ggaz with attitude) in 1988 was called F*** Tha Police suggesting that black Americans were still fighting back against police, for example due to police brutality against blacks. In March 1991 LA police arrested Rodney King and a bystander caught them brutally beating him on video. The following year an all-white jury found the policemen not guilty, showing it was still difficult for black people to get justice. Riots followed the decision with angry youths attacking the police, passing motorists and Korean storeowners. 58 people died, over 5000 were arrested (1/2 Latino and 1/3 African American) and there was $1 billion damage.

What did Kennedy do for mental healthcare?

Kennedy also wanted to advance the cause of mental health (his sister had a minor mental health issue made worse by a lobotomy which rendered her helpless and forced her in to care for the rest of her life) In 1963 the mental Retardation Facilities and Community Mental Health Centres Act reduced the number of institutions for the mentally ill as Kennedy believed that they could receive better care outside (although this was sometimes worse as they didn't have specialist help. It also left addicts on streets instead of being helped in hospitals). In 1965 there were 475000 institutions and by 1975 there were only 193000.

Why did Kennedy struggle passing legislation?

Kennedy had little control over Congress and lacked skills in getting legislation through the senate. His victory in the 1960 Presidential Election had only been by a very narrow margin so he lacked support and wanted to win a second election so was hesitant to do anything too controversial or radical. His advisors were also always making last minute decisions and were seen as 'elites' not really understanding the immense diversity of America, and Congress worked slowly to pass Kennedy's aims (Kennedy lacked skill in dealing with Congress), all of which made Kennedy look like a weak leader. He also didn't fight for programs/acts because he didn't want obvious failures.

What did Kennedy do about minimum wage?

Kennedy increased minimum wage from $1 to $1.25 but many groups were excluded, including 350000 industrial laundries (where workers were mainly black) and introduced training schemes for unemployment.

What did Kennedy do for African American Civil Rights?

Kennedy introduced a new Civil Rights Bill (although was passed by Johnson in Kennedy's memory after he was assassinated) however only acted when it was totally necessary due to rioting etc. and was reluctant to lose support from the South. It was his brother Robert Kennedy who really encouraged the bill. JFK did sign an executive order banning segregation in federally supported housing, however this required little effort from him and when African Ambassadors were stopped from eating in restaurants Kennedy offered little support.

What was Kennedy's Peace Corps?

Kennedy set up the Peace Corp, mostly made up of the younger generation - American exchange students usually in their twenties, the Peace Corp was a volunteer organisation set up to help in poorer countries all over the world. It aimed to strengthen and create alliances/relations/trade links with other countries and stop the spread of communism. Young people showed huge enthusiasm with 5000 enrolling in the first two years.

What did Kennedy do for Education?

Kennedy supported the idea of federal aid to education, however there was a lot of opposition in the South as they saw it as helping the NAACP. Religious conflicts further hurt the Education Bill as Kennedy was Catholic and was concerned that he might be blamed for being unfair if Catholic schools received aid so he excluded Catholic schools from the Bill altogether, losing their support. In February 1961 he submitted the School Assistance Bill to Congress asking for $2.3 billion over 3 years to help construct new schools and raise teachers salaries. He aimed to finance the poorest schools through Federal Aid for Education. Furthermore he enabled 7000 children to have free milk and a meal daily at school. He also passed the Higher education providing $145 million to schools focused on science, engineering and languages.

How far was Kennedy successful in improving the economy?

Kennedy wanted to increase benefits and stimulate economic growth. He lowered tax rates - Corporate tax 52% - 48%, the lowest bracket of income tax 20% - 14% and the highest rate 91% - 70%. This was estimated to save taxpayers $9.1 billion in 1964, but it mainly benefitted the well off. The Trade Expansion Act cut the tariffs set up after WWII by 35% to encourage international trade, benefitting consumers and industries. Increasing the minimum wage also encouraged economic prosperity.

What healthcare acts did Kennedy want to pass?

Kennedy wanted to introduce a new health insurance called Medicare and provide medical help for the elderly through Medicaid, however he failed to pass these. There were plans to increase social security taxes by 0.25% to pay for this however this was blocked.

How did Kennedy try to improve housing?

Kennedy wanted to make housing better for the poor. A Senate Report in 1960 found a link between poor areas and poor health. The Omnibus Housing Act 1961 and Area Re-development Act 1961 gave money to poor areas to try and improve them, however had very little impact and mainly helped the property developers, not the poor. However $394 million was given to Appalachia over 4 years.

What was Johnson's 'Great Society?

Kennedy was assassinated in 1963 and so his Vice President, Lyndon B Johnson, became President. Kennedy had laid much of the groundwork for Johnson's 'Great Society' by brining social issues to the forefront and starting some policies moving (e.g. Kennedy had put forward the Civil Rights Bill which Johnson passed in 1964), as well as leaving a strong economy. The 'Great Society' seeked equality and liberty for all, and an "end to poverty and racial injustice".

What did Kennedy do to help women gain equality in America?

Kennedy was the first President since 1933 not to have a woman in his cabinet. However he did introduce an Equal Pay Act in 1963 (which benefitted 171000 women, although this did not cover all women in all jobs and there were no enforcement powers). In 1961 Kennedy named Eleanor Roosevelt to head a Presidential Commission on the status of women, however the report proclaimed motherhood as the major role of American women and opposed the Equal Rights Amendment. Despite this the commission did encourage female activists and affirmed that women had the right to paid employment. There was also a Federal stand against sex discrimination.

What was the Poor People's Campaign?

King changed his focus from black civil rights to poverty, believing this was the way forward in the North, and planned the Poor People's Campaign, aiming to tackle social and economic problems and unite many minority groups including African-Americans, Puerto Ricans, American Indians and poor Whites. The strategy was nationwide civil disobedience occupying government buildings, boycotting businesses and finally a march on Washington. The campaign demanded a federal budget of $30 billion a year to combat poverty, a government commitment to full employment and initiatives to build ½ million new houses a year. However President Johnson made it clear he did not support the plan.

What are the Childrens Crusades, Birmingham 1963?

King decided to ask children to demonstrate instead of going to school. May 2nd 1963 well-dressed children marched into one of the city's segregated Parks and 700 were sent to jail. The following day more children protested, however the jails were full. Connor was trapped. He decided to set high pressure water hoses on the children. A large crowd, primarily made up of unemployed, rushed in to support the children and rioting broke out. By the end of the 5th day of protest over 25000 had been arrested, 2000 of them children. Photographs of the police brutality were shown on TV across the world. By the 7th day fighting broke out and after a bomb exploded outside Kings Motel room the rioting spread to other cities. President Kennedy was forced to take action and on June 11th (1 month later) he announced he had asked Congress to pass a Civil Rights Bill.

Why did King focus on racism in Birmingham in 1963?

King decided to focus his attention on Birmingham as the Freedom Rides had shown that the local Police Chief Eugene "Bull" Connor would react violently to protest. King needed a violent reaction to gain publicity and show up the extent of racism and discrimination. Because of Kings non-violent philosophy when the protestors were met with violence they would not retaliate, showing the cruelty they faced and creating sympathy. Birmingham was one of the worst segregated cities with no black police officers, bus drivers, fire fighters or bank workers. Only 10% of the black population in Birmingham was registered to vote and city authorities had banned the NAACP. The aims of the campaign were desegregating the city's major shopping areas, administrative buildings, schools and parks and ending racial discrimination in employment.

Who was Dr Martin Luther King Jr?

King was a well educated, middle class, black, Christian Minister. He based his philosophy on the teachings of Jesus and the example of Gandhi, believing that Christians should love their enemies and never retaliate, but should also stand up to injustice. He advocated civil disobedience and direct action but insisted that protest should always be peaceful and wanted to work within the American constitution to bring about change. Historians argue over whether King mad the Montgomery Bus Boycott (and the Civil Rights Movement across the South) a success or whether it made him a success. King had been selected to head the MIA as he was relatively new to the town and seen as a fairly neutral leader to negotiate with the Montgomery officials to desegregate busses. King was a talented and Powerful public speaker, and also had very good organisational skills, which proved vital in keeping up morale in the bus boycott.

What was the Memphis Sanitation Worker's strike?

Kings attention was diverted away from the Poor People's Campaign by the Memphis Sanitation Worker's strike. Memphis City Authorities refused to recognise the strike, which took place in 1968, and used tear gas to break up the marches. Sanitation workers, mostly blacks with some poor whites, had economic goals to increase their income and wanted their protests to be non-violent, however the peaceful march lasted less than one hour as some marchers began attacking shops and looting. King faced criticism from the press - some blaming him for leading a violent protest and others branded him a coward for fleeing when it turned violent. This jeopardised the PPC as his reputation was crucial to win support for the campaign. He began planning another march alongside Jackson and the SCLC, however was then assassinated 4th April 1968.

What was the Chicago Freedom Movement 1966?

Kings first initiative in the North aimed to challenge the de facto segregation of Chicago's housing, education and employment, using the same techniques of nonviolent direct action. However these techniques did not work in the North. Only 30000 attended the first rally (King had expected 100000) and a riot quickly erupted. Demonstrators had begun using fire hydrants to cool off in the heat wave however authorities demanded they be shut off to preserve water in case of a fire. Mayor Daley shut off the hydrants on the west side of the ghetto and police arrived to enforce measures, resulting in a riot. Then, in March, King had rocks thrown at him by white protestors in Gage Park and 1000 police officers were unable to subdue the violent white crowds. Jesse Jackson (leader of SCLC) had planned more marches through white areas known for racism, however the Chicago police chief warned they would make 'Gage Park look like a tea-party'. Mayor Daley obtained a court injunction restricting future marches. Despite this the Chicago Real Estate Board did promise to respect the city's fair housing laws, however, following Daley's re-election as Mayor in 1967, these promises were ignored.

Why was there de facto housing segregation?

Many white people didn't want black African-Americans moving in to their neighbourhoods and as a result house prices dropped where African-Americans moved in, meaning they faced even more discrimination and harassment. People would refuse to sell their houses in white neighbourhoods to African Americans and Bill Levitt (created of Levittowns) even refused to renew the leases of tenants who had African-Americans over for dinner. He claimed this was not because he was prejudice himself but because most of his customers were and he wanted to maximise profits. As a result black Americans were forced to move in to areas with poorer, more cramped housing. The State court affirmed the right to live free from harassment and fair housing laws were introduced in 21 cities and 8 states, however a lack of federal ruling meant little action was taken. The 1956 federal highway act also destroyed some ghetto areas. In 1950 the NAACP helped found the National Committee against discrimination in housing.

What was the Counter Culture?

Many young people and students became involved in a counter culture - they fought against the consumerism and mass culture of the 50s. They rejected war and experimented with free love and drugs. Playboy Magazine introduced a 'Playboy advisor' column in 1960, offering explicit guidance and new/more imaginative sex - in the early 70s approximately 20% of American men read Playboy regularly. In 1965 protestors in Berkley proclaimed a 'filthy speech' movement. Fashion and music also began to change - boys began to grow their hair longer, which younger generations thought was cool and defiant, while older generations still linked it with gay stereotypes. Younger people cared about looking as if they didn't care about the way they looked. Mini skirts came from France in 1965. The Beatles and rock music became increasingly popular. Sex was also seen as being more normal by the younger generation, encouraged by the introduction of the pill, although older generations saw this as immoral. More women and men began openly living together, unmarried. In 1962 Helen Gurley wrote Sex and the Single Girl. There was an estimated 16 million 'Hippies' and experimenting with drugs, such as marijuana, became increasingly popular. People began to reject traditional, Christian values. However SAT scores began to fall after 1964 and rates of violent crime, drug abuse, alcohol consumption, divorce and illegitimacy rates rose sharply after 1963.

What was the My Lai Massacre?

March 16th 1968 US Soldiers attacked the My Lai, brutally murdering innocent Vietnamese civilians, destroying their homes, raping women and shooting children. According to the US army they killed 347 people, however estimations predict the actual death toll was as high as 500 and many others were injured. The army tried to cover up the incident however when it came out only 1 soldier was convicted. He was sentenced to life in prison, however only served 3½ years under house arrest. Media portrayal turned against the soldiers and the Vietnam War.

How and why did women begin to fight against discrimination in the 1960s?

More people were becoming conscious of their rights due to the African-American civil right movements, and this led to growing protest from other oppressed groups, such as women. Women had become more politically engaged since gaining suffrage in 1920. 1963 women began campaigning on a wider scale to end discrimination based on gender. Women began challenging all examples of male dominance - including the church. They protested against Miss America Pageants - throwing cosmetics, high heels, bras, girdles and stockings in trash cans to gain media attention. Some believed these actions, such as burning bras, were making the movement a joke and setting them back, but significant gains were made - women could have any jobs they wanted, play any sports they wanted etc.

What advancements did Women make after 1960?

More women were working and increasing their influence and responsibility outside the home. By 1963 24.7 million (36%) of women were working - a huge increase of 6.3 million over 1950. More than 3/5ths (15.4 million) of them were married. However, while in 1962 1/3rd of Women felt they had been discriminated against, by 1974 2/3rds felt they had, although it could be argued that this was due to higher expectations. June 10th 1963 Congress passed an Equal Pay Act (although didn't apply to all women in all jobs). President Johnson's Civil Rights Act 1964 (proposed by Kennedy) guaranteed equal rights for everyone - many women began trying to apply for new higher paying jobs etc. He also passed the 1964 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and in 1968 ruled sex-segregated job advertisements illegal (the ruling was upheld by Supreme Court in 1973). In 1967 Executive Order 111375 expanded Presidents Johnson's affirmative action policy of 1965 to cover discrimination based on gender. In 1969 California became the first state to adopt a 'No fault' divorce law and by 1985 every state had adopted a similar law.

What was the response to the Federal-Aid Highway Acts?

Most Americans originally supported the Interstate Highway Acts, however many turned against it when they saw the damage the roads were inflicting on the city neighbourhoods they went through. They displaced people from their homes, sliced communities in half and led to abandonment and decay in many cities. In 1959 the Board of Supervisors had to stop the construction of the double-decker Embarcadero Freeway along the waterfront in San Francisco after people began to protest. Activists also managed to prevent roads being built in other cities, however this resulted in many interstates ending abruptly - nicknamed the "roads to nowhere".

How did music change in the 70s?

Music was central to a disaffected youth culture that challenged conservatism over issues such as sexual and social freedoms, drug taking and race. Metal was very popular among young people, white males in particular. Sub-genres such as Death metal (focussing on death), White metal (focussed on Christian themes), Black metal (anti-Christian), Lite or Pop Metal (focussed more on love and sex) and Speed or Thrash Metal (rejected romantic themes, dealing with issues such as injustice and the environment) broke off from the main Heavy Metal genre. Heavy Metal's share of popular music rose from 8% in 1983 to 20% in 1984. However by 1990 black pop and rap were overtaking heavy metal. Hip-Hop had its roots in the gang cultures of City ghettos - particularly in the South Bronx and Harlem ghettos. Rap revealed generational and class divides in black music - it was ignored by black radio (who mainly black urban professionals, 'buppies', listened to) and was criticised by many older black Americans as bigoted, sexist and violent. However some women, such as Queen Latifah and Salt-N-Pepa also became rappers, and male rap groups started a Stop the Violence Campaign in 1988. However Country Music was also becoming more popular and was much more conformist and less challenging than other popular music at the time.

How did new technology change television in the 70s?

New TV's could now be operated from a hand-held remote and there was much more choice, allowing viewers to 'channel-surf' and avoid adverts. VCRs were invented in the 1960s, but only became popular in the 1980s because mass production made them cheaper and the Supreme Court ruled that recording TV shows for home use was not violation of copyright law. By 1990 ¾ households owned a VCR. They also enabled viewers to rent films from video stores and play games on their TV. In the 1980s viewing figures for cable TV rose from 9% to 26%. 1984-92 Cable Television Industry spent $15 billion on laying cables across the USA and billions more on program development. By 1990 nearly 53 million households (90%) had subscribed to cable TV and the number of cable TV networks had grown from 28 in 1980 to 79 by 1989 (encouraged by Reagan's deregulation of television in the early 1980s). Cable TV was not subject to Federal Communications Commission guidelines so programs tended to have more swearing, sex and violence.

What was the New York Underground Movement?

New York Underground was a music movement combined with contemporary art - Andy Warhol and Velvet Underground were big influences. It was very visual, telling a story, and had links with the Beatnik movement. It tried to represent the people of New York as well as being controversial and breaking traditional gender roles. Patty Smith and the New York Dolls were popular.

What did Nixon do about schooling segregation?

Nixon and his Attorney General, John Mitchell, wanted to defer the guidelines, created by the Johnson administration, that would have terminated federal funding to segregated schools in order to keep the votes of Southern Whites (who had shown enthusiasm for George Wallace, who was expected to run again in 1972). Although the NAACPs Legal Defence and Education Fund halted this, as did the Supreme Court, for example ruling unanimously that "The obligation of every school district is to terminate dual systems at once and to operate now and hereafter only unitary schools" in Alexander v. Holmes Board of Education, October 1969. In 1969 32% of Southern Black children attended schools with whites, by 1971 this was 77% and by 1975 86%. Nixon was also hugely opposed to bussing - using buses to take children to schools in different districts in order to encourage desegregation). When the Justice Department began bussing in response to a Supreme Court in 1971, Nixon told them to "Knock off this crap. Do only what the law requires and not one thing more." In 1972 he attacked liberals who supported bussing, describing it as "wrenching... children away from their families and from the schools their families may have moved near." He sought an constitutional amendment against bussing, and, though he was unsuccessful, it helped him to win votes as 80% Americans opposed bussing, wanting their children educated in their own neighbourhoods.

Who were the 'Silent Majority'?

Nixon first used the term 'silent majority' in 1969 to refer to the 'majority' of Americans who he believed did support the government, especially in their policy on the Vietnam War, despite growing protest. While he acknowledged the right of Americans to protest, he also believed they were a militant minority of anti-war demonstrators. "If a vocal minority, however fervent its cause, prevails over reason and the will of the majority, this Nation has no future as a free society..." Nixon's speech in 1969 explained his plan to withdraw from Vietnam 'with honour'. 77% of those polled after the speech supported his policy in Vietnam and over 300 Congressmen and 40 senators also supported him. In 1972 he was re-elected as President by a landslide.

What was FAP?

Nixon put forward a Family Assistance Plan (FAP), which would have replaced AFDC with guaranteed annual incomes for poor families, whether working or not (although some welfare recipients would have to work in order to receive payments). Minimum incomes for a family of four would be $1600 a year plus $800 or more worth of food stamps. However the National Welfare Rights Organisation protested that the payments were too low, liberals objected the requirements that some recipients work, conservatives saw it as a give-away, which would encourage dependency, and as a result the plan did not pass. During Nixon's first term means-tested federal spending per person in poverty rose by approximately 50%.

What did Nixon do for the Economy?

Nixon's New Economic Policy, August 1971, introduced a wage-price freeze and devalued the dollar (making US exports more competitive). NEP got a 75% approval rating and helped Nixon win another election, however did not solve the underlying problems of the economy. When Nixon abandoned the controls, prices rocketed in the 'Great inflation of 1973'.

How did the Religious Right impact Nixon?

Nixon's election was the first time the Evangelicals showed their support for one Presidential candidate - they were part of Nixon's 'Great Silent Majority'. Nixon attended sermons and speeches from the leader of the Evangelical Christians, endorsing their support. The Watergate scandal actually pushed more people towards the religious right, as they lost trust in the government and became increasingly concerned by the lack of morality. They wanted a moral, spiritual, Christian President.

How did Americans support the Vietnam War?

Not everyone protested against the war. Johnny Wright wrote a pro-Vietnam war song, Hello Vietnam, and a substantial number of Americans supported the war. Some pro-war slogans included "Love our country", "America, love it or leave it" and "No glory like old glory". The older generation and veterans of WWII in particular couldn't understand why the younger generation failed to stand firmly behind the government. They felt they had fought against Hitler and fascism and now believed it was the younger generations turn to fight for democracy against communism. Nixon referred to these supporters as the "Silent Majority" as they were less vocal than the protestors, however Nixon believed most people did support the government and the war in Vietnam.

How did the Moral Majority help Reagan become President?

Only 55% of Evangelicals were registered to vote before Reagan's election, however churches began voting registration efforts. Falwell, head of the Moral Majority, considered it very important for Christians to register to vote in order to have political power to encourage morality. 8.5 million Christians were registered within 5 years. Many argue that it was the Evangelicals who pushed Reagan in to the lead in the election - 26% of the White electorate were made up of Evangelical Christians, almost all of whom voted for Reagan.

How many soldiers deserted during the Vietnam war?

Over 500 000 soldiers deserted between 1960 and 1973 of a total of 10 million soldiers - 1 in 20 deserted.

How did the advertising boom impact the economy?

Overall 1950-60 saw gross annual ad industry billings grow from $1.3 billion to $6 billion. Total US billings more than doubled during the 1950s from $5.7 billion to $12 billion by 1960. At the beginning of the 50s 59% of American families owned cars, and throughout the decade the necessity for families to own a second car was heavily promoted. By the mid 50s automobiles were the most heavily advertised product (surpassing packaged goods and cigarettes).

What was Eisenhower's campaign slogan for the 1952 Election?

Peace, Progress, Prosperity

What opposition was there to abortion and the Equal Rights Amendment?

Phyliss Schlafly, a Catholic Republican supporter from Illinois, led a campaign against the Roe vs. Wade decision, and was supported by the Roman Catholic Church. The National Conference of Catholic Bishops created the National Right to Life Committee, which had 11 million supporters from various religions by 1980. In 1979, Beverley La Haye, the wife of a Baptist minister from California, formed the CWA (Concerned Women for America), who opposed abortion and no-fault divorce laws, as well as the Equal Rights Amendment. The CWA had 50000 members by the mid 1980's. Both these campaigning groups helped prevent the Equal Rights Amendment being passed.

Why did the Women's Right Movement begin to fragment in the 70s?

Pressure from the National Organisation of Women encouraged the 1972 Equal Rights Amendment Act, which provided legal equality of the sexes, however was only agreed to by 25% of the states, which initiated the fragmentation of the women's movement. Different groups were formed, including the Women's Liberation Front, the Redstockings and the October 17th Movement, each with different aims and tactics.

What was Prog Rock?

Prog Rock was a more pretentious style of Rock, which originated in the early 60s. It had an experimental style, being influenced by rock, opera, jazz, classical and many other music movements. Songs tended to be very long and different to popular culture at the time, in fact Prog Rock was a complete rejection of the mainstream. Popular groups included Yes's and Starship Trooper and they often had a strong connection with working classes - this was associated with inferiority complexes.

What was Punk Rock like in the 70s?

Punk Rock tended to be very political & anti-establishment as well as providing a release from anger. The Sex Pistols were a popular Punk band, as were The Clash. Punk Rock was arguably the most influential music movement of the 20th century as it impacted the direction and identity of other popular music.

What was the impact of MTV?

Radio was uninterested in Metal, however MTV greatly helped to promote its popularity. MTV began broadcasting 24/7 entertainment on 1st August 1981. 85% viewers were between 12 and 34 years old and most were suburban whites. By 1982 it had 23 million viewers. MTV's choice in music was criticised in the popular press - they were accused of racism as rarely showed black artists although in December 1983 MTV broadcast Michael Jackson's Thriller, which had been released in November 1982 but became a global phenomenon after being shown on MTV. Michael Jackson had a budget of $500 000 for the music video and sold the rights to show it to MTV for $200 000. MTV were also charged with sexism as they focussed on appealing to young, white men so women were often objectified in music videos. However some women retaliated with feminist themes, for example Donna Summer's She works hard for the money and Cyndi Lauper's Girls Just Wanna Have Fun (1984). Madonna was hugely popular but caused controversy as she objectified herself to attract male viewers in sexually explicit and suggestive music videos.

How did Reagan change federal spending?

Reagan decided to cut federal aid programs to deal with the trade deficit, however Congress refused to cut Medicare and social security (pension and unemployment pay) even though they used much of the federal budget. The aid programs that were cut particularly affected poor children, including school meals, education, and support for single parents. The cuts were not sufficient to ease the deficit so it continued to grow. Federal income was spent on a five year $1.2 trillion defence program to "Make America Number One again" and included the unsuccessful 'Star Wars' (Strategic Defence Initiative) plan of 1983 to create a satellite and laser shield to prevent incoming missiles hitting America. Federal investment continued to support agribusiness; financial investors, energy producers and the elderly (known interests of major Republican supporters) but provided less aid in health, education and big cities (interests of mainly Democratic voters).

What were Reagan's aims in terms of Economics?

Reagan sought to make changes in four key areas: Boost the economy through tax cuts, reduce the federal deficit, reduce federal spending on Social Security, increase federal spending on defence. Reagan wanted to cut taxes, promote freer trade to encourage competition and reduce the government's role in the economy through deregulation and elimination of price controls. Reagan was committed to the supply-side economic view that tax reductions would produce the incentives necessary to reverse the nation's economic stagnation.

Why did the Religious Right support Reagan?

Reagan was Christian and supported Evangelicals and their cause. He was pro-life and wanted to create 'One nation under God'. In terms of his affiliation with the Religious Right and the Moral Majority he told them, "You endorse me, I endorse you." - he pledged to pass an amendment to reverse the Roe vs. Wade decision, allow voluntary prayer back in schools, and listen to the Moral Majority and their ideas (but also listen to everyone else) in return for their support.

What was the Just Say No Campaign?

Ronald Reagan's wife Nancy Reagan set up the Just Say No campaign due to concerns about the affects of drug abuse on young people, mothers and children. She helped set up over 12000 'Just Say No' clubs for children and young people across the country by 1988 and tried to change attitudes to stop people buying drugs, and therefore stop people selling and making drugs. The campaign showed a move towards First Lady's becoming more politically active. She visited several treatment centres across the USA and met with the Board of Directors for the National Federation of Parents for a Drug Free Youth. In mid 1982 she addressed the National Legislative session of the Parent Teacher Association on drug abuse. That October she also attended the first National Conference for Drug Free Youth. During the campaign Nancy Reagan travelled 250000 miles, visited 65 cities and 33 states. April 1985 she held a First Ladies Conference on Drug Abuse and was joined by the wives of 18 world leaders.

Why did de facto housing segregation lead to a poverty trap for African-Americans?

Schools and other services were paid for by property tax and school catchment areas were often drafted by housing segregation. As a result schools were also segregated and poorer education and services were offered to the Black population. This led to many young Blacks dropping out of school and joining gangs, encouraging negative stereotypes about blacks. This also led the rising Black middle classes to move away from the cities, causing the ghettos to fall in to worse disrepair.

What was the 1973 and 1978 Rehabilitation Act?

Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act stated, "Any program funded by the federal government is prohibited from discriminating against people with disabilities." This meant that, for the first time in American History, law protected the civil rights of people with both physical and mental disabilities. However as a result of Nixon's objection to this legislation) he had vetoed it twice in 1971 and in 1972) for primarily fiscal (economic) reasons, the act contained significant amendments. The 1978 Labour Rehabilitation Act amended the 1973 Rehabilitation act and established further employment programs for the disabled.

Why was it difficult to desegregate schools?

Segregated schooling reflected housing patterns because people naturally preferred their neighbourhood school, making desegregation more difficult - blacks tended to live in differed areas to whites because they generally could not afford as good housing and also because Estate agents' agreements effectively prevented black people from moving in to white areas. Schools in black neighbourhoods were rarely equal to those in white areas and as a result black pupils were caught in a poverty cycle.

What was the impact of the Freedom Rides in terms of legislation?

September 1961 the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in bus and train stations nationwide.

What environmental issues were there at the beginning of Carters Presidency?

Since the publication of Rachel Carson's 'Silent Spring' in 1963, the environment had become a national issue. Before Carter's Presidency, Congress had already passed/set up the Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (1970), Clean Air Act (1970), Endangered Species Act (1973), Topic Substances Control Act (1976) and many other environmental policies. Despite this, pressure groups campaigned for more. The Love Canal, near Niagara Falls, was full of industrial waste, leading to high rates of miscarriage and birth defects in the local population, who were relocated in 1978. Locals also suffered from chromosomal damage linked to pollution, leading to a Senate Enquiry and New York State spending $30 million to clean up the Canal. Then in 1979, the radioactive core of a nuclear reactor overheated causing a partial meltdown, at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania. Nobody was hurt but 10 000 had to flee their homes and the incident did turn public opinion against nuclear power. Nuclear Power stations continued to operate, but no new ones were built.

What were the Social Security Amendments 1965?

Social Security Amendments in 1965, creating Medicare and Medicaid, and expanding Social Security benefits for retirees, the disabled, widows and college-aged students (financed by an increase in the payroll tax cap and rates).

What were 'Jim Crow' Laws?

The State Governments in the South introduced 'Jim Crow Laws' to ensure white supremacy, introducing segregation between black and whites.

What was Fragging?

Soldiers also often killed Officers, who they thought had made them pointlessly risk their live, by 'fragging' - shooting them in the back or throwing a fragmentation grenade in their tent. 1969-71 83 officers were killed and 730 fragmentation incidents reported.

How did Film change in the 70s?

Some films were very realistic, addressing important issues of the time (e.g. Apocalypse Now and The Deer Hunter), while others were more escapist, fantasy films (e.g. The Rocky Horror Picture Show, Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory and Star Wars). Films reflected changes in music, and often used popular music, reflecting the tastes of the younger generation (especially young, working class but well educated men) who are the main audience at the cinema. For example The Rocky Horror Show had strong links with the Glam Rock movement. There were also increased ideas about sex and sexuality portrayed in films, partly due to the decline in production codes, but also American society becoming more permissive. However there were still ideas about The American Dream e.g. in Rocky, and strong gender roles were still prevalent in many films. Some films were about escapism however other films reflected concerns about the time - The Godfather reflecting concerns about the mafia and organised crime, All the Presidents Men was a film about the journalists who cracked the Watergate scandal, The Deerhunter reflecting concerns about Vietnam and the long lasting damage it had caused to returning soldiers, Apocalypse Now, was also about Vietnam and the Cold War...

How did white Americans react to Brown?

Some white groups did support Brown - the Southern Baptists Convention voted by a massive majority (8950/9000) to affirm Brown, however generally it was accepted with resignation. In July 1954 segregationists in Indianola, Mississippi formed the White Citizens Council and by 1956 they had 250000 members (3x as many as the Southern NAACP). It lobbied state governments to pass new segregation measures. The Southern Manifesto was created 1956. Later that year Virginia passed legislature to prevent desegregation and when NAACP lawsuits forced three school districts to admit black students in 1958, Virginia's governor shut down public education. By 1957 only 750 of 63000 school districts in the South had desegregated and 97% of black students remained in segregated education. In 1964 only one Southern black child in 100 attended a school with white children.

What was Southern Rock?

Southern Rock was a rock music movement by, for and about Southerners. It was a 'proudly provincial blend of indigenous sounds like country, blues, gospel and R&B'; the songs were usually very long and featured epic and musical solos. It celebrated the best parts of Southern Culture. The Allman Brothers Band was one of the first, popular Southern Rock bands. Their commercial breakthrough came from their live album At Fillmore East in July 1971. The multiracial band were part of forming, what became known as, 'The New South'. The band were soon followed by other Southern Rocks musicians and bands including The Marshal Tucker Band, the Charlie Daniels Band, the Outlaws, the Dixie Dregs, Molly Hatchet, .38 Special and Wet Willie, but the most famous of all was Lynyrd Skynrd. Their biggest hit, Sweet Home Alabama, was released in 1974 and despite unfurling a massive Confederate flag when they played the song in concert, it was actually a song pointing out that not all southerners were racist. They made the song in reaction to liberal west coaster, Neil Young's, bitter songs Southern Man and Alabama. In 1975 the band also released Free Bird, which became a lasting contribution to rock.

What was Kennedy's Final Frontier?

Space - Sputnik (USSR space ship) launched a space race between the US and the USSR, which lasted 18 years. There were concerns about nuclear bombs being launched in to space. Russia got the first man in space, however the US got the first man on the moon. Despite this the Apollo Soyez Mission led to USSR and USA working together for advancement in space. Only 33% of the public endorsed the expenditure of $40 billion on the manned moon mission in 1962, however by 1965 58% of Americans endorsed the mission. Its success in 1969 ensured US commitment to space exploration, so while Kennedy was unable to see through the Space Mission (due to his assassination in 1963) he had helped open a new frontier.

What were the Stonewall Riots?

Stonewall Inn, in Greenwich Village, was one of many gay clubs in New York City. However such bars were frequently subject to police harassment and in the early hours of June 28th 1969, policemen entered the Stonewall Inn and arrested the employees for selling alcohol without a license, as well as several customers who were not wearing 'gender appropriate' clothing. However a crowd grew outside and began throwing bottles at the police. The police barricaded themselves inside the bar and called for reinforcements, as 400 people rioted outside the bar. Eventually support arrived and dispersed the crowd but, for the next several days, demonstrations were staged across New York, augmenting into a major protest against the perpetual police harassment and social discrimination suffered by sexual minorities in the 1960s. Stonewall became a symbol of resistance and served as a catalyst for a new generation of political activism. The event also caused the formation of the Gay Liberation Front as well as other LGBT civil rights organisations.

How did TV promote conformity in the 1950s?

TV programs were designed for maximum mass appeal and, because advertisers sponsored them, more controversial programmes were often dropped because they wasted the advertisers money. For example the 'Nat King Cole Show' (1956-57) was dropped because Cole was a black American and racism was still extremely prevalent at this time.

How did television change in the 70s?

Television shows tended to reflect daily life, causing a rise in soap opera's such as General Hospital and Dallas. Although other shows were more nostalgic, looking back at previous periods of recent American history, for example The Waltons and Little House on the Prairie. However some shows, such as M*A*S*H and Roots, addressed more serious issues.

How was music changing in the 70s?

The 1970's saw a significant fragmentation of popular music. Fewer people were voting in elections, separating themselves from the government and politics, as they no longer felt they could have as big an impact, and were becoming more anti-establishment. Crime-rates were soaring and unemployment and inflation were very high, so music offered an escape. However the 70s appeared to be a transition period from the liberalism of the 60s to a more Conservative 80s. There was a reflection in this in popular culture, for example there was a move away from political ideas in music.

What was the Airline Deregulation Act 1978?

The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 abolished the Civil Aeronautics Board to create greater competition in the airline industry. Other similar legislation was introduced for lorry and communications industries. This helped to stimulate the economy but had little effect on economic problems facing Carter at the end of his Presidency.

What were the Area Development and Training Acts?

The Area Development Act created 26000 new jobs (although was scrapped in 1965). The 1962 Development Training Act provided funding in 40 states for training unemployed.

Why did the Civil Rights Movement begin to fracture in the 1960s and how was the focus changing?

The Civil Rights Movement was spreading across the country from the South (where the worst discrimination and segregation had been) across the country and the focus was changing from De Jure change to De Facto change. Groups were losing faith in King's peaceful methods and working-class and unemployed blacks living in the inner-city ghettos of the North could not identify with the middle-class minister and hadn't felt the effects of Kings efforts. In 1964 CORE also established Freedom houses in the ghettos to provide information and advice on education, employment, health and housing. The National Urban League launched a program to develop economic self-help strategies in ghettos in 1968 and received $28 million from the Nixon administration in 1971. However blacks in ghettos did not feel like these organisations understood what life was like in the ghettos. Only 32% of ghetto pupils finished high school and in the 1960s 46% of unemployed Americans were black (largely due to increased automation taking away unskilled factory jobs and many blacks receiving too inferior an education for skilled jobs). The 1964 Civil Rights Act had outlawed segregation however did little to address the problems faced by black Americans in the northern states where there was not legal segregation but de facto segregation and widespread racial discrimination. As results more radical, violent groups were beginning to become more popular.

How did Reagan change taxation?

The Economic Tax Recovery Act 1981 cut all personal income taxes by 25% over three years. Corporation taxes were also substantially reduced. It was the largest tax cut in American history and meant that the rich would keep more of their income than before and less money was going in to the federal budget. Tax Reform Bill 1986 simplified the tax code and increased taxes on corporations and capital gains. Deregulation helped businesses to grow - a report for the American Enterprise Institute suggested that the government rules and regulations affecting business had been costing $100 billion per year. Tax reform bill 1986 lowered the top rate of taxation from 50% to 28% (but raised the bottom rate of taxation from 11% to 15%, increasing rich-poor divide). Tax cuts mainly benefitted the rich - share of national income of top 1% rose from 8% to 15% during the 1980s and the average income of the poorest decreased by $1300 per year.

When was Slavery ended?

The Emancipation Proclamation 1862 declared that slaves would be "Forever Free" however it did not bring civil, political or social equality for African-Americans.

What happened on the Freedom Rides?

The Freedom Riders travelled through Virginia and North Carolina, drawing little public attention, however on May 12th a white and a black freedom rider were viciously attacked in Rock Hill, South Carolina as thy attempted to enter a whites-only waiting area. The following day the group reached Atlanta, Georgia and some of the riders split off onto a Trailways bus. May 14th 1961 the Greyhound bus arrived in Anniston, Alabama, where an angry mob of 200 white people surrounded the bus. The driver was forced to continue but the mob followed the bus in cars and, when its tires blew out, someone threw in a bomb. The freedom riders escaped as the bus burst in to flames but were then brutally beaten by the mob. The Trailways vehicle travelled to Birmingham, Alabama, and the riders were also beaten by an angry white mob. The Public Safety Commissioner in Birmingham, Bull Connor, knew that the Freedom Riders were arriving and a violent mob was waiting them but he didn't post police protection at the station because 'it was mothers day'. However photographs of the violence appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world the next day, drawing international attention to the state of race relations in the US. Due to the violence CORE couldn't find another bus driver who would agree to continue the journey and so the freedom rides were abandoned.

What was the 1978 Labour Reform Bill?

The Labour Reform Bill (1978) attempted to advance the rights of workers and was passed by Congress, but the drastic amendments made to the act meant that the workers received very few extra rights in a time of economic recession.

What was the March on Washington?

The March on Washington (28th August 1963) - The march brought martin Luther King to the forefront of the Civil Rights Movement, presenting him as the leader of the movement. His famous 'I have a dream' speech was cleverly written, drawing on ideas of patriotism, freedom, justice, democracy and morality to appeal to the greater American public. However the march also exposed growing tensions between different civil rights groups - for example some speakers threatened to pull out if Lewis did not tone down his speech. Kennedy had already announced his Civil Rights Bill 11th June 1963 so the March had little effect in terms of pushing legislature, however it did provide the movement with a platform to present itself as united, determined and responsible and encouraged people to keep the movement going. The march was well planned with live coverage of the whole event (across the US and in 6 other nations) and around 250000 marchers (1/4 of whom were white). The March also inspired similar Civil Rights protests across the world.

What was the Montgomery Improvement Association and what did they ask for?

The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) was set up to help organise the boycott. At first the boycotters demands were very modest - a more polite service from white bus drivers, the employment of black bus drivers and an end to standing when the bus was not full. However Montgomery's all white officials refused and so the stakes were raised - the boycotters wanted complete desegregation on Montgomery's busses.

What was Brown V. Topeka?

The NAACP tried to overturn the 'separate but equal' ruling of Plessy V. Ferguson in the Brown V. Board of Education, Topeka (Kansas) in 1954 by showing that separate was not equal. In 1949 in South Carolina an average of $179 was spent educating each white child, compared to $43 on each black child. Chief Justice Earl Warren concluded that "Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" and stated that "to separate [black children] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be undone."

What did the NFWA do?

The NFWA set up a credit union, allowing Chicano workers to borrow money and establish an insurance scheme. It also had advisors to help families deal with local authorities and ensure they were fairly treated. Membership of the NFWA grew from 200 in 1962 to over 1200 in 1965. They launched their first major campaign in 1965 when Filipino farm workers (led by the Agricultural Workers Organising Committee) walked out of vineyards in California. 8 days later NFWA voted to support the strike, marking the beginning of a 5yr strike known as La Huelga, which involved over 10000 farm workers. NFWA and AWOC merged, creating the United Farm Workers. They successfully registered 100 000 new Hispanic voters.

How did Civil Rights for African Americans change in the 1970s?

The National Black Feminist Organisation was set up in 1973. In 1978 President Carter signed the Humphrey Hawkins Bill, aiming to provide full employment for everyone, although it had little impact and there was a lack of enforcement. In 1978 Allan Bakke, a white student, was denied a place at university due to quotas for black students. The Supreme Court declared Bakke had been treated unfairly but the affirmative action had been upheld. In 1980 Fullilove v Klutznik declared that 10% of federal jobs should be allocated to ethnic minorities. Swann v Charlotte Mecklenburg Board of Education tried to bring greater opportunities to black Americans in poor communities, demanding school integrations between predominantly black and white schools. However when an attempt was made to bus school children between a white and black school in Boston in 1974, riots occurred.

How did Native Americans campaign for their Civil Rights?

The Native American Rights Movement was particularly inspired by Black Power. In 1968 the American Indian Movement (also known as the Red Power movement) was set up and aimed to reduce police brutality, slum conditions, and high unemployment facing Native Americans. In 1969 AIM activists occupied Alcatraz (600 by November) to highlight issues on national media. Alcatraz was on sacred land for Native Americans and when it was a prison many Native Americans were imprisoned there. In 1972 the AIM occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs for 6 days to protest against broken treaties. In 1973 two people were killed and twelve wounded in a confrontation with the police at Wounded Knee, the scene of a massacre of Sioux people in 1980. AIM confrontations began being shown on national media, creating greater publicity for their cause. Hollywood Actor, Marlon Brando, refused to accept his best actor Oscar from his role in The Godfather in 1973, instead sending a Native American woman to decline the award, to raise awareness and stand up against the way Native Americans were portrayed in films.

What was the occupational Safety and Health Act 1970?

The Occupational Safety and Health Act (1970) created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health to protect the rights of workers. However the act mainly focused on risks such as chemical and mechanical hazards, and so did not take in to account all health and safety issues. In addition to this, not all workplaces were covered by the act.

Who were the Redstockings?

The Redstockings were a far more radical women's rights group. They believed that all men had oppressed women, and would do whatever it took to gain equality - "We will not ask what is 'revolutionary' or 'reformist', only what is good for women". They also declared "We repudiate all economic, racial, educational or status privileges that divide us from other women. We are determined to recognize and eliminate any prejudices we may hold against other women."

Who were the Religious Right?

The Religious Right was a very influential group, composed mainly of Evangelical Christians, who were against abortion and anti-communist, and for praying in schools. They supported Reagan on his election campaigns. The group grew very quickly, suggesting religion was still very popular in America at this time and Christian values were still very important, despite the growth of counter-culture in the 60s. Preacher's linked religion to politics idealistically - by fixing spiritual and moral ills through religion, they could fix political and social ills. However Preachers began to see they needed to go further to provide a moral compass and became increasingly involved in politics. They were angered by a ban on bible reading and prayer in school - they felt that the ban was stopping freedom of speech and the government was becoming hostile towards religion, although the government argued it was about being neutral. The Evangelicals affiliated with the Republican Party, who were most welcoming to, and actively recruited, them (the ban on praying in schools was passed by a Democratic government).

What opposition was there to MTV and youth culture?

The Religious Right was opposed to many aspects of popular youth culture, especially Metal Music and the suggestive lyrics and dance moves of songs on MTV. The Parent Music Resource Centre, founded in Washingon, was also opposed to Heavy Metal and in 1985 successfully pressured MTV to cease its promotion of metal with its explicit lyrics and sexually suggestive and violent videos. However as Metal became more popular, MTV created a weekly late-night show dedicated to it called Headbangers' Ball. The after-hours slot decreased the number of complaints and the show soon became MTV's most popular with an average of 1.3 million viewers per week. The PMRC argued that songs or music videos that were sexually explicit, violent, glorified drugs or alcohol, or promoted a fascination with the occult or suicide, should be policed and given a rating or warning system (similar to that on films). Although the music industry pointed out this would be very difficult due to the huge number of recording each year and the possibility of misinterpreting lyrics, the 'Washington Wives' of the PMRC mobilised their husbands in Senate. As a result of this, and publicity resulting from some highly publicised suicides, for example suicide notes of two Chicago teenagers contained the lyrics of Metallica's Fade to Black (Metallica responded by saying that many young people said their music stopped them killing themselves), the music industry accepted a voluntary rating system.

What did the SCLC do?

The SCLC assisted Black Americans in registering to vote, opened citizenship schools and preached non-violence. Although their campaign in Albany in 1961 received little attention, their demonstrations in Birmingham in 1963 gained widespread media attention due to the violent reaction of the city authorities attacking non-violent protestors (including women and children) being attacked with police dogs and fire hoses. The outrage this provoked led Birmingham to move towards desegregation and many believe it also impacted the 1964 Civil Rights Act. The SCLC were also involved in organising the 250000 strong 'March on Washington for jobs and freedom' in August 1963. In 1965 they launched a campaign to register black voters and, alongside the SNCC, organised a 50 mile march from Selma to Montgomery (which faced attacks from State Troopers, however this encouraged more to join in, outraged by the violence).

What was the SCLC?

The Southern Christian Leadership Conference, formed in 1957 with Martin Luther King as the President, the SCLC aimed to advance the Civil rights in America in a non-violent way. It was composed mainly of black ministers - cementing a union between the civil rights struggle and the black church. It had 3 main aims - for white Americans to act against wrongs being committed against the black community, to encourage blacks to seek justice and to remain non violent at all times - "not one hair of one head of one white person shall be harmed". It was designed to be one organisation that could coordinate, advice and develop the work done by multiple smaller, more localised civil rights groups throughout the South.

How did Women's Rights change in the 80s?

The Supreme Court's defence of abortion rights in Roe vs. Wade 1973 aroused a powerful pro-life movement. Congress passed, and the Supreme Court let stand, a law eliminating federal medical benefits to help poor women pay for abortions. However women's groups remained strong and in 1989 a Washington Rally for the right to choose attracted over 300000 supporters. However in 1994 and 1995 abortion clinics were attacked and several supporters murdered. Sandra Day O'Connor, an Arizona Lawyer, became the first ever woman nominated to the US Supreme Court in 1981 when Reagan nominated her. 1984 Democratic Presidential Candidate Walter Mondale nominated Geraldine Ferraro as his vice presidential running mate - although they didn't win this was the first time a female had been nominated for Vice President. The Press declared the 1992 election year as 'The year of the woman' and women won several high profile Senate races in Illinois and California. A program called "Emily's List" was set up to put more women into national politics. Hilary Clinton played a key role in her husband, Bill Clinton's, Presidential campaign and after she became First Lady in 1992. 1972-85 the share of females in professional jobs increased from 44% to 49% and the female share of management jobs nearly doubled from 20% to 36%. However women were still paid much lower wages than men for doing the same jobs. 1960-1983 the percentage of female lawyers grew from 20% to 36% and women in banking and financial management from 9% to 39%. ½ of all 1985 college graduates and 35% of all PhD degrees were women.

What was Plessy Vs Ferguson?

The US Supreme Court upheld segregation laws, and in the 1896 Supreme Court Case Plessy Vs Ferguson they legitimised "separate but equal" meaning that public facilities could be racially segregated without violating the Constitution (as long as they were judged to be equal, but in reality facilities for blacks tended to be inferior to those for whites)

What was the stance of the Government on Communism?

The USA and the USSR were involved in a Cold War; while there was no head on collisions both sides supported the enemies of the other. The USA believed communism was wrong and, as laid out in the Truman Doctrine, wanted to stop its spread. They believed that people only turn to communism when in poverty (this was part of Kennedy's reason for starting the Peace Corps).

How did the US become involved in the Vietnam War?

The Vietnam War was fought between communist North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam and lasted from November 1955 to April 1975. Communist countries, including the USSR, supported North Vietnam and anti-communist countries, especially the US, supported the South. Before WWII Vietnam had been a French Colony however during the war Japan took control of the area. After the war ended Ho Chi Minh, a Vietnamese revolutionary and communist, wanted freedom for the country, however the allies agreed it belonged to France. Ho Chi Minh and his rebels began to fight France and the US began sending aid to the French in 1950, as they were concerned about the spread of communism. In 1954 the French lost a major battle to the Vietnamese and decided to pull out of Vietnam. The country was divided in to communist North Vietnam and South Vietnam. It was supposed to be reunited under a single election in 1956, however the US did not want the country to become communist so helped Ngo Dinh Diem get elected in the South. March 1959 Ho Chi Minh declared war to unite Vietnam under one rule. In December 1961 the US military advisors began taking a direct role in the war. August 1964 the US Congress passed The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, allowing US troops to use armed force in the area, after the North Vietnamese attacked two US destroyers. March 8th 1965 the first official US combat troops arrived in Vietnam.

How did Americans protest against the Vietnam War?

The Vietnam War was very controversial in the US. People were concerned about the huge numbers of civilian casualties in Vietnam but also the futile deaths of the young soldiers from the US and the length of the war (and the use of their taxes to pay for it - the US spent over $120 billion on the conflict in Vietnam from 1965-73). Various social groups were involved in protest however the Students for a Democratic Society were particularly prominent. The SDS was made up mostly of younger people at university. The SDS laid out their concerns in the Port Huron Statement. Other individuals also expressed their anger at the Vietnam War - for example singer Country Joe McDonald produced a protest song called Feel Like I'm Fixin to Die. In October 1968 250000 attended a protest, in Washington, against the war. A common form of protest was also the burning of draft cards.

What problems were facing Native Americans in the 70s?

The Voting Rights Act in 1965 gave Native Americans the right to vote, however some states were still attempting to disenfranchise them. There were also issues over who held land. The majority lived on reservations in the West, where there was huge unemployment and poverty. 80% still had no running water or sewage by 1970. They often lived in concentrated groups in rural areas and tended to live under tribal law as opposed to state law. Only 1/6th of Native American children graduated high school in 1970 as many chose to drop out to stay in their own community.

How did a new youth culture begin to develop with the rise of the TV?

The advertising boom in the 1950s made children and teenagers in to a demographic to sell to - helping to create a new teenage culture. There were concerns that the mass media in the 50s were threatening traditional morality and encouraging juvenile delinquency through the creation of Youth Culture and the commercialisation of American life.

How does the State system in America work in terms of passing laws?

The constitution divided power between the National Government (Federal Government) and the State Governments, allowing them to pass different laws.

What was the impact of the economic recession of 1974-75?

The economic recession of 1974-75 made a major contribution to the relative stagnation of workers' rights. The relocation of industry and businesses from the Rust Belt of the Northeast and Midwest (including cities such as Chicago and Detroit) to the Sun Belt (including Florida and Texas) resulted in some areas experiencing economic growth while others experienced massive economic stagnation. In addition to this the increase in foreign competition contributed to the rising unemployment (11% by 1975) and inflation (10% by 1978), which had a detrimental effect on workers' rights. The economic stagnation and rise in unemployment resulted in decreased job security, which weakened workers' ability to protect their rights. This was shown in 1979 when the USA's third biggest car manufacturer, Chrysler, faced bankruptcy and, although the Carter administration did attempt to help bail out this company, this was done under pressure from the AFL-CIO (the American Federation Labour and Congress of Industrial Organisations, which was a national trade union advocating for workers' rights and attempting to protect job security) only after thousands had already lost their jobs.

What achievements did the African American Civil Rights Movement make in the 70s?

The first African American mayor was elected in Los Angeles in 1973 and held the position for 20 years. During the 70s 35-45% of black families achieved a middle class lifestyle. According to a poll in 1972, 97% of people believed that black people deserved an equal chance of getting a job. 70% believed that black people should be free to live or go to school wherever they wanted.

What is meant by the American Dream?

The idea that if you work hard you can achieve anything you want, no matter who you were or where you came from (in reality however very few actually achieved this and middle-class, well-educated, young white men always had to advantage). Home and land ownership as well as increased leisure time, family, and the ability to purchase new luxury products such as televisions and cars were common ideals of the American Dream.

Who were The Radical Lesbians?

The majority of gay men did not understand the struggle of institutionalised sexism on lesbians. Lesbians split off in order to get political action that recognised their needs, and formed their own autonomous lesbian groups, creating a separate lesbian-feminist movement (converging women with experience from women's liberation and from gay liberation). Groups, like The Radical Lesbians (of which Rita Mae Brown was a notable leader), had their own goals and achievements - they wanted lesbian only spaces, where they could support each other and wanted to develop an ideology of lesbianism that challenged mainstream feminism, heterosexuality and the invisibility of lesbianism. They also created crisis lines, community centres, self-defence schools and shelters for battered women. The Radical Lesbians wrote political texts, including 'The Women Identified Women' addressing the arguments between the lesbian-feminist movement and the women's liberation movement, as they wanted to be seen as equal on the account of being a woman.

What was the reaction to the BPP?

The police began cracking down on the BPP and over 300 Panthers were arrested in 1969 alone. In October 1967 a shooting between police and the BPP resulted in Huey Newton being shot and a police officer being killed. Newton was charged with the murder but maintained he had been framed. The FBI also infiltrated the party, creating mistrust within the organisation. They also prevented the BPP from joining forces with street gangs, such as the Black Stone Rangers, by creating tensions between the groups, through fake letters etc. Summer 1969 the FBI direction stated the BPP as the No. 1 threat to the internal security of the US.

How did the government support house building in the 1950s?

The post-war baby boom led to a need for more housing and so the government began guaranteeing mortgages and insured up to 95% of the value of a house. 50% of all 1950s construction was supported by government mortgages BUT Black Americans received barely 2% of that money (and made up around 10% of the population))

How did Carter try to deal with Inflation?

The price of food and necessities were rising faster than wages. A poll in April 1978 showed 63% of Americans believed inflation was their greatest concern and that Carter was not managing it. Only 32% approved of his economic record. Carter originally tried to use voluntary wage and price controls, and decrease government spending, but these were unpopular and added a sense of crisis and failure. He then appointed conservative Paul Volcker as chairman of the Federal Reserve Board. He was extremely tough on inflation and dramatically curbed the money supply, initially leading to inflation but reviving under Reagan. Despite this inflation was in or near double figures for most of Carter's presidency.

What did the BPP do?

They carried rifles and law books and would follow police around, in their 'Patrol the Pigs' campaign, to deter police brutality against blacks and read peoples rights to them when they were arrested. They wanted black jury's for black cases and advocated self-defence of black communities and admired communist revolutionaries. They also wanted blacks to be exempt from compulsory military service. However the party also set up community programmes such as children's breakfast programs, free health clinics, voter registration programs and 'Liberation Schools' for black children.

Why were parents concerned about the new Teenage Culture?

They worried it would lead to an increase in Juvenile Delinquency. Young people were feeling increasingly bored and oppressed by conformist society and their parents were unable to relate or control them, leading to toxic masculinity with aggression, knife fighting, games of chicken, sex, drinking... Black teens were also becoming increasingly militant in fighting against racial prejudice. However statistics in juvenile delinquency did not show an increase in the 50s and ½ of all young men coming of age between 1953 and 1960 joined the army. Despite this the US Senate began undertaking major hearings of juvenile delinquency as early as 1953 and by 1955 13 US states had passed laws regulating the publication, distribution and sale of comic books.

Why did Black People lack political power in the 1950s?

Under the 15th Amendment black people had the right to vote, however 'Jim Crow Laws' were used to disenfranchise the black population in the South. 'Grandfather Clauses' meant that people were only allowed to vote if their grandfather had been able to (disenfranchising the children and grandchildren of slaves, as well as migrants). Other states introduced literacy tests (disenfranchising blacks, who were offered poorer education and also poor whites) The tests were also at the discretion of the examiner who could choose the questions and so often made it harder for coloured citizens to prevent them from voting. Furthermore blacks who attempted to register to vote faced discrimination and even violence from white supremacists across the country.

How did Carter try to deal with unemployment?

Unemployment had risen to almost 11% by the end of 1975 and in 1980 was still very high in places, with large regional differences. For example in Detroit unemployment was at 24% due to the car manufacturing industry struggling (largely due to the energy crisis), and unemployment rates for young people, especially young black people, were disproportionately high, standing at around 20-30% for most of Carter's Presidency. The country was also suffering from mounting trade deficits, exposing America's reliance on imports (which had become more expensive due to Nixon's devaluations of the dollar). Carter was successful in decreasing total unemployment to just 5% by late 1978, although inflation rose from 6% in 1977 to 10% in 1978, however in 1980 the economy stagflated and unemployment rose to 7.5%. Carter introduced a Public Works Act in 1977, which included a $4 billion public works program and Earned Income Tax Credit, which offered tax credits to low income, working families with children (this began in 1975). He also expanded a means tested, food stamp program to include 21 million people by 1980. However he refused to support the Humphrey-Hawkins bill (supported by the US Trade Union Organisation), which would allow the federal government to protect workers jobs in times of economic recession. It did pass Congress in October 1978 but had limited effect.

How were attitudes towards race portrayed in film in the 1950s?

Until 1956 the Code banned the showing of interracial marriages in film but in 'Island in the Sun' 1957 the first interracial movie embrace was shown. In 'The Defiant Ones' 1958 a black convict and a white convict were chained together and needed to cooperate in order to survive. In 'Imitation of Life' 1959 the final scene demonstrated that the real heroine was not the white actress who had achieved fame, but the black nanny who had devoted her life to the actress' neglected children. However challenging films could be a financial gamble and some films such as anti-war movie 'Paths of Glory' 1957 did not do well in the box office. 'South Pacific' 1958 was about an interracial romance and, despite being a box office hit in the North, it almost caused a race riot in the South.

How did the end of WWII impact Government actions?

Veterans felt they were owed a better quality of life and the government wanted to give it to them Government wanted to defeat communism in the context of the Cold War (believed people in poverty turned to communism).

What were Nixon's aims for domestic policies?

When Nixon came to office he had little interest in domestic policies and had no desire to expand social programs. Although he did actually go on to sign a significant amount of legislation between 1969 and 1971. In 1971 he called for a passage of a comprehensive national insurance plan, that would have combined private with expanded public initiatives to provide coverage for all. Nixon extended the Voting Rights Act of 1965 for a further 5 years and in 1972 banned sex discrimination in higher education in Title IX. Although he had denounced Johnson's Great Society during his campaign, he didn't actually dismantle the programs, although did reorganise them dramatically and reduce funding (which appealed to working tax-payers who felt they were subsidising the idle).

What did Nixon do for the Environment?

When Nixon first came to power he claimed "People don't give a shit about the environment" however in 1969 offshore oil rigs leaked crude oil on to 200 miles of Southern Californian coastline, attracting huge publicity. The polluted Cuyahoga River in Ohio caught fire, also attracting lots of media attention. The number of people belonging to the top 12 environmental groups increased from 12400 in 1960 to 1127000 in 1972 and polls indicated that millions more supported them. Only 1% of Americans felt that the environment was the greatest domestic policy in 1969, by 1971 25% did. Nixon passed legislation on endangered species in 1969, clean air in 1970 and coasts in 1972, and in 1970 set up an Environmental Protection Agency. He also put 80000 acres of federal lands into state hands, creating 642 parks. Despite this, he did state, "In a flat choice between smoke and jobs, we are for jobs."

What problems faced women in the 1960s?

Women were objectified and seen as sexual possessions. The idea that a woman's appearance was her most important trait was consistently enforced, as was the idea that it was a woman's place to serve men. During the war women had been required to work in factories etc. however when the soldiers came back the women were expected to return to being housewives and allow their jobs to be filled by men. Even women who worked were expected to do different jobs, such as secretaries and cleaners, and were paid much less than men (In 1960s women's wages were 1/3 of men's). There were fewer opportunities to progress in the workplace and women were not allowed to do certain jobs such as airline pilots - although they could be stewardesses BUT were only hired if they were young, single, friendly and attractive. They were expected to give up their jobs when they married and would be fired when they turned 32. 1/3 of American women did work outside of the home (Women made up 40% of the entire labour force) but mostly in low paying menial jobs with little opportunity for progression. In one corporation 90% of workers in one department were women but all the supervisors were men. The Kennedy Administration 1960-63 was the first since the 1930s without a woman in the cabinet. Although they passed the Equal Pay Act, it did not cover all women and had no enforcement powers. Despite Women being 50% of voters but only held 4% State legislative seats and 2% judgements.