Intro to Ocean Science Exam 1

32. Charles Darwin is best known for the theory of evolution, but he also made many other highly significant contributions to science. One of these contributions - his conceptual model of subsidence and formation of coral reef atolls - was based on what key observation? A. An earthquake he experienced in Concepcion Chile, which lifted the shoreline, and the attached seaweeds and barnacles, upward above the high tide mark; he reasoned that if this happens, then the reverse must also happen -newly-formed volcanic mountains must sink over time. B. The formation of a lagoon inside the outer edges of coral reefs; this happened, he reasoned, because of caustic (acidic) waters dissolved the inner reef. C. The accumulation of sediment on seamounts could, over time, reach the surface and allow corals to grow; D. Hot water escaping the deep sea vents, located just off the Galapagos Islands, could precipitate carbonate rocks that make up the vast stretches of coral reefs systems in the Pacific Ocean. E. That he knew he was getting old and that it was becoming harder to remember important appointments.

A

36. The path of seismic waves, as they penetrate the earth's deep interior, is generally curved upward, back toward the surface of the Earth; why? A. Because the speed of seismic waves increases the deeper they penetrate into the Earth=s interior, which results in the wave bending back toward the Earth=s surface, where the speed is slower. B. Because the speed of seismic waves decreases the deeper they penetrate into the Earth=s interior, which results in the wave bending back toward the Earths surface where the speed is faster. C. Because the interior of the Earth is liquid, which does not allow the penetration of seismic waves beyond a point just south of the Equator. D. Because the interior of the Earth is entirely solid, which reflects seismic waves back toward the surface. E. This answer is wrong; don't pick "E".

A

39. True or False: One reason that life could not have evolved anywhere else in the universe is because there is no evidence of water outside of our own planet Earth. A. This is false; evidence of water has been found on one of Jupiter's moons, Mars, and even our own Moon. B. This is false; evidence of water has been observed on one of Jupiter's moons, but nowhere else. C. This is true; D. This is neither true nor false; nobody has looked for such evidence. E. None of the above.

A

46. The Hydrogenous Sediments include manganese nodules, which are among the most famous of this class of deep sea sediment. First discovered during the HMS Challenger Expedition (ca. 1870s), they are made of manganese and iron hydroxides that precipitate out of sea water but they grow very slowly - only 1-10 mm in diameter per million years. So, why did we conclude that they are important? A. They remain a big mystery in oceanography, in that they tend not to get buried by sediments, and we don't know why; plus, they represent a potentially valuable source of manganese, iron and other elements that could one day be mined. B. They are found far from the coasts, in the middle of the open ocean basins, in spite of the fact that the residence times of iron and manganese would suggest that this would be impossible. C. They hold secrets to the origin of life here on Earth, in that they are remarkably similar to Martian meteorites; D. They were used as ballast on the return voyage of the HMS Challenger. E. They were mentioned in the book and in lecture.

A

50. More than half the rocks on Earth are: A. Sedimentary rocks, once layers of marine sediments on the bottom of an ocean; B. Basalt, the rock formed at Mid-Ocean Ridges, which forms the oceanic crust on the bottom of the oceans; C. Granite, which is characteristic of the continents; D. Heavy, and light-weight rocks are rare, having drifted off into space billions of years ago; E. From space, having been delivered here as solid objects arriving as meteors and asteroids.

A

When the Earth initially formed, as a result of mutual gravitational attraction of matter blown out of an exploded star, the accreted mass became subject to immense pressure. That pressure, combined with intense bombardment by comets, asteroids and meteors, heated the early planet to the point that it eventually melted completely. What happened during this time when the planet was melted? A. The heavier elements (such as iron) sank to the deeper depths of the Earth. B. The oceans filled as rain fell to Earth, and because the Earth had cooled, it no longer evaporated. C. The original source of heat, the decay of radioactive elements in the Earth's inner layers, ran out and the Earth cooled. D. The break-up of Pangea began. E. Nothing. Nothing happened at all; why can't people just accept that and move on?

A

1. The State of Maine borders the North Atlantic Ocean, and it therefore faces the Mid-Atlantic Ridge some distance offshore on the bottom of the ocean. On the other side of that Mid-Ocean Ridge is__________ , which, because of Plate Tectonics, is slowly moving ___________. A. The Pacific Ocean; East, toward Europe. B. Europe and Africa; Away from Maine. C. Europe and Africa; Toward Maine. D. South America; Toward Maine. E. South America; Away from Maine.

B

10. What is Isostatic Equilibrium? A. Isostatic Equilibrium is the process whereby the continents float on the Hydrosphere, which is a plastic-like layer beneath the lithosphere. B. Isostatic Equilibrium is the process whereby the continents float on the Asthenosphere, which is a plastic-like layer beneath the lithosphere. C. Isostatic Equilibrium is the process whereby the continents float on the Outer Core, which is a plastic-like layer beneath the lithosphere. D. Isostatic Equilibrium is the process whereby the continents float on the Mesosphere, which is a plastic-like layer beneath the lithosphere. E. Isostatic Equilibrium is that thick, runny stuff that you cough up at the end of a really really bad cold.

B

13. Based on the concepts of buoyancy and isostacy, at which of the following locations would you expect the Earth's crust to be thickest? A. Beneath the North Atlantic Ocean's mid-ocean ridge system; B. Beneath the highest mountains in the world, which are the Himalayas. C. Beneath Loihi, a seamount south of the Big Island in Hawaii, which is an area expected to emerge in the next 30,000 years, thus becoming Hawaii's newest island; D. Beneath Nevada, where there are quite a few earthquakes each year; E. Beneath Kansas, which is near the center of the North American Plate, and where the crust is believed to be the oldest.

B

15. Some Earth-orbiting satellites employ active sensors, such as RADAR, which is used for satellite altimetry. What is measured by satellite altimetry? A. Sea surface temperature, by measuring the IR (infrared) radiation emanating from the water's surface. B. Sea surface elevations relative to the geoid, with a resolution of centimeters. C. Ocean color, as associated with suspended sediment and plankton in the water. D. The locations of spreading zones associated with the mid-ocean ridges, such as those associated with the Pacific Ring of Fire; E. Bottom geology, based on the reflective properties of different sediment types.

B

20. While various kinds of geological measurements show that the oceanic crust is no more than about __________ years old, the continents are estimated to be as old as __________ years. A. 5 million; 200 million B. 200 million; 4 billion C. 4 billion; 200 million D. 13.7 billion; 13.7 billion E. 4 million; 200 million

B

23. In our discussion of science and hypothesis testing, we mentioned Karl Popper, a British philosopher of science, who argued that: A. We cannot disprove anything, we can only prove things to be true at the time we do our experiments; B. We cannot prove anything, we can only disprove things by finding a contradiction; C. Scientists can only show statistical correlations, and never "cause and effect"; D. Children are the best scientists, in that they build upon their early experiences in a scientific manner; E. Albert Einstein was really really smart.

B

26. In our first class we discussed how deep the ocean is. I pointed out that if we were to represent the Earth's diameter as a stack of 16 reams of Xerox paper (8000 sheets), the oceans would correspond to the top two sheets. Anyway (you knew this was coming), what is the average depth of the world's oceans? A. about 4.6 miles B. about 4000 meters C. about 8000 meters D. about 11,000 meters E. about 71,000 feet

B

29. Where did most of the water in the oceans of Earth come from? A. Nobody knows. B. From a process known as outgassing, whereby volatile gases, including water vapor, were vented to the Earth's surface via volcanoes, a process that continues today. C. From nuclear fusion between atoms of oxygen and hydrogen, as a result of extreme temperatures and pressures at the time of the formation of the Earth. D. From the action of the Earth's gravitational field which attracts molecules drifting in space. E. From numerous collisions with comets, which are made of ice and dust.

B

30. This is a True or False question: Continental shelves are vulnerable to changes in sea level. About 170 million years ago sea floor spreading was more active than it is today and the ridge systems were hotter, and so they were expanded in volume. This caused sea level back then to be higher by about 300m, which flooded some 35% of the continents, thus producing much broader continental shelves than today. A. This is false; the continental shelves were narrower 170 million years ago than today; B. This is true as written; C. This would be true if it were talking about the last Ice Age, about 18,000 years ago; D. This would be true if it said that sea level was higher by 3000m, not 300m, since submarine canyons are known to be as deep as 3000m. E. This is another example of a wrong answer that you should have eliminated right away (Don't pick "E").

B

33. How do we know that part of the center of the Earth is liquid? A. By the principle of isostacy, which requires a liquid-like material for buoyant objects (such as continental crust) to float upon; B. By analysis of the patterns of seismic wave propagation through the Earth following the great Alaskan Earthquake in 1964; C. By elemental analysis of basalt and granite for the presence of iron in relation to distance from the mid-ocean spreading centers; D. By the patterns of sea surface elevation determined by satellite altimetry E. By the simple fact that oil wells exist, which provide a conduit for the liquid oil to pass upward to the Earth's surface.

B

34. Latitude and Longitude are used to define specific geographic positions on the surface of the Earth. For example, which of the following choices describes the position defined by the coordinates 45EN, 65EW? A. It is somewhere in the Southern Hemisphere and west of Greenwich, England; B. It is somewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, and west of Greenwich England; C. It is North of the Equator, and east of Greenwich, England; D. It is South of the Equator, and east of Greenwich, England;

B

35. The source of power behind the moving lithospheric plates is what? A. The readjustment of the surface to continual shrinking of the whole Earth; B. Convection currents within the Earth's mantle; C. The action of ocean currents dragging along the sea floor, causing the sea floor and the continents to move; D. The continual vibration from earthquakes and volcanoes slowly moves the continents equatorward under the influence of centrifugal force. E. H-bomb tests on coral reef atolls in the Pacific Ocean in the mid-1950s.

B

41. Among the early lines of evidence of Continental Drift that Alfred Wegener seized as an example was the discovery by British Antarctic explorer Ernest Shackelton in 1908 of coal in Antarctica. Why was this such a big deal? A. Because Ernest Shackleton was a British snob, and with his nose held high he never looked down long enough to discover any rocks, never mind coal; B. Because coal is usually made of ancient plant biomass, and there is very little plant life in Antarctica today;therefore, Antarctica must have drifted from lower latitudes (warmer climates) to where it is today. C. Because coal could only have been brought to Antarctica (which is at the South Pole) by deep convection currents in the Earth's upper mantle; D. Because coal is too old to have been created on such a young continent as Antarctica (the world's youngest continent, having only been discovered in the early 1800's by the U.S. Exploring Expedition);

B

42. The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes was the first person to calculate with any degree of accuracy the circumference of the Earth. To do so he made a number of assumptions and some very detailed observations. Which of the following did he NOT assume or observe? A. That the Earth is a sphere; B. That Magnetic North differs from True North by about 15°. C. That at the same time of day, the sun casts shadows of different angles in different parts of Egypt; D. That the sun is very far away from Earth, such that the rays of sunlight are essentially parallel; E. That the approximate distance between Alexandria and Aswan (both in Egypt) is 491 miles;

B

45. We discussed in class a marine geological study of an ocean dump site located 106 miles off the coast of New Jersey. Researchers working there were surprised to find evidence so far away from the coast of turbidity currents, which they suspect may have: A. Produced the high levels of marine sediment pollution recently discovered there; B. Moved boulders as large as 2 meters in diameter, and therefore could disturb and redistribute - rather than safely bury - various wastes, even barrels of radioactive materials intentionally put there in the 1950s; C. Resulted in severing the Trans-Atlantic telephone cable laid there in the 1950s, thus leading to hard proof of the existence of turbidity currents, once thought to be confined to the very near shore; D. Contributed to contamination of fish there with high levels of mercury; E. Been responsible for resuspending a large plume of fine-grained sediments that ultimately washed ashore in New Jersey, forcing the governor to demand the closure of all the public beaches for a period of 17 weeks.

B

48. In discussing the distributions of biogenic sediments in the deep sea, we mentioned the Calcium Carbonate Compensation Depth; it refers to the depth in the ocean where A. Carbonate sediments begin to appear in great quantities because of changes in water density; B. Carbonate sediments are absent, because carbonate skeletal remains of organisms dissolve before reaching the bottom because of increased acidity at that depth; C. Manganese nodules form over many thousands of years because of the greater alkalinity in the deep sea; D. High sedimentation rates produce exceptionally deep layers of ocean sediment, such as occurs on the continental shelves; these rich terrigenous deposits "compensate" for calcite in the sense that biogenic sediments (from which carbonate sediments originate) are much less abundant . E. None of these

B

7. We discussed in class, and you (should have) read in your book, the history of the universe, the formation of stars, how some stars explode when their fuel for nuclear fusion runs out, etc. With respect to the formation of our solar system and its planets, scientists believe that our planet (which is Earth, in case you forgot) was initially formed approximately: A. 13,700,000,000 years ago (13.7 billion years ago) B. 4,600,000,000 years ago (4.6 billion years ago) C. 4, 600,000 years ago (4.6 million years ago) D. 15,000,000 years ago (15 million years ago); E. Tomorrow will make almost two thousand years.

B

12. With respect to continental drift, sea floor spreading and plate tectonics, we know that new oceanic crust is continually being created: A. In active spreading zones associated with the deep trenches; B. In active areas of subduction associated with submarine canyons; C. In active spreading zones associated with rift valleys of the mid-ocean ridges; D. At the centers of large continents, where crustal materials are as much as 4 billion years old; E. At the edges of Active Continental margins.

C

14. Turbidity currents are important phenomena that affect features of the ocean bottom, especially on the outer edges of continental shelves. What are turbidity currents? A. An extension of local stream erosion at times of low sea level; B. An exaggerated action of major rivers during floods whereby they cause massive erosion at the point where they enter the oceans; C. A phenomenon caused by earthquakes which liquify sediments and create undersea avalanches of sediments that carve deep channels into the continental shelves and slopes; D. Local lava flows near mid ocean ridges, which are responsible for the formation of "pillow lava"; E. None of the above

C

25. The world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik, was launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union in 1957. What did it do? A. It relayed radio communications that allowed, for the first time, trans-Atlantic telephone calls; B. It took photographs of cloud patterns using an on-board camera, which was vital for advancing the art of weather prediction. C. Not much, it was a "proof of concept" experiment, to show that satellites were possible; all it did as it circled Earth was to transmit a radio "beep", which frighten Americans during the "cold war". D. It used radar altimetry to measure variations in ocean surface elevation; E. It was the first true weather satellite, used to monitor air pollution from space.

C

28. What are hydrothermal vents? A. They are deep channels cut into the sides of continental shelves, and were once thought to have been created by stream erosion at times of lower sea level; B. They are the fissures that allow hot lava to creep upward to the surface in volcanoes. C. They are areas on the ocean floor in the vicinity of mid-ocean ridges where hot (>350 EC) sea water is extruded; they were discovered very recently (1977); D. They are the vents in nuclear reactors that allow excess steam to escape; E. Nobody has any idea, because, you know, nobody knows...

C

3. The German scientist Alfred Wegener was among the first to publish a theory of Continental Drift in his 1915 book, The Origin of Continents and Oceans. Unfortunately, he died in 1930 and did not live long enough to see his ideas accepted. Perhaps the biggest scientific obstacle to acceptance of his idea was: A. His flawed interpretation of Isostacy, and the isostatic rebound of Scandinavia following the last Ice Age; B. His naive explanation of forces that move the massive continents, which he said was caused by scraping graciers during Ice Ages; C. His explanation of forces that move the massive continents, which he said was centrifugal force from the Earth's rotation, which drives what he called "the continents' flight from the poles"; D. His dogged insistence that Germany, not Greenwich, England, should have been the location of the Prime Meridian; E. His stubborn refusal to accept the ideas offered first by Edward Suess that fossils of the same genera of ferns could be found on several different and widely separated continents.

C

38. Of the following, which would NOT be considered an example of, or analogous to, Isostatic Equilibrium? A. An ice cube floating in a glass of water; B. A continent "floating" on the heavier asthenosphere; C. The balance between centripetal and gravitational forces experienced by an Earth-orbiting satellite; D. Newly formed and hot oceanic crust sitting higher (closer to the sea surface) than older and colder (denser) oceanic crust farther away from a spreading center. E. The thick continental crust that extends beneath a mountain range.

C

44. The ocean floor is covered with sediments - which are particles of organic or inorganic material that collect on the ocean floor in a loose, unconsolidated manner - sort of like the way furniture in an unkempt house will accumulate a layer of dust. We know that different parts of the oceans have different types of sediments. One type, which is the accumulated remains of hard parts from dead Radiolarians, Coccolithophores, Foraminifera and Diatoms are known collectively as: A. Terriginous oozes; B. Fine-grained Hydrogenous sediments; C. Oozes; D. Red Clays; E. Calcareous marine clays.

C

49. Which is of the following sediment types, based on size (not origin), has the slowest sinking rate? A. Sand; B. Silt; C. Clay; D. Bolders; E. Pebbles

C

5. In the 1940s, Hugo Benioff called attention to a phenomenon that has become known as the Pacific Ring of Fire. What was he referring to? A. A clever navigation device that enabled the ancient Polynesians to populate New Guinea 30,000 years ago; B. A cluster of S and P waves that reflected back toward Alaska in 1964, showing the existence of the asthenosphere; C. The pattern of deep earthquakes and volcanoes around the edges of the Pacific Ocean; D. The ring-like pattern encircling the Earth where neither S waves nor P waves penetrated following the great Alaskan earthquake of 1964. This observation was important in determining that part of the core is liquid. E. The need for a global system of seismic recorders in order to monitor compliance with the nuclear test-ban treaty of 1963.

C

6. The first truly scientific expedition to study the world's oceans was the voyage of the research vessel HMS Challenger (from 1872 to 1876). The impetus behind this voyage, as some have argued, was to determine if life existed at depths greater than about 550m (ca. 600 fathoms), based on claims by Professor Edward Forbes of Edinburgh University that the total darkness, cold temperatures, and great pressures at those depths would make life impossible there. But scholars now suspect that the impetus for the expedition was: A. To finally determine if Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) ever made it to the North Pole; B. To determine just how deep the oceans are, after earlier failed attempts to sound the oceans' depths using just a wire and lead weights; C. To test Charles Darwin's ideas about evolution, in which he hypothesized that "living fossils" might be found in the environmentally-stable deep sea; D. To be the first expedition to explore in great detail the nature of deep sea trenches, recently discovered to be the sites of where life on Earth first evolved; E. Simply to make better maps than had been possible previously, now that accurate sea-going clocks made navigation much more accurate.

C

11. The North American and African tectonic plates are moving away from one another as a result of sea floor spreading. What is the approximate scale of the speed of that motion? A. a few kilometers per hour; B. a few kilometers per thousand years; C. a few centimeters per hour; D. a few centimeters per year; E. a few millimeters per million years.

D

2. Ship-board surveys in the 1950s and 1960s of magnetic properties of the oceanic crust, which were made by towing magnetometers behind the ship at a depth just off the bottom, revealed what? A. That the Earth's core is liquid, thus preventing the passage of certain seismic waves; B. That the ocean's crustal material is composed of basalt, an iron-rich and very dense rock that could only have come from the mantle; C. That periodic reversals in the polarity of the Earth's magnetic field created the source of energy necessary to "drive" convection currents in the mantle; D. A pattern of stripes on either side of mid-ocean ridges, which corresponded to periods in the past when the Earth's magnetic field reversed itself; E. That a compass needle always points toward the North, even in the southern hemisphere.

D

21. The development of echo sounders allowed for much more rapid and accurate determinations of bottom depths of the oceans; they were first used on the Meteor Expedition in 1925. These instruments: A. Were based on the principle that the velocity of sound in sea water was known, and that the time it takes a pulse of sound to travel to the bottom and back could be used to determine with great accuracy the water depth; B. Were key to documenting the existence of important undersea geological features; C. Were capable of penetrating bottom sediments and revealing their thickness; D. All of the above; E. None of the above.

D

27. Among the most significant technological problems that hampered early efforts to explore the world's oceans could be characterized by the questions: Where is my ship? (e.g., we needed accurate maps and navigational tools, such as a sea-going clock for the determination of longitude); How deep is it? (e.g., as easy as it sounds, lowering a lead weight on a rope to sound for bottom was very difficult in the deep sea, where depths exceed several miles); and: A. How do I determine the temperature of water layers below the surface? B. How do I get water samples, uncontaminated, from depths below the surface? C. How do I get uncontaminated samples of marine organisms from depths below the surface? D. All of the above; E. None of the above.

D

40. Much of the evidence in support of sea floor spreading and plate tectonics deals with paleontological studies of processes that took place long ago, in Earth's early geological history. But, in your book you read about one example of actual measurements of the speed and direction of tectonic plate movements that are based on: A. Longitude measurements, made with today's much more accurate atomic clocks; B. Radio transmission times between the United States and West Africa, first attempted by Alfred Wegener; C. Modern Internet transmission times between Europe and North America; D. Measurements made with GPS, the Global Positioning System, which uses a suite of Earth orbiting satellites; E. Weather radar and the relative motions of storms over the continents.

D

8. The rocks that make up oceanic and continental crust are not the same. This is very important because elemental composition affects the density of crustal materials. Which type of crustal material is LESS dense, Continental Crust, or Oceanic Crust? And why? A. Oceanic crust, because it is rich in the heavier elements, such as Iron; B. Oceanic crust, because it is rich in the lighter elements Aluminum (Al) and Silicon (Si); C. Continental Crust, because it is rich in the heavier elements, such as Iron; D. Continental Crust, because it is rich in the lighter elements Aluminum (Al) and Silicon (Si); E. All rocks are dense; everybody knows that...

D

9. One of reasons that the deepest ocean depths are NOT in the centers of the oceans, but are in fact deepest closer to the continents is because: A. Tectonic activity (from earthquakes and volcanoes) which makes "the Pacific Ring of Fire" is confined to the coastlines of continents; B. Because of the greater erosion of terrigenous sediments nearer the coast; C. Because it is at the edges of the continents that deep convection currents within the Earth's mantle are more active and reach upward nearer the surface; D. The coolest, oldest, and densest oceanic crust occurs farthest away from the mid-ocean spreading centers. E. It is nearest the continents that most wave erosional action is capable of washing away deep ocean sediments, giving greater water depths.

D

22. Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) is famous for a number of achievements, including: having won a Nobel Peace Prize; popularizing modern alpine skiing; making early, but important, contributions to the field of neurobiology; being the world's first professor of oceanography; and pioneering explorations in the high Arctic. But his contribution to oceanography was: A. Conceptualizing and building for the first time a new ship's hull design that proved invaluable to post-World War II ice-breakers; B. Producing the first reliable maps of the Gulf Stream, using old ships' logs of mariners' observations; C. Demonstrating that there are significant populations of marine life at depths greater than 550m, despite there being no light at those depths; D. His propensity for shooting helpless walruses at point-blank range; E. Demonstrating that there is ocean beneath the North Pole.

E

24. Earth-orbiting satellites are important scientific tools used in oceanography and other fields of the earth sciences, especially meteorology. Which of the following about satellites is most true? A. Two geostationary satellites, GOES East and GOES West monitor weather in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. B. The NOAA polar orbiting satellites can reveal the temperature of the sea surface, by measuring infrared radiation. C. Some satellites can measure "ocean color", which can be used to indicate the presence of chlorophyll (the green-ness of plant life in the oceans and on land). D. Satellites can measure wind speed over the oceans, by use of radar. E. All of the above.

E

31. One of the world's first "oceanographers" was a United States Naval officer, Matthew Fontaine Maury, whose book, The Physical Geography of the Sea (1850s), is regarded as the first book about physical oceanography. The significance of Maury's book was: A. That it laid the ground work for Darwin's voyage of the Beagle and his discovery of evolution; B. That it showed for the first time the presence of a mid-ocean ridge system running the length of the North Atlantic and South Atlantic Oceans. C. That the oceans were not bottomless; that they averaged 4,000m deep. D. That the problem of determining one's longitude on a ship at sea could finally be overcome by using a simple clock and magnetic compass; E. That it showed that there are vast ocean currents, which he determined from his exhaustive analysis of ship's log books.

E

37. If two oceanic plates collide, and one is much older and cooler (therefore denser) than the other, what will probably happen? A. A subduction zone and trench will form; B. The denser plate will be subducted beneath the less dense plate; C. Earthquakes will occur; D. Volcanoes may form beneath the leading edge of the less dense plate. E. All of the above.

E

43. Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) is famous for having done what? A. He intentionally locked his ship, the Fram, into the arctic ice in an attempt to drift with the ice across the North Pole; B. He proved that there is an ocean under the Arctic Ice; C. He won a Nobel Peace Prize; D. He played an important role in popularizing modern alpine skiing; E. All of the above.

E