IB History - Indian Independence
Satyagraha
"Soul Force" bringing about political change through peaceful non-cooperation (strikes, boycotts of British schools, goods, courts, etc.). Appealed to traditional cultural values, which helped connect to Indian peasantry. Exploited British economic dependence on India and appealed to elite who feared armed struggle and radicals.
Muslim League
1906 Muslims form their own organization to protect their minority interests. had similar dominance of middle and upper-class membership.
First Round Table Conference
1930 in Britain, no INC representatives so was boycotted. Later viceroy Irwin released and met with Gandhi and they agreed to call off civil disobedience campaign and recognize development of an indigenous Indian manufacturing.
Second Round Table Conference
1931, didn't advance India's cause, so Gandhi renewed civil disobedience. in 1932 Gandhi is arrested again, sparking more mass protests.
Life Expectancy
1950 - 32 years, 2010 - 66 years. Government allocated funding to health services - also caused huge population growth.
Economic impact of WWII
Britain borrows heavily from India to fund the war (in debt to India).
Outbreak of WWII (1939)
Britain postpones reforms of Government of India Act and the viceroy commits India to the Allies w/o consulting the Indian legislative council.
Armitsar Massacre
British general orders troops to open fire on unarmed crowd of protestors, killing 379 people and injuring 1000. Increased support for INC and end of British rule. Gandhi emerges after as a dominant nationalist figure.
Conflict in Bengal
British partition Bengal province (1905) splitting up the Bengali-speaking Hindus majority, making Muslims and Oriya-speaking Hindus the majority. Sparked anti-partition movement that used petitions, protests, rallies and importantly boycotts, which dropped British imports by 25%. British react w/ mass arrests with limited impact.
August 1947
British rule over India comes to an end, splitting British India into India and Pakistan. Millions had to scramble to be on the right side of the border depending on their ethnicity and religion.
Election of 1952
Congress Party wins overwhelming majority (75% of parliament seats), in part bc opposition was fragmented, and wins many successive elections.
Quit India Campaign (August 1942)
Congress rejects delay of independence, relaunches non-cooperation campaign. Britain responds by detaining 60,000 Indians (including Congress leaders), banning the organization
The non-cooperation campaign (1920-22)
First large scale civil disobedience campaign. Involved boycott of British goods + wearing of homespun. Ended in 1922 following the outbreak of violence at Chauri Chaura
Bose's Indian National Army
Fought in WWII alongside the Japanese and put on trial for treason, making them national heroes for nationalist movement. Sparked mass protests, including a Mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy, forcing the British to suspend their sentences, but this did not stop the protests.
The Salt March (1930)
Gandhi marches to the coast of India to collect natural salt, symbolically breaking the law with worldwide media coverage. These protests spread across India and by the end of 1930, 100,000 people had been arrested, including Gandhi.
Jinnah's contributions
Had a constitutional/political approach. He grew increasingly disillusioned with Hindu dominated INC and wanted to establish Muslim League as sole representative of Indian Muslims. Agitated for division of India and instructed for direct action.
Gandhi's contributions
Had a public image as a Hindu holy man, w/ satyagraha, non-violent, mass civil disobedience approach. Transformed nationalist movement into a mass movement. Adept at propaganda. Criticized for focus on Hindu culture - not understanding valid fears of Muslim minority.
Mohammed Ali Jinnah
Head of the Muslim League (later the founder of Pakistan). wanted to co-operate w/ INC to draft constitutional reforms in exchange for security of Muslim minority, but INC rejected his offer b/c of Hindu nationalist pressures.
Official and Recognized Languages
Hindi and English; 14 major languages
Bharatiya Jan Sangh (BJS)
Hindu nationalist party which only won 3% of the vote in 1952 general elections. Far later (1980s) would it become a more powerful force.
Kashmir
India and Pakistan fought a war over this region (Dec 1947-Jan 1949) before UN arranged ceasefire and divided region in 2. neither side is satisfied.
Jamshedpur Steel Complex
India becomes the largest producer of steel in British Empire during WWII. Example of India industrialized on a scale previously unknown.
Non-Alignment policy
India does not ally with the Western or Soviet blocs.
Mercantilism and De-industrialization
India forced to supply raw materials for manufacturing in Britain and to buy the manufactured goods back from Britain. This benefited Britain, but also made Britain economically dependent on India. India became dependent on foods grown elsewhere because land was being used to grow cash crops.
Impact of WWI
India supplies large numbers of soldiers and resources. Indians hoped their sacrifices in war would get them greater independence, so supported war effort. Indians saw higher living standards in Europe. WWI heightened nationalist sentiments and caused a boom in Indian industry.
British Political Interests
Indian soldiers were used to serve British interests around the world and India became source of indentured labor until 1920
Gandhi's assassination
January 30, 1948. Assassinated by right-wing Hindu nationalist and supporter of RSS. Strengthened support and power of secularists, helped calm communal tensions in Indian state.
Direct Action Day (Aug 16, 1946)
Jinnah calls for direct action for support of Muslim League's demands for partition. Leads to rioting and widespread communal violence between Hindus and Muslims.
Subhas Chandra Bose
Leader of Indian National Congress faction who believed violence in defense of Indian nationalism was justifiable; formed the Indian National Army
Untouchables
Lowest level of Indian caste system, suffered much discrimination. Gandhi fought for greater rights for them and reforms in the caste system. Encouraged social integration and signaled that post-colonial India would have values of social-equality for all.
Stafford Cripps
March 1942, sent to India to negotiate w/ nationalists. makes commitment to granting Indian independence after the war is over if the Congress committed to the war effort.
Muslim League during WWII
Muslim League cooperated with the British and accepted Cripps offer, but demanded a two-state solution. Support for Britain gave them more negotiating power w/ them.
Mughal Empire
Muslim state (1526-1857) exercising dominion over most of India in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Mohandas Gandhi
Nationalist leader in India who championed non-violent resistance and expanded the nationalist movement from an elitist movement to a mass movement.
Status of Women
New equal rights in inheritance, property ownership and marriage. difficult to change traditional attitudes, especially in rural areas. improvement in # of girls in school, but still lagged behind especially in rural areas. Literacy rate was significantly lower for women compared to men.
Bangladesh
Pakistan is divided by 1500 km of Indian territory - East Pakistan declares independence from Pakistan bc Bengali people resented Urdu dominance in Pakistan.
Disputes over assets
Pakistan reluctantly accepts bad deal which gave them 17.5% of financial assets while having 23% of land area. Pakistan given 1/3 of troops and used scarce resources to fund military, making them dependent on foreign aid and economic development.
Main Economic Challenges in India
Poverty, unemployment, landlessness, unequal distribution of resources
Punjab
Province partitioned, splitting up Sikh minority, whose demands for their own state were ignored. Mass migration of Sikhs and Hindus to East Punjab, leading to deteriorating of law and order and up to a million people killed. One example of what occurred in multiple regions.
1937 Provincial Elections
Right to vote by property qualifications, so only wealthy population could vote. Landslide 70% victory for INC, Muslim League wins only 5% of Muslim vote.
India's First Constitution (Jan 26, 1950)
Secular. Separation of religion and state. freedom of religion and any citizen could hold public office.
Sikh Separatism
Sikh's wanted separate state bc were major minority in India - remained unresolved.
British Economic Relations with India
Taxes collected from Indians were used to fund British economic benefits and subjects India to a mercantilist system which benefited Britain.
Great Calcutta Killing (1946)
Thousands of people killed during communal violence
Caste System
a set of rigid social categories that determined a person's position in society and economic potential by heredity
Indian Foreign Policy
anti-colonialism, anti-racism, member of the Commonwealth. Regained more small territories when more colonial control from France was given up. good working relationship w/ China, but competed to be the leading Asian nation and relations strained when India gave refuge to fleeing Dalai Lama.
Abolition of Untouchability
class of untouchables abolished and given same rights as others, access to land, education, etc. Caste oppression still common in rural areas.
self-rule (swaraj)
complete independence from Britain and self-government
British Control over India
enforced by a large army and administration, which was funded by taxes paid by Indians. brought an efficient judicial system and administration, but ruled on the assumption of British superiority to Indians.
Government of India Act of 1935
gave more control of provinces to elected Indian ministers - Britain retained control thru emergency powers whenever deemed necessary - too little, too late.
Viceroy
highest official in colonial administration that ruled India on behalf of the British monarch and provided efficient, authoritarian government.
Economic consequences of Partition
huge financial burden of resettlement of refugees. abrupt partition of existing infrastructure, communication, trade, etc. many people left all of their belongings behind to migrate.
Khalifat Movement
initially formed for Muslims to protect Ottoman Empire - after its fall, turned to be a Indian nationalist group that was a major supporter of Gandhi. Muslim and Hindu unity in the nationalist movement.
Colonial Legacy of English
intially had a provision to phase English out and replace w/ Hindi, but use of Hindi was controversial (protested violently by Tamil-speakers), so English remained lingua franca. Perpetuated division between educated 5% who spoke English and the rest who didn't.
Political Challenges in Pakistan
lack of continuity of leadership constitution failed to provide stable democracy - miltiary takeover
Jawaharlal Nehru
left wing INC leader, impatient with Gandhi's conservative approach. Would succeed Gandhi as INC leader, negotiate end of British colonial rule and become India's first prime minister (1947-1964).
Education in India
low literacy rates (16%). Aims of compulsory education for all not truly achieved. Emphasis on science and tech in new universities/research establishments to support economic goals.
Salt Tax
made it illegal for ordinary Indians to manufacture or sell salt
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS)
militaristic right wing Hindu organization which opposed creation of a secular India. openly anti-Muslim and envisioned India as a land solely of and for Hindus. Had a campaign of hatred against Gandhi, and believed that non-violence was self-destructive.
Indian National Congress (INC)
nationalist organization founded 1885. Initially more conservative goals of calling for greater Indian representation in legislatures. represented the interests of the wealthy middle class, did not have mass support. Was mostly Hindus, but believed that religious or caste interests were secondary to the interests of India as a whole.
Economic effects of partition in Pakistan
over 90% of industry in India and most railways, hydroelectric plants. economy was mainly agriculture, few exports, most people were poor farmers. many of refugees fleeing to Pakistan were unskilled rural laborers - shortage of skills for new admin.
Gandhi's spinning wheel
promoted hand-woven cloth and spinning as symbolic of self-reliance and rejection of foreign-made goods - symbol of nationalist movement
Incorporation of Princely States
rulers were given ability to decide which state to join - all except 3 chose voluntarily to retain right to some of their wealth/privilege
British East India Company
set up trading posts beginning of the 17th century; by middle of the 19th century expanded control to large parts of India
Green Revolution (late 1960s)
shifted focus of economic policy to agriculture. attempted to make India self-sufficient agriculturally. intensified regional disparities, social divisions.
Five Year Plans
successful in promoting industrial growth, which was financed abroad and Nehru was extremely careful to limit foreign influence and avoid neo-colonialim. Agriculture and Land reform still significant problem - couldn't keep up w/ population growth
The great Bengal Famine of 1943
the British redirect food imports to feed their army rather than India - 2 million Indians starve to death
Indian Rebellion of 1857
uprising against EIC control supported by Mughal emperor which provoked British government intervention. India becomes part of the British Empire.
India before the British
very diverse religiously, linguistically. two biggest groups were Hindus and Muslims.
