Human Development Psychology Chapter 9

zygote

(a fertilized ovum) that typically has 23 pairs of chromosomes

Chromosomal abnormalities

(e.g. Down Syndrome, extra 21st chromosome) - arise during embryonic stage

Conventional Level (Most Adolescents and Adults)

-based on standards of group or society; because lack ability to reason abstractly, apply rules to every person and every situation very rigidly. Exceptions based on circumstance not considered. Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation. Moral rightness is based on maintaining the approval and/or avoiding the disapproval of others such as family and friends. "I will return the rest of the money so my parents won't be disappointed in me." Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation. Moral rightness is based on following the rules or laws of the society. Exceptions to the rules are not allowed. "Stealing is wrong because it is against the law."

Postconventional Level (Some but Not All Adults)

-can appreciate extenuating circumstances, can see some limitations in how society's standards are applied Stage 5: Contractual/Legalistic Orientation. Exceptions to rules can now be considered, as the protection of individual rights is emphasized over societal laws. "I confessed to the crime, but I was not told I had a right to remain silent, so the confession is not valid." Stage 6: Universal Principles Orientation. Individuals develop their own set of universal principles that guide their judgments of right and wrong across all situations and all societies. "All people, regardless of skin color, should have access to education."

Although controversial, the most widely discussed theory of how we face our own death is that of Elisabeth Kubler-Ross:

1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance DABDA

grief stages

1. Impact phase 2. Confrontation phase 3. Accommodation phase

The prenatal period is divided into the following three stages

1.The germinal stage - conception to 14 days; original cell begins to divide (2, 4, 8) and travels down fallopian tube to uterus -around 5th day, the zygote reaches 100 cells and is called a blastocyst -around 9th day blastocyst implants in lining of uterus 2. The embryonic stage - 3rd to 8th week; now called an embryo; formation and development of major organs and systems; cells start to specialize into bone, blood, muscle; most vulnerable stage; most miscarriages and genetic defects surface during this state; particularly susceptible to outside factors -by the end of the embryonic stage, all basic body structures have formed -at about 4 weeks the heart beats 3. The fetal stage - 9th week to 9th month; continued growth and maturation; from 9th week until birth = fetus Refer to your text to see when each of these stages occurs and what happens during each one. An important prenatal age is about 24 weeks, which is the age of viability. This means that if the child had to come out of its mother's womb, there is a possibility that it could survive.

when you're conceived

23 chromosomes from sperm pari with 23 chromosomes from egg

Gestation period for humans

38-40 weeks

Goals of development

By the time they become adults they are so well-practiced at being culture-members that they follow the rules and patterns of a culture automatically and unconsciously

Sensorimotor

Child understands the world through their sensory perceptions and motor behaviors Object permanence Language acquisition Imitation (symbolic thinking)

Erikson's psychosocial development (1963)

Children and adults progress through 8 stages or developmental crises throughout the lifespan At each stage, the environment and the person's responses to the environment influence the development of either a health or unhealthy personality characteristic An unhealthy resolution of a stage can have potential negative effects throughout life Trust vs. Mistrust (1st year): challenge is to develop a sense of security. When an infants needs are consistently met = more likely to develop trust Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 yrs): Developmental challenge is to develop independence. Must negotiate the balance between independence and dependence. Belittling efforts and independence or encouraging dependence = shame and doubt Initiative vs. guilt (3-6 yrs): Developmental challenge is to learn to try new things. Children explore the environment and develop schemas of what a person "ought" to do...if they get conflicting messages about the expectations of others = guilt Industry vs. inferiority (6-12 yrs): challenge is to develop a sense of mastery and competence. Can be facilitated or hampered by the feedback given when mastering skills at home and school Erikson saw adolescence and adulthood as a process of building, modifying, and sustaining personal identity Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): teens must figure out their sense of self, personal values and beliefs. Who they are and what they value and believe in, constantly trying new roles...can fail to establish stable identity, role confusion Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood): developmental challenge is learning to commit to a mutually loving relationship. Longer term commitment to a partner (but can also include non-romantic friendship). Intimacy requires that people refine and modify their identity to accommodate the values and interests of another; intimacy characterized by cooperation, tolerance, and acceptance of others' views Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): developmental task is to feel that you've contributed to society through work, family, or community involvement. Need to feel that we have made significant and meaningful contribution to the world around us. Stagnation leads to a sense of failure and absence of meaningful purpose in life. Identity vs. despair (later adulthood): developmental task is to look back and view one's life as satisfactory and worthwhile. Near end of lifespan, tend to review life and choices. When evaluation is generally positive = integrity, allow us to face death without fear or regret.

Concrete Operations

Children begin thinking rationally about concrete events, but still have difficulty with understanding abstract or hypothetical problems Can complete the preoperational tasks, but tend to rely on trial and error rather than thinking a problem through

Preoperational

Children can mentally represent events and objects and engage in symbolic play Conservation, Centration, Irreversibility, Egocentrism, Animism

German perspective

German mothers were concerned when watching the Nso motor stimulation practices They viewed these practices as pushing infants beyond what they can and should do at that age They were surprised at the motor precocity of infants, but did not connect the motor ability they observed with the motor stimulation practices of the mothers Instead German mothers talked about the interactional qualities between the mothers and children: "they get along very well with each other"; "you have the feeling that they like each other very much" This interactional quality was rarely stressed by the Nso mothers.

Authoritative

High warmth and responsiveness with firm, fair boundaries

Permissive

High warmth and responsiveness, but provide few firm guidelines

Formal Operations

Individuals develop the ability to think logically about abstract concepts and become more systematic in their approach to problem-solving. Solving novel problems with several steps (with logic rather than trial and error)

Culture and Development: Parental Ethnotheories

Keller et al. wanted to study the ethnotheories that motivated practices of motor stimulation Video taped Nso and German parenting practices and showed them to other Nso and German parents, then asked their opinions Here is what one Nso mother said about motor stimulation practices: "The motor stimulation affects primarily the "places" [viree, which represents their expression for the joints]. Through stimulation, the places become lighter and relaxed and with this the child becomes stronger and develop well and healthy. The Nso do things that the "places" of the infant become active so that the child can also play." More results: Ethnotheory about motor stimulation The Nso mothers were concerned about German practice of babies spending long periods of time laying on their backs: "taking into consideration the age of the child, his back can be aching through this long extended laying on the back [terre]" "She is still an infant and these places need to be trained [nyingnin] otherwise weakness and bad functioning of the legs and backbone will results" "Children feel uncomfortable from the long laying position which hurts the back. It is not good for the spinal cord, growth and development of the child."

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg proposes 3 stages of moral development: 1) Preconventional Morality: emphasis on compliance with rules to avoid punishment and gain rewards 2) Conventional Morality: emphasis on conformity to rules that are defined by others' approval or society's rules 3) Postconventional Morality: emphasis on moral reasoning based on individual principles and conscience

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Model

Mental processes begin externally with our social interactions with others (as opposed to internal schemas)

Uninvolved

Parents seem indifferent to children

Motor stimulation is adaptive to context

Showing early motor abilities is necessary and adaptive for the contexts in which the Nso live Reduces parental investment (can stop carrying children earlier) Increases resources because children are able to contribute to family activities sooner Motor stimulation practices happen mainly in farming communities where children's help is needed Cultures foster precocity in the areas that are valued and necessary in their contexts German families are less concerned with children's early participation in chores

Preconventional Level (Most Children)

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation. Children obey rules to avoid punishment. "Taking a cookie without asking is wrong because you get a timeout." Stage 2: Naively Egoistic Orientation. Children view morally right action as that which increases their personal rewards and meets their needs. "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours."

Authoritarian

Stress on obedience and control, low on warmth and responsiveness

Strange Situation

The cross-cultural validity of this method has been questioned The separation that occurs in the strange situation may have different meanings in different cultures Japanese infants are rarely separated from their mothers, so the Strange Situation could represent an unusually high stress situation for these infants Some cultures value communal caretaking where children are more used to being cared for by multiple members of the group, perhaps making the strange situation less strange

Our schema either fits with the world or it does not

When schema fits world (sucking pacifier) = mental equilibrium When schema does not fit world (trying to suck sand) = mental disequilibrium = uncomfortable, we are motivated to fix via assimilation or accommodation According to Piaget, assimilation and accommodation create shifts in mental processing that allow child to progress through 4 stages of cognitive development

Schema

a mental idea, concept, or thought formed based on experiences with world; guides future understanding and action

Scaffolding

a process in which adults initially offer guidance and support in helping child to reason, solve problem or master a task; the adult helps less and less until the child can master the task on their own

Cognitive Development

a specialty in psychology that studies how thinking skills develop over time

Precocity

an ability or skill that is achieved much earlier than usual

Reflexes

an automatic response to a specific environmental stimulus Help infant learn about environment and help establish important neural connections that facilitate later voluntary motor behaviors Sucking, rooting, grasping, crying, smiling, crawling, stepping

Attachment

an emotional bond between an infant and someone or something; an infants first attachment with his/her caregiver is typically established by 8 or 9 mo.

Teratogen

an environmental substance that has the potential to harm the developing organism (e.g., drugs, alcohol, German measles, even chemical like cleaning fluids)

2. Resistant attachment

appear to ignore parent, pay little attention to parent, do not appear to be distressed when parent leaves, show little emotional response when parent returns

Conceptual issue

attachment looks different across cultures.

Development

changes in behavior and abilities over our lifetime Physical Cognitive Socioemotional Great variety among developmental psychologists in terms of age of study and kind of development Real world application

Mary Ainsworth's strange situation experiment

demonstrated that there are different attachment styles

Stranger Anxiety

distress an infant expresses when faced with unfamiliar people (starts ~8-10 mo, usually subsides over second year)

Ethic of Autonomy:

emphasizes individual rights and justice (matches Kohlberg's theory) Individual choices and freedoms emphasized to the extent that they do not harm others or impinge on the freedom of others Equality and respect for all individuals highlighted

Ethic of Community

emphasizes interpersonal relationships and community. What is right/good for the social group (family, community, or nation) is emphasized Focuses on considering ones duty, obligation, and roles in the group. (example of filial piety, oijen)

Ethic of Divinity

emphasizes the centrality of religious beliefs and spirituality in moral reasoning

Separation anxiety

fear an infant expresses when separated from caretaker (starts ~6-7 mo, peaks at 14-18 mo)

Zone of Proximal Development

gap between what a child is already able to do and what he or she is not yet capable of doing without help

Sensitive Period

in prenatal development, a time when genetic and environmental agents are most likely to cause birth defects Embryonic stage most vulnerable; sometimes a women does not know she is pregnant until the embryo is already formed and developing = may unknowingly expose embryo to harm. Exposure to drugs and alcohol in utero is related to numerous physical and behavioral/emotional effects down the road Smoking associated with reduced flow of O2 to fetus, irritability, respiratory problems, and low birth weight Alcohol - heavy drinking associated with Fetal alcohol syndrome = low birth weight, brain abnormalities, and lowered intellectual functioning, limb, head, and facial deformities; moderate drinking associated with later intellectual impairments b/c can interfere with brain development, increased risk of low birth weight and poorer visual acuity in infants

Nature

individual characteristics (such as intelligence) are determined by genes and are not learned

Keller et al. (2002)

looked at motor stimulation practices and motor stimulation precocity in several African cultures

Gross-motor skills

motor behaviors involving large muscles of the body (running, walking, hopping)

Fine-motor skills

motor behaviors involving small muscles of the body (writing, using utensils) A little later in developing than gross-motor skills

Nurture

ndividual characteristics molded by environmental influences (parents, school, culture); acquired by experience "total effect of all the external environmental events and circumstances that influence your development"

Neonate

newborn up to 28 days old

Motor stimulation practices

precocity in motor ability in the African cultures studied

4. Disorganized/Disoriented attachment

seem confused or disoriented, look away from parent while being comforted and have blank facial expression after being calmed

Harlow and Zimmerman (1959)

studied attachment in infant rhesus monkeys. Attachment initially thought to to have mainly to do with food...infants attach to mothers because they are a source of food. Artificial surrogate mothers: wire mother w/food vs. soft cloth mother w/o food The infant monkeys went to the wire mom for food, but spend most of their time cuddling with the cloth-covered mom Showed that feeding was not the reason for attachment, was close warm contact that most facilitated attachment ***Establishing close, warm contact through holding and caressing facilitates attachment Signs of attachment: smile when caretaker approaches, raise hands toward caretaker to be picked up, nestle close when held

Interactionism

the (now dominant) perspective that our genes and environmental influences work together and interact to determine our characteristics

Piaget's theory

the most well-known and most studied theory of cognitive development development based in observing his own and other Swiss children This theory described how children acquire their mental abilities (cognitive development) Along with this theory he developed a series of tasks that tested a child's ability and classified his stage of development

Accommodation

the process by which a schema is changed, modified, or created anew in order to understand something new in the environment

Assimilation

the process by which an existing schema is used to understand something new in the environment

Measurement issue

the strange situation may not have equivalent meaning in all cultures

Emerging adulthood

the transitional period between late adolescence and the mid-20's (or early 30's...) when young people have left adolescence but have not yet assumed adult roles and responsibilities

1. Secure attachment

use parent as a supportive base from which to operate and explore. May or may not cry when parent leaves, but this emotional upset quickly subsides when parent returns

Rogoff Chapter and Guidelines for Studying Culture

"Culture isn't what other people do" "Understanding one's own cultural heritage, as well as other cultural communities, requires taking the perspective of people of contrasting backgrounds." "Cultural practices fit together and are connected" "Cultural communities continue to change, as do individuals" "There is not likely to be One Best Way"

3. Avoidant attachment

"clinging" remain close to parent, not actively explore new situation, show extreme distress when the parent leaves and appear to be angry when parent returns, not easily consoled

Ethnocentrism

"making judgments that another cultural community's ways are immoral, unwise, or inappropriate based in one's own cultural background without taking into account the meaning and circumstances of events in that community" (Rogoff, 2003, p.35) Deficit models are based on ethnocentrism There are MULTIPLE goals of development, so there is no one best way to do parenting