Infant and Child Development Exam 2
explain the role of culture and experience in the achievement of motor milestones. consider effects of values places on particular milestones, use of external supports, and cultural views on sleep patterns for babies
"piggyback" style of carrying promotes earlier sitting and walking. some cultures encourage early sitting and walking by providing daily text. some cultures discourage crawling and walking. Balinese believe babies are divine for 3-7 months and can't touch ground, carried in sling or on hip. Beng believe babies sitting and crawling is something to be proud of, but walking should be discouraged until 1 year. Americans believe early walking should be encouraged, support babied in walking upright, use special aids to promote walking. after 3 months, babies who used walkers sat, crawled, and walked later (supported weight, had to relearn). back sleeping slows down typical pattern of motor development
how does prejudice develop in children? what patterns are found for implicit versus explicit biases?
2 years- preferences towards own group 3-5 years- attribute positive traits to own group, enhanced views 6-12 years- knowledge of stereotypes and prejudice increases, so prejudice dies down. detecting features in a setting that distinguishes groups of people, watching in groups view of other group's people as well as who makes up the in group
describe the development of self-concept in preschool and school age children- what dimensions are evident at different ages?
2-3 years- ownership, I, me, mine 3-5 years- physical characteristics, possessions, self-descriptions 5-11 years- concept of self in separate domains 12+ years- future orientation
what differences are found in 6- and 9-month-olds' ability to discriminate primate faces? what is the significance of these differences?
6 month olds can discriminate between primates' faces in addition to humans. by 9 months it is only with humans. during the first year, the face processing system becomes tuned to a human template. by 9 months, fine tuning and synaptic pruning eliminates the ability to discriminate primate faces
what aspect of temperament does Jerome Kagan believe has a biological basis and what is the theory of attachment (Bowlby)
Kagan- shyness. it's more stable over time than other temperaments and inhibited children display more intense physiological arousal in novel situations Bowlby- children who form an attachment, an enduring social-emotional relationship to an adult, are more likely to survive
how does feedback from adults to children affect the development of learned helplessness and different mindsets?
wording of praise/negative comments. adults can help children learn they can change the situations they are in
how does experience contribute to the development of the ORE according to the article by Lee et al. (2017)?
ORE is a result of early asymmetrical exposure to own- versus other-race faces. formation of an "other", out-group category. positive interactions with own-race faces. implicit racial bias. training preschool children to recognize other-race faces reduces their implicit racial bias
Kelly et al. (2007) argued that the Other Race Effect (ORE) develops during infancy. how did they study this and what did they find?
ORE- difficulty in recognizing face and reading emotion for members of another race discrimination of faces from different racial groups in 3, 6, and 9 months old caucasian infants using habituation paradigm. 3 months, infants recognized adult faces from a variety of racial groups. by 9 months, only recognize faces from own race, evidence for ORE
what is emotional self-regulation and how does it develop during childhood? why is this important?
a form of self control influenced by age, cognitive development, and temperament. begins in infancy (look away when frightened/confused). develop more effective mental strategies. if they don't regulate their emotions, tend to have problems
how is self concept and self esteem measured in preschool and school-aged children (3-12 years)?
academic, social, emotional, and physical characteristics
describe the development of achievement-related attributions. what are mastery oriented attributions and learned helplessness? what is the difference between growth/fixed mindset?
achievement-related attributions- explanations for success/failures. based on mindset, which develops from feedback from authority figures mastery oriented attributions- crediting success and failure to effort learned helplessness- crediting success and failure to ability; accept you're not good at it fixed mindset- belief that one's ability and intelligence is unchangeable growth mindset- belief that intelligence can grow
what are the characteristics of a difficult baby?
active, irregular in daily habits, reacts negatively (and vigorously) to change in routines
how does learning to walk affect social development?
allows infants to get distant objects and share them with others
describe developments in infants' perception of faces. what changes seen in scanning and discrimination from birth-12 months?
babies prefer normal faces over scrambled, upright over inverted, and attractive over ugly. they are able to imitate facial patterns. at 2-3 months, different circuits in the brain distinguish different faces. at 3-6 months they have a general prototype of a human v nonhuman face, distinct features on face, and can detect emotion. at 9 months, they use social referencing. at 1-5 years, they can fine-tune the prototype of a face so that it reflects faces that are familiar to the environment
how does children's understanding of other people develop?
begin by describing others in terms of concrete features, such as behavior and appearance, and progress to describing them in terms of abstract traits. thinking moves from egocentric to recursive (perspective taking- theory of mind?)
how well do infants hear? how do they use sound to understand their world?
can hear 7-8 months after conception. infants are sensitive to sounds, but not like adults. can differentiate vowels and consonants. 4 1/2- can recognize their name and differentiate musical sounds. respond to much information provided by sound by the middle of the first year. can hear sounds that have pitches in the range of human speech
what are the characteristics of attachment and how does it develop, according to the ethological theory of attachment (Bowlby)
characteristics- proximity seeking, separation anxiety, stranger wariness, secure base develop- single-main attachment, internal working model: expectations about a caregiver's responsibility
how does prejudice develop according to developmental intergroup theory (DIT)?
children are motivated to understand their social worlds; young children may focus on things that they see; may be innate tendency
what are display rules and how do they develop?
culturally specific standards for appropriate expressions of emotion in a particular setting or with particular people. children learn about emotions by hearing parents talk about emotions, how they differ, and situations that elicit them. a positive, rewarding relationship with parents and siblings helps understand emotions
describe the development of depth perception in infancy; explain the importance of size constancy and the visual cliff experiment. does the visual cliff experiment test for depth perception or fear of heights or both (and why)?
discrimination of cues for depth perception- kinetic cues (1 month), visual expansion (1 month), motion parallax (1 month), retinal disparity (4 months), pectoral cues (6-7 months) size constancy- an object's actual size remains the same despite changes in the size of its retinal image visual cliff- a glass-covered platform with a pattern on all pieces, causing a "cliff" to appear in the middle. after several weeks of crawling, babies will not cross. babies learned to interpret the depth information. depth perception develops as a result of discrimination of visual cues and experience with locomotion. fear of heights then develops
how do securely attached babies react to the still face demonstration?
distraught while occurring, happy when parent "returns"
in what ways does the environment contribute to child temperament?
effects of parenting style, children with different temperaments may elicit different environmental responses. some children with DRD4 gene may be more susceptible to environmental influences due to their temperament
what factors influence the development of self esteem?
ethnicity, culture, self-worth, parents' discipline, peer views
what are the characteristics of an easy baby?
even-tempered, positive mood, open and adaptable to new experiences, habits are regular and predictable
what are basic emotions and when do they develop? how do basic emotions change with development?
experienced worldwide, consists of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior. believed that babies experience broad positive and negative emotional states. differentiate rapidly until 6 months when they experience all basic emotions. 1st month, reflexive smile, 2-3 months social smile. of the negative emotions, anger appear first (4-6 months). stranger wariness develops at 6 months
what's an in-group bias and when is it evident in infants/children?
favoring members of own group over members of other groups. seen as early as age 2
according to Brummelman et al. (2014), how does praise from adults affect children's self esteem?
for children with low self esteem, inflated praise increases pressure to perform at exceptional levels and decreases challenge seeking
which aspects of Bowlby's theory have been supported by research and which have not?
have- stages, internal working model, sensitive period, long-term effects haven't- infants can be attached to more than one person; sensitive period, not critical; children can form attachments after 3 years; negative affects are avoided in infant is able to form attachment even if it's not the mother
what evidence is there for genetic contributions to temperament, i.e., that temperament is biologically rooted?
identical twins more alike in temperament than fraternal twins
according to DIT, what factors and characteristics of the social environment contribute to bias (and how)?
implicit grouping, proportional group size, group labeling, noticeable similarities of in-group groups are segregated and treated differently -> children conceptualize groups as different -> show preferential bias towards own group
what are the characteristics of a slow-to-warm-up baby?
inactive, moody, slow to adapt to new situations, responds to change with passive resistance
what do the results of the study by Johnson et al. (2007) described in lecture tell us about the development of internal working models of attachment?
infants attachment experiences are reflecting in their mental representations of social interactions
operant conditioning
infants learn relationships between their behavior and a reward
how does self-esteem change with age?
infants- basic needs meant preschool- highest self esteem elementary- drops somewhat, realization of self, stabilizes middle- drops at first and then increases after adjustment to new school
Adolph argues hat infants are "learning to learn" when developing locomotion skills. what does she mean and how is her view different from the maturation view of motor development? why does Adolph propose that there are 4 learning curves when infants are learning to use information?
learning to sit, crawl, cruise, or walks. infants learn how to adapt to current biomechanics constraints. what infants learn in one posture must be relearned in a new posture, taking into consideration the new constraints for the new posture
explain ways in which culture affects emotional development
many asian countries discourage outward displays of emotion. differ in events that trigger emotion (pride/shame). most east asian countries practicing buddhism don't respond with anger
what methods have been used to study self concept in infants and pre-verbal children?
mirror recognition test (baby wipes smudge off of nose) and shopping cart study (where baby stands on rug attached to cart)
how does Dynamic Systems theory explain motor development?
motor development involves many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized overtime to meet the demands of specific tasks differentiation- mastery of component skills integration- combining them in proper sequence into a coherent, working as a whole to meet the demand of the specific tasks
how do infants integrate information from different senses?
multimedia events. nursing mother provides visual and taste cues, rattle gives vision, hearing, and touch cues. babies can visually recognize an object they've touched before. they can detect visual-auditory relations. they link their own body to music. perception is easier for babies because the regions in the brain voted to sensory processing are not yet specialized
when are babies able to taste?
newborns can differentiate salty, sour, sweet, and bitter. most prefer salty/sweet sensitive to changes in mother's milk when breastfed
when are babies able to smell?
newborns react accordingly to pleasant and unpleasant smells. young babies recognize familiar smells
when can babies respond to touch?
newborns' bodies respond reflexively (cheek, mouth, hand, foot)
Bar-Haim et al. (2006) studied infants' preferences for faces from different races. what did they find and how do their results contribute to our understanding of how the ORE develops?
own-race processing found in infancy differential experience hypothesis- people tend to have more contact with faces from their own race and therefore develop expertise at recognizing own-race faces. studied with preferential looking in homogeneous own-race environments, preference from own-race at 3 months
when can babies experience pain?
pain cry in response to expected stimulus
describe how attachment is measures; describe the Strange Situation method devised by Ainsworth
parent and infant play, parent sits with infant, stranger joins, parent leaves, parent returns, stranger leaves, parent leaves (separation anxiety), stranger returns (stranger anxiety), parent returns (reunion behavior)
explain what is meant by an internal working model of attachment
parents' attachment to their own parents, representation of what a relationship is
what is ADHD and what is the best treatment?
problems with paying attention. hyperactivity, inattention, impulsivity. can be treated by stimulants such as ritalin, but the best treatment is medication with psychosocial treatment
EEG recordings
recording of the brain during perception is able to tell when a discrimination is being made by activating different areas of the brain
dishabituation
responding to an old stimulus as if it was new again
what are the long-term consequences of secure and insecure attachment?
secure- fewer behavior problems able to form better relationships insecure- health and relationship problems
what are the 4 pattens of attachment/insecurity and how are they identified from the strange situation?
secure- upset when mother leaves, not consoled by stranger, happy upon mother's return (60-65%) insecure/resistent- distressed when mother leaves, rejects mother upon return (10-15%) insecure/avoidant- unconcerned with mother's presence, shows little interest upon return, associated with unresponsive primary care (20%) disorganized/disoriented- avoidant when mother returns or dazed and confused, associated with non-responsive or abusive parenting
what are complex emotions and when do they develop? how are they related to development of self-concept?
self-conscious emotions- involve feelings of success when one's standards/expectations are met, or failure. don't surface until 18-24 months, depends on child having some understanding of self (15-18 months)
explain the goodness-of-fit model of the relationship between temperament and environment. how does this concept apply to research by Stephen Suomi?
whether or not temperamental patterns persist depends on the goodness of fit between child's temperament and parental childrearing. affects child's self-concept and susceptibility to anxiety and depression
what is temperament and how has it been studied (i.e. what dimensions are included) by Thomas and Chess and by Rothbart?
temperament- constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations as well as relative stability over time Thomas and Chess- studied 9 behaviors in infants and children (activity level, approach or withdrawal, rhythmicity [regularity], adaptability, threshold of responsiveness, intensity of reaction, quality of mood, distractibility, attention span, and persistence); 3 types of infants (easy, difficult, slow-to-warm up) Rothbart- 3 basic dimensions (urgency/extraversion, negative affect, effortful control)
visual preference/preferential looking
the baby is presented with two stimuli. if they respond differently between the two of them then they know the difference and may prefer one over the other
how does attention improve as children grow older?
there is a well-developed network that is associated with selection at infancy. tells a baby what to respond to and what to ignore alerting network- keeps an infant aware and ready to respond to stimulus. (ex: hears footsteps, becomes alert) executive network- responsible for monitoring thoughts, feelings, and responses as well as resolving conflicts. slowest to develop
how accurate is infants' vision? do they perceive color?
they are able to respond to light and track moving objects. they have limited focusing. vision is blurred until 6 months. newborns are 20/200-400 but this improves quickly by 1 year. color perception is gradual. can see a few colors at birth. full range of color by 3 months. 3-4 months, colors comparable to adults
how do infants perceive object segregation?
they use different cues. such as movement, color, texture, and edges to show evidence of object segregation (by 4 months)
what do studies of Romanian orphans who were adopted at different ages tell us about whether there is a critical period of attachment?
those adopted before 6 months showed "normal" emotional development. after 6 months, showed disinhibited attachments meaning they don't discriminate who they form attachments with (lack of stranger wariness, inappropriate physical contact, lack of checking back to parent in stressful situations)
different methods for studying infant perception
visual preference/preferential looking, habituation, dishabituation, operant conditioning, EEG recordings
habituation
when a novel stimulus is presented a baby will pay attention but will lose interest as it becomes more familiar
