HST 101
Arminius
(18/17 BC - AD 21), also known as Armin or Irmin, was a chieftain of the Germanic Cherusci who defeated a Roman army in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius's influence held an allied coalition of Germanic tribes together in opposition to the Romans but after defeats by the Roman general Germanicus, nephew of the Emperor Tiberius, his influence waned, and Arminius was assassinated on the orders of rival Germanic chiefs. Arminius's victory against the Roman legions in the Teutoburg forest had a far-reaching effect on the subsequent history of both the ancient Germanic peoples and on the Roman Empire. The Romans were to make no more concerted attempts to conquer and permanently hold Germania beyond the river Rhine. Modern historians have regarded Arminius' victory as "Rome's greatest defeat and one of the most decisive battles in history.
'Great Persecution'
303 AD- when the Christians suffered consequences when they refuse to make sacrifices to Roman gods.
Jewish Revolt
66-70CE: sometimes called the Great Revolt or First Jewish-Roman War-- The Great Revolt began in the year 66 CE, originating in the Greek and Jewish religious tensions. The crisis escalated due to anti-taxation protests and attacks upon Roman citizens The Romans responded by plundering the Jewish Temple and executing up to 6,000 Jews in Jerusalem, prompting a full-scale rebellion. The Roman military garrison of Judaea was quickly overrun by rebels, while the pro-Roman king Agrippa II, together with Roman officials, fled Jerusalem. As it became clear the rebellion was getting out of control, Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, brought in the Syrian army, based on Legion XII Fulminata and reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. Despite initial advances and conquest of Jaffa, the Syrian Legion was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon with 6,000 Romans massacred and the Legion's aquila lost - a result that shocked the Roman leadership.
Virgil
70-19 BC- Publius Vergilius Maro, was the greatest roman poet. The romans regarded his "Aeneid", published 2 years after his death, as their national epic.
Charlemagne
Charles the Great, king of the Franks, 768-814, and emperor of the West, 800-814. He founded the Holy Roman Empire, stimulated European economic and political life and fostered the cultural revival known as the Carolingian Renissance.
Book printing
Chinese block printing, used baked clay tablets
Arianism
Christian heresy founded by Arius in the 4th century, widespread- this stemmed off of Christianity and only lasted a couple centuries because it was condemned by a council- did not believe in the trinity
Edict of Milan 313
Edict of Milan 313: refers to the February 313 AD agreement to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire.[1] Western Roman Emperor Constantine I, and Licinius, who controlled the Balkans, met in Milan and among other things, agreed to change policies towards Christians[1] following the Edict of Toleration by Galerius issued 2 years earlier. The document known as the Edict of Milan (Edictum Mediolanense) is found in Lactantius' De Mortibus Persecutorum and in Eusebius of Caesarea's History of the Church with marked divergences between the two.[2] Whether or not there was a formal 'Edict of Milan' is debatable. The version found in Lactantius is not in the form of an edict.[2] It is a letter from Licinius to the governors of the provinces in the Eastern Empire he had just conquered by defeating Maximin[3] later in the same year and issued in Nicomedia.
City of God
Israel
Holy Land
Israel
Dante Alighieri
Italian poet 1265-1321, wrote "The Divine Comedy", the greatest poetic composition of the Christian Middle Ages and the first masterpiece of world literature written in a modern European vernacular.
Apocalypses
Jewish and Christian literature of revelations, making known the features of heavenly or future time or world or things hidden from present knowledge; hence apocalyptic books or literature
Theodoric
King of the Ostrogoths and conqueror of Italy, Theodoric the Great 453-526, was the second barbarian to rule as a king in Italy after the fall of the Roman Empire in 476.
Slavery
Muslim slave trade—the Romans relied to heavily on slaves and the slaves revolted
Paul of Tarsus
Paul set the tone for Christianity, including its emphasis on celibacy and the theory of divine grace and salvation, as well as eliminating the circumcision requirement. It was Paul who used the term euangelion, 'the gospel' in connection with the teaching of Christ. Paul met James, the brother of Jesus, and Peter, the Apostle, in Jerusalem. He then went on to Antioch where he converted Gentiles. This helped make Christianity a universal religion.
Innocent III
Pope Innocent was one of the most powerful and influential popes. He exerted a wide influence over the Christian regimes of Europe, claiming supremacy over all of Europe's kings. Pope Innocent was central in supporting the Catholic Church's reforms of ecclesiastical affairs through his decretals and the Fourth Lateran Council. This resulted in a considerable refinement of Western canon law. Pope Innocent is notable for using interdict and other censures to compel princes to obey his decisions, although these measures were not uniformly successful. Innocent called for Christian crusades against Muslim Spain and the Holy Land, as well as the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars in southern France. One of Pope Innocent's most critical decisions was organizing the Fourth Crusade. Originally intended to attack Jerusalem through Egypt, a series of unforeseen circumstances led the crusaders to Constantinople, where they ultimately attacked and sacked the city (1204). Innocent reluctantly accepted this result, seeing it as the will of God to reunite the Latin and Orthodox Churches, but it poisoned relations between the two churches.[1]
Septimius Severus
Roman emperor from 193 to 211. Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the Roman province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the cursus honorum—the customary succession of offices—under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of Emperor Pertinax in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors. After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor Didius Julianus, Severus fought his rival claimants, the generals Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. Niger was defeated in 194 at the Battle of Issus in Cilicia.[5] Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the Kingdom of Osroene as a new province.[6] Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the Battle of Lugdunum in Gaul. After consolidating his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the Parthian Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the Tigris.[8] Furthermore, he enlarged and fortified the Limes Arabicus in Arabia Petraea.[9] In 202, he campaigned in Africa and Mauretania against the Garamantes; capturing their capital Garama and expanding the Limes Tripolitanus along the southern frontier of the empire. Late in his reign he travelled to Britain, strengthening Hadrian's Wall and reoccupying the Antonine Wall. In 208 he invaded Caledonia (modern Scotland), but his ambitions were cut short when he fell fatally ill in late 210.[11] Severus died in early 211 at Eboracum (today York, England),[3] succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta. With the succession of his sons, Severus founded the Severan dynasty, the last dynasty of the empire before the Crisis of the Third Century.
Anglo-Saxon England
The Anglo-Saxons were the members of Germanic-speaking groups who migrated to the southern half of the island from continental Europe, and their cultural descendants. Anglo-Saxon history thus begins during the period of Sub-Roman Britain following the end of Roman control, and traces the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the 5th and 6th centuries. their Christianisation during the 7th century, the threat of Viking invasions and Danish settlers, the gradual unification of England under Wessex hegemony during the 9th and 10th centuries, and ending with the Norman conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066. Anglo-Saxon identity survived beyond the Norman Conquest, and came to be known as Englishry under Norman rule and ultimately developed into the modern English people.
Forum
The Forum in Ancient Rome was the marketplace where many Romans did business and met and discussed issues.
Sunni
The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad. In its full form, this branch of Islam is referred to as "Ahl al-Sunnah wal Jamaah" (literally, "People of the Sunnah and the Community"). People claiming to follow the Sunnah (tradition of the prophet) who can demonstrate that they have no action or belief against the prophetic Sunnah can consider themselves to be Sunni Muslims.
Avars
The earliest mention of the Avars in European history is by Priscus, who declared in 463 AD that a mixed Saragur, Urog and Unogur embassy asked Byzantium for an alliance, having been dislodged by Sabirs in 461 due to the Avars' drive towards the west.[8] The Caucasian Avars migrated to their present location from Khurasan, which was originally populated by the Alarodian Hurrians from Subartu
Nestorianism
a Christological doctrine that emphasizes the disunion between the human and divine natures of Jesus. It was advanced by Nestorius (386-450), Patriarch of Constantinople from 428-431, influenced by Nestorius' studies under Theodore of Mopsuestia at the School of Antioch.
Agricola
a Gallo-Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain. Written by his son-in-law Tacitus, the De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae is the primary source for most of what is known about him,[1] along with detailed archaeological evidence from northern Britain.[2]
Ivan the Great
a Grand Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of all Rus Sometimes referred to as the "gatherer of the Russian lands", he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde over the Rus, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. He was one of the longest-reigning Russian rulers in history.
Ptolemy
a Greco-Egyptian writer of Alexandria, known as a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology.[1][2] He lived in the city of Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt, wrote in Koine Greek, and held Roman citizenship.[3] Beyond that, few reliable details of his life are known. His birthplace has been given as Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid in an uncorroborated statement by the 14th century astronomer Theodore Meliteniotes.[4] This is a very late attestation, however, and there is no other reason to suppose that he ever lived anywhere else than Alexandria,[4] where he died around AD 168.
Dominicans
a Roman Catholic religious order founded by the Spanish priest Saint Dominic de Guzman in France, and approved by Pope Honorius III (1216-27) on 22 December 1216. Membership in the Order includes friars,[2] nuns, active sisters, and lay or secular Dominicans (formerly known as tertiaries, though recently there has been a growing number of Associates, who are unrelated to the tertiaries) affiliated with the Order.
Diocletian:
a Roman emperor from 284 to 305. Born to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia, Diocletian rose through the ranks of the military to become cavalry commander to the Emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. The title was also claimed by Carus' other surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the Margus. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and marks the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. He appointed fellow officer Maximian as Augustus, co-emperor, in 286.
Ovid
a Roman poet, living during the reign of Augustus, and a contemporary of Virgil and Horace. He is best known for the Metamorphoses, a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic, and for collections of love poetry in elegiac couplets, especially the Amores ("Love Affairs") and Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love")
Council of Nicaea
a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in AD 325. This first ecumenical council was the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom.[5] It was presided by Hosius of Corduba, a bishop from the West and probably a Papal delegate. Its main accomplishments were settlement of the Christological issue of the nature of the Son of God and his relationship to God the Father,[3] the construction of the first part of the Creed of Nicaea, establishing uniform observance of the date of Easter,[6] and promulgation of early canon law.
Parthia
a historical region located in north-eastern Iran. It was the political and cultural base of the Arsacid dynasty, rulers of the Parthian Empire (247 BC - 224 AD)
Kievan Rus
a loose federation East Slavic tribes in Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century, under the reign of the Rurik dynasty. The modern peoples of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia all claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural ancestors. At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, it stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south and from the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the Taman Peninsula in the east, uniting the majority of East Slavic tribes.
Muscovy
a medieval principality in west central Russia, centered on Moscow, which formed the nucleus of modern Russia. As Muscovy expanded, princess of Muscovy became the rulers of Russia; in 1472 Ivan III, grand duke of Muscovy, completed the unification of the country and in 1547 Ivan the Terrible became the first tsar of Russia.
Plebians
a member of the common people in ancient Rome and it was one of two ancient roman social classes
Neo-Platonism
a modern term[1] used to designate a tradition of philosophy that arose in the 3rd century AD and persisted until shortly after the closing of the Platonic Academy in Athens in AD 529 by Justinian I. Neoplatonists were heavily influenced both by Plato and by the Platonic tradition that thrived during the six centuries which separated the first of the Neoplatonists from Plato.
Isis/Mithras
a mystery religion practiced in the Roman Empire from about the 1st to 4th centuries AD. The name of the Persian god Mithra (proto-Indo-Iranian Mitra), adapted into Greek as Mithras, was linked to a new and distinctive imagery. A deity from ancient Indo-Iranian mythology. He became a major figure in the religion known as Zoroastrianism, which originiated in ancient Persia.
Silk Road
a network of trade and cultural transmission routes that were central to cultural interaction through regions—the name comes from the trading of silk between Asian continents, but romans traded spices and perfumes too
Reconquista
a period of approximately 781 years in the history of the Iberian Peninsula, the period of the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires which followed. Traditionally, historians mark the beginning of the Reconquista with the Battle of Covadonga (718 or 722), in which a small army, led by the nobleman Pelagius, defeated an Umayyad army in the mountains of northern Iberia and established a small Christian principality in Asturias.
Roman Senate
a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. It was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a Roman magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic appointment to the Senate
Jacquerie rebellion
a popular revolt in late-medieval Europe by peasants that took place in northern France in the summer of 1358 during the Hundred Years' War. The revolt, which was suppressed after a few weeks of violence, centered in the valley of the Oise north of Paris. This rebellion became known as "the Jacquerie" because the nobles derided peasants as "Jacques" or "Jacques Bonhomme" for their padded surplice called a "jacque".[2] Their revolutionary leader, Guillaume Cale, was referred to by the aristocratic chronicler Jean Froissart as Jacques Bonhomme ("Jack Goodfellow") or Callet. The word jacquerie became a synonym of peasant uprisings in general in both English and French
Tacitus
a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors (AD 69). These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus in AD 14 to the years of the First Jewish-Roman War in AD 70. There are substantial lacunae in the surviving texts, including a gap in the Annals that is four books long.
Alfred the Great
aka Anglo-Saxon Alfred (849-899) was king of Wessex from 871-899. He successfully halted the advance of Danish armies seeking to conquer the English, and he stimulated a revival of learning among his war- ravaged people.
Magna Carta
aka the great charter, a famous document of British constitutional history, issued by King John in 1215—contains provisions on criminal law
Knights Templar
among the most wealthy and powerful of the Western Christian military orders[4] and were among the most prominent actors of the Christian finance. The organization existed for nearly two centuries during the Middle Ages. Officially endorsed by the Roman Catholic Church around 1129, the Order became a favoured charity throughout Christendom and grew rapidly in membership and power. Templar knights, in their distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades.[5] Non-combatant members of the Order managed a large economic infrastructure throughout Christendom,[6] innovating financial techniques that were an early form of banking,[7][8] and building fortifications across Europe and the Holy Land.
John Wyclife
an English Scholastic philosopher, theologian, lay preacher, translator, reformer and university teacher at Oxford in England. He was an influential dissident in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. His followers were known as Lollards, a somewhat rebellious movement, which preached anticlerical and biblically-centred reforms. The Lollard movement was a precursor to the Protestant Reformation. He has been characterized as the evening star of scholasticism and the Morning Star of the Reformation.[2][3] He was one of the earliest opponents of papal authority over secular power.
Stoicism
an ancient Greek school of philosophy founded at Athens by Zeno of Citium. The school taught that virtue, the highest good, is based on knowledge, and that the wise live in harmony with the divine Reason (also identified with Fate and Providence) that governs nature, and are indifferent to the vicissitudes of fortune and to pleasure and pain.
Augustine of Hippo
an early Christian theologian and philosopher[5] whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. He was the bishop of Hippo Regius (modern-day Annaba, Algeria), located in Numidia (Roman province of Africa). He is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers in the Western Christianity for his writings in the Patristic Era. Among his most important works are City of God and Confessions.
Colosseum
an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Built of concrete and stone,[1] it is the largest amphitheatre ever built and is considered one of the greatest works of architecture and engineering.[2] The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum. Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in 72 AD,[3] and was completed in 80 AD under his successor and heir Titus.[4] Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (81-96).[5] These three emperors are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named in Latin for its association with their family name (Flavius). The Colosseum could hold, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators,[6][7] and was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Valerian
an herb/plant used for medicinal purposes, in ancient times it was believed to be under the influences of the god Mercury.
Vandals
ancient Germanic tribe - barbarians - after their leader died, they declined quickly. They attacked the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. They looted Roman Gaul and invaded Spain. They sacked Rome in 455.
Franciscans
are people and groups (religious orders) who adhere to the teachings and spiritual disciplines of St Francis of Assisi and of his main associates and followers, such as St Clare of Assisi, St Anthony of Padua, and St Elizabeth of Hungary, among many others. The term is usually applied to members who also adhere to the Roman Catholic Church
Donatism
arose by 350 among Christians in N. Africa - similar to Catholic church but they wanted things to be more fair
Byzantine empire
as the predominantly Greek-speaking continuation of the eastern part of the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), originally founded as Byzantium. It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Both "Byzantine Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire (Ancient Greek: Latin: Imperium Romanum), or Romania (Ῥωμανία), and to themselves as "Romans".
Arians
believers of Arianism - started by Arius
Visigoths
branches of the nomadic tribes of Germanic peoples referred to collectively as the Goths. These tribes flourished and spread during the late Roman Empire in Late Antiquity, or the Migration Period. The Visigoths emerged from earlier Gothic groups (possibly the Thervingi)[3] who had invaded the Roman Empire beginning in 376 and had defeated the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The Visigoths invaded Italy under Alaric I and sacked Rome in 410. Their long history of migration led the Visigoths to compare themselves to the Biblical Hebrew people who purportedly wandered for forty years in the Sinai Desert. After the Visigoths sacked Rome, they began settling down, first in southern Gaul and eventually in Spain and Portugal, where they founded the Kingdom of the Visigoths.
Chivalry
code of conduct associated with the medieval institution of knighthood which developed between 1170 and 1220.
Hundred Years' War
conflict between England and France, conflict between Edward III and Phillip VI - 1337 to 1453 - England won
Asceticism
describes a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Many religious traditions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism advocate restraint with respect to actions of body, speech, and mind. These religions teach that a deeper level of satisfaction and fulfillment is to be found than that offered by sensual pleasures and therefore promote the value of abstaining from these common, ordinary pleasures in the pursuit of acquiring deep inner peace. The founders and earliest practitioners of these religions eschewed worldly pleasures and led an abstinent lifestyle, not as a rejection of the enjoyment of life or because the practices themselves are virtuous, but as an aid in the pursuit of such inner peace.
Tetrarchy
describes any form of government where power is divided among four individuals, but in modern usage usually refers to the system instituted by Roman Emperor Diocletian in 293, marking the end of the Crisis of the Third Century and the recovery of the Roman Empire. This Tetrarchy lasted until c. 313, when internecine conflict eliminated most of the claimants to power, leaving Constantine in the West and Licinius in the East.
Umayyad caliphate
dynasty that ruled the Islamic caliphate from the death of the fourth Sunni caliph in 661 until 750
Monasticism
form of religious life- they practiced chastity (innocence) and obedience- poverty, they lived below their means
St. Jerome
from 345-420 - was an early Christian biblical scholar. The official Latin Bible of the Roman Catholic Church, the Vulgate, is largely the product of his labors of translation and revision.
Muhammad
from Mecca, unified Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. Believed by Muslims and Bahá'ís to be a prophet and messenger of God, Muhammad is almost universally considered by Muslims as the last prophet sent by God to mankind.While non-Muslims generally regard Muhammad as the founder of Islam, Muslims consider him to have restored the unaltered original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets in Islam.
Civitas
he social body of the cives, or citizens, united by law. It is the law that binds them together, giving them responsibilities on the one hand and rights of citizenship on the other. The agreement has a life of its own, creating a res publica or "public entity", into which individuals are born or accepted, and from which they die or are ejected.
Galen
he was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic. The son of Aelius Nicon, a wealthy architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. He traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in Rome, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several emperors.
Franks
historically first known as a group of Germanic tribes that roamed the land between the Lower and Middle Rhine in the 3rd century AD, and second as the people of Gaul who merged with the Gallo-Roman populations during succeeding centuries, passing on their name to modern-day France. Some Franks raided Roman territory, while other Frankish tribes joined the Roman troops of Gaul. In later times, Franks became the military rulers of the northern part of Roman Gaul. With the coronation of their ruler Charlemagne as Imperator Romanorum by Pope Leo III in 800 AD, he and his successors were recognized as legitimate successors to the emperors of the Western Roman Empire. In this way, Romance speakers came to be seen as "Franks" in some contexts.
Wergild
in ancient Germanic law, the amount of compensation paid by a person committing an offense to the other party - usually paid to the relatives of a murder victim
Hagia Sophia
is a former Greek Orthodox patriarchal basilica (church), later an imperial mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. From the date of its construction in 537 until 1453, it served as an Eastern Orthodox cathedral and seat of the Patriarchate of Constantinople,[1] except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931. It was then secularized and opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.[2] The church was dedicated to the Wisdom of God, the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity,[3] its patronal feast taking place on 25 December, the commemoration of the birth of the incarnation of the Logos in Christ.
Roman 'natural law'
is a philosophy of law that is supposedly determined by nature, and so is universal. Classically, natural law refers to the use of reason to analyze human nature — both social and personal — and deduce binding rules of moral behavior from it. Natural law is often contrasted with the positive law of a given political community, society, or state. In legal theory, on the other hand, the interpretation of positive law requires some reference to natural law. On this understanding of natural law, natural law can be invoked to criticize judicial decisions about what the law says but not to criticize the best interpretation of the law itself. Some scholars use natural law synonymously with natural justice or natural right (Latin ius naturale), while others distinguish between natural law and natural right
Diaspora
is a scattered population with a common origin in a smaller geographic area. Diaspora can also refer to the movement of the population from its original homeland. Diaspora has come to refer particularly to historical mass dispersions of an involuntary nature, such as the expulsion of Jews from Judea, the fleeing of Greeks after the fall of Constantinople, the African Trans-Atlantic slave trade, and the southern Chinese or Hindus of South Asia during the coolie trade.
Monophysitism
is the Christological position that, after the union of the divine and the human in the historical Incarnation, Jesus Christ, as the incarnation of the eternal Son or Word (Logos) of God, had only a single "nature" which was either divine or a synthesis of divine and human. Monophysitism is contrasted to dyophysitism (or dia-, dio-, or duophysitism) which maintains that Christ maintained two natures, one divine and one human, after the Incarnation.
Crusades
military campaigns sanctioned by the Latin Roman Catholic Church during the High Middle Ages and Late Middle Ages. In 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade with the stated goal of restoring Christian access to holy places in and near Jerusalem
Iron Plow
originated in China for agriculture purposes
Carolingians
relates tot eh Frankish dynasty, founded by Charlemagnes father Pepin III, that ruled in western Europe from 750-987 in succession to the Merovingian dynasty
Christianity
religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with about 2.4 billion adherents, known as Christians. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God, fully divine and fully human, and the savior of humanity whose coming as Christ or the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament.
Hijra
the 'emigration' of Muhammad from Mecca to Madina in July 622 CE. Those who accompanied him on this move or who joined his shortly after were known as emigrants. The hijra marks a stage in Muhammads own development from a persecuted preacher to the leader of a socio-religious community with political and military power
Syncretism
the combining of different, often contradictory beliefs, while melding practices of various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merger and analogizing of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thus asserting an underlying unity and allowing for an inclusive approach to other faiths
Sassanid empire
the dynasty that ruled Persia from the early 3rd century until the Arab Muslim conquest of 651
Great Schism
the event that divided "Chalcedonian" Christianity into Western (Roman) Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.^[1]^ Though normally dated to 1054, when Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael I excommunicated each other, the East-West Schism was actually the result of an extended period of estrangement between the two bodies of churches. The primary causes of the Schism were disputes over papal authority -- the Roman Pope claimed he held authority over the four Eastern patriarchs, while the four eastern patriarchs claimed that the primacy of the Patriarch of Rome was only honorary, and thus he had authority only over Western Christians -- and over the insertion of the filioque clause into the Nicene Creed.
Kieyan Russia
the first organized state located in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus - was ruled by members of the Rurikid dynasty from mid-ninth century to 950-1150.
Magyars
the fundamental political units within whose framework the Hungarians (Magyars) lived, until these clans from the region of Ural Mountains[1] invaded the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary
Investiture conflict
the most significant conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of popes challenged the authority of European monarchies. The issue was whether the pope or the monarch would name (invest) powerful local church officials such as bishops of cities and abbots of monasteries. The conflict ended in 1122, when Emperor Henry V and Pope Calixtus II agreed on the Concordat of Worms. It differentiated between the royal and spiritual powers and gave the emperors a limited role in selecting bishops. The outcome was mostly a victory for the pope and his claim that he was God's chief representative in the world. The investiture controversy began as a power struggle between Pope Gregory VII (1072-85) and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (1056-1106).[1] A brief but significant struggle over investiture also occurred between Henry I of England and Pope Paschal II in the years 1103 to 1107, and the issue played a minor role in the struggles between church and state in France, as well.
Conciliar movement
the movement that challenged peoples authority and had long term influence upon Christian churches - centered on the three general concils, Pisa, Contiance, and Basil - the movement was successful and it declared the superiority of a general council over the papacy
Iconoclasm:
the use of pictures and statues that symbolize sacred figures
Gunpowder
traded on the silk road
Christ
used as a title for Jesus in the New Testament. In common usage, "Christ" is generally treated as synonymous with Jesus of Nazareth. The followers of Jesus became known as Christians because they believed Jesus to be the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, for example in the Confession of Peter.
Islam
used for the religion of those who believe that the Koran is the true word of god - the prophet Muhammad was the messenger. The practitioner of the faith is a Muslim.
Wheelbarrow
used in agriculture industry - commonly used in Europe for transportation of goods
Macedonian renaissance
used to describe the period of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire (867-1056), especially the 10th century, which some scholars have seen as a time of increased interest in classical scholarship and the assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork.
Urban II
was Pope from 12 March 1088 to his death in 1099. He is best known for initiating the First Crusade (1096-1099) and setting up the modern-day Roman Curia in the manner of a royal ecclesiastical court to help run the Church. Pope Gregory VII named him cardinal-bishop of Ostia ca. 1080. He was one of the most prominent and active supporters of the Gregorian reforms, especially as legate in Germany in 1084 and was among the few whom Gregory VII nominated as papabile (possible successors)
Gregory VII
was Pope from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. Gregory VII was beatified by Pope Gregory XIII in 1584 and canonized in 1728 by Pope Benedict XIII.[3] One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor that affirmed the primacy of papal authority and the new canon law governing the election of the pope by the College of Cardinals. He was also at the forefront of developments in the relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope. He was the first pope in several centuries to rigorously enforce the Church's ancient policy of celibacy for the Catholic clergy and attacked the practice of simony.
Gregory the Great
was Pope from 3 September 590 to his death in 604. Gregory is well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. He is also known as St. Gregory the Dialogist in Eastern Christianity because of his Dialogues. For this reason, English translations of Eastern texts will sometimes list him as "Gregory Dialogus". Throughout the Middle Ages he was known as "the Father of Christian Worship" because of his exceptional efforts in revising the Roman worship of his day. His contributions to the development of the Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts, still in use in the Byzantine Rite, were so significant that he is generally recognized as its de facto author.
Constantine
was a Roman Emperor from 306 to 337 AD of Thracian-Illyrian ancestry. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman army officer, and his consort Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west in 293 AD. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under the emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia. Acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum (Modern-day York) after his father's death in 306 AD, Constantine emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324 AD.
Fatimid dynasty
was a Shia Islamic caliphate, which spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. The dynasty ruled across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of the caliphate. At its height, the caliphate included in addition to Egypt varying areas of the Maghreb, Sudan, Sicily, the Levant, and Hijaz. The Fatimids claimed to be descended from Fatima bint Muhammad the daughter of Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Fatimids conquered North Africa and their Fatimid state took shape among the Kutama, in the Western North of Africa, particularly Algeria
Boudica
was queen of the British Iceni tribe, a Celtic tribe who led an uprising against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire. Boudica's husband Prasutagus was ruler of the Iceni tribe. He ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome and left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman emperor in his will. However, when he died, his will was ignored and the kingdom was annexed as if conquered. Boudica was flogged, her daughters were raped, and Roman financiers called in their loans.
Octavian: aka Augustus:
was the founder of the Roman Empire and its first Emperor, ruling from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.[note 3] He was born Gaius Octavius into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian Octavii family. Following the assassination of his maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Caesar's will named Octavius as his adopted son and heir. Together with Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus, he formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators.[note 4] The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart under the competing ambitions of its members: Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, and Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by Augustus in 31 BC.
Pax Romana
was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by the Roman military force experienced by the Roman Empire after the end of the Final War of the Roman Republic and before the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century. The Pax Romana is said to have been a "miracle" because prior to it there had never been peace for so many centuries in a given period of human history.
Abbasid Caliphate
was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Abbasid dynasty descended from Muhammad's youngest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566-653 CE), whose name was the derivation of the caliphate. They ruled as caliphs, for most of their period from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after taking back authority of the Muslim empire from the Umayyads in 750 CE (132 AH).
Huns
were a nomadic group of people who are known to have lived in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia between the 1st century AD and the 7th century. The Huns may have stimulated the Great Migration, a contributing factor in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.[9] They formed a unified empire under Attila the Hun, who died in 453 AD; their empire broke up the next year.
Cathars
were a religious group who appeared in Europe in the eleventh century, their origins something of a mystery though there is reason to believe their ideas came from Persia or the Byzantine Empire, by way of the Balkans and Northern Italy.
