Intro to Peace Studies Midterm 1

What are the four cognitive impediments to rationality that we discussed in class? How does each weaken balancing power as a peace tool?

-Misperception •Communication problems and cultural differences imped good signaling •Tend to filter out or distrust information that goes against existing assumptions •Can under or overestimate capabilities or threat -Mirror-image •Tend to see yourself as constrained but an enemy as unfettered •Tend to see yourself as entirely good and your enemy as entirely bad -Wishful-thinking •Tend to convince yourself that actions will succeed or risks are not so great •Exaggerated in group settings -Crisis Decision-making •Short time horizon •Restrictions on circle of advisors and search for options and already sparse information •Increased stress increases use of cognitive short-cuts

Why does Samuel Huntington believe that differences among cultures in the world will reemerge as the principal cause of war in the 21st century? How is his argument related to the dynamics of in-group/out-group bias? How might the promotion of multiple loyalties dampen the clash between civilizations?

1.Differences between civilizations are real and basic 2.Interactions between peoples of different civilizations are increasing (globalization) 3.Economic modernization and social change are threatening local identities and traditions 4.Civilization-consciousness in non-Western civilizations is growing at a time when Western power is at its height 5.Cultural conflicts are less negotiable or subject to compromise Francis Fukuyama said there will be no more conflicts, Huntington says this is not true. The West is using international institutions, military power, and economic resources to run the world in ways that preserve Western predominance and interests and promote Western values. Thus, other civilizations have responded with isolation, bandwagoning, or balancing with the West. When identity is defined in ethnic and religious terms, the lines between "us" and "them" become harder. But, if there are multiple loyalties, it becomes harder for a specific outgroup vs ingroup to be defined.

What are Arms Control and Disarmament? What is the relationship between the two?

Arms Control: Mutual agreement to limit the number or capabilities of weapons in order to reduce the security dilemma or reduce the degree of violence if war occurs Disarmament: Mutual agreement to eliminate weapons in order to eliminate large scale, organized military violence (war) Sometimes, Arms Control agreements can lead to disarmament in future stages such as Nuclear treaties during the Cold War that led to eventually a certain degree of disarmament.

What is Balancing Power as a peace tool? What is the relationship between Alliances and Balancing Power? What are the strengths and weaknesses of balancing power and alliances as peace tools?

Balancing Power: Creating sufficient military power, singly or in alliance with others, to deter aggression or remove threat of coercion by creating a stable equilibrium. The relationship between Balancing power and Alliances is cumulative power of partners help insure an adequate balance, especially for small and medium capability states. Strengths of Balancing Power: -Under the control of the state -Has a direct impact on the rationality of using war to achieve political or economic goals. Weaknesses of Balancing Power: -Creates or exaggerates an enemy mentality -Adding capabilities to balance exaggerates the security dilemma -Imbalances can trigger opportunistic wars -Less useful to less powerful states -Not useful for non-state actors or others who use asymmetric warfare -What constitutes a balance can be ambiguous given imperfect information and cognitive impediments to rationality

According to Malley and Agha, the Camp David negotiations in 2000 were probably doomed from the outset. Why?

Barak's all or nothing approach, due to fears of Palestinian manipulation and of opposition within Israel, exaggerated Palestinian mistrust. No genuine Israeli proposal. Arafat felt forced into the summit and distrusted Barak's actions. He felt as if he was being trapped or tricked.

What is Collective Security? How was it supposed to compensate for the weaknesses of balancing power?

Collective Security: A system in which all, or nearly all, states agree to unite against any aggressor, whomever it may be. Goal: to limit the impulse/opportunity for states to use violence to achieve goals or resolve conflicts. It is not aimed at any particular enemy.

What are Defensive Defense and Non-violent Defense? How do they seek to overcome some of the weaknesses of balancing power as a peace tool? What are their weaknesses as peace tools?

Defensive Defense: Defense policy that relies on weapons with limited offensive capability and a decentralized, civilian-based strategy to deter aggression. Best paired with Neutrality Non-violent Defense: Civilian-based defense policy that uses social, psychological, economic and political means to deny aggressors control over the society. -Goes beyond Defensive Defense by rejecting violent responses -Alternative to the military system GOALS: Deter aggression by making ultimate control by aggressor too costly Wear down any occupier and encourage defections. Ultimately, there is no exaggeration of military power etc. Avoids the security dilemma militarily Weaknesses: -Any violence occurs on your territory, against your people -Does not prevent being an economic, cultural, or political threat to others -Requires high levels of commitment and organization and discipline, perhaps even the "militarization" of society -Hard to maintain in the face of violent responses by an occupier

What are Diplomacy and Negotiation?

Diplomacy: the use of authoritative agents to maintain mutual relations, communicate, and carry out political, economic, and legal transactions between states Negotiation: Direct communication between parties to a conflict aimed at resolving or at least managing the conflict without resort to violence.

In addition to military sanctions, economic sanctions can be used to enforce collective security. Even if economic sanctions are less violent than military sanctions, are they peaceful? Why not? Are economic sanctions more or less likely to succeed than military sanctions?

Economic sanctions are not necessarily peaceful. They can work to destabilize a country and create violence for competition of economic resources within a country, and deprive them of their full potential. They hurt probably innocents. Economic sanctions are less likely to succeed than military sanctions because other nations can readily enforce military sanctions while economic sanctions are slow moving and in the example of North Korea, China has never enforced the sanctions.

What is the first known peace treaty? How does it illustrate the ancient origins of negotiation and diplomacy? What is the difference between bilateral and multilateral diplomacy?

First known peace treaty was negotiated around 1270 BC between Egypt and the Hittites. The treaty resolved the competition for influence in the Levant and established a mechanism for ongoing communication. Bilateral: Between two parties Multilateral: Between more than two parties

What was Charles Osgood's GRIT strategy, and why was it not generally well-received by international relations researchers?

GRIT strategy: Goal: To reduce and control international tension to create an atmosphere of mutual trust within which negotiations on critical military and political issues can proceed. Rule 5: Initiatives must be designed and communicated so as to emphasize a sincere intent to reduce tensions. Rule 7: Unilateral initiatives should include in their announcement an explicit invitation to reciprocation in some form. It was not well received by international relation researchers because of the word "Unilateral". It is only one-sided. They said the other side would simply pocket the gain and ask for something more. Effective arms control is mutual, but not unilateral.

How does the conflict between the German and Anglo-American schools of sociology illustrate the argument that human culture can either make war more acceptable and likely or less acceptable and thus possibly also less likely?

German school sees war as necessary to social development; Anglo-American-French school sees war as a problem of in-group amity and out-group hostility. Thus, human culture can make war acceptable or likely by arguing that it is needed for social development (In group vs Out group), or it can make it less likely and less acceptable by trying to include more people in a group, however this is seen as unlikely by William Graham Sumner.

What are the four trends that Michael Klare argues might promote war in the 21st century?

Globalization -Internationalization of finance, manufacturing and trade -Growing middle class, rising consumption -China: autos alone may rise from 63 million in 2009 to 210 million by 2020 Population Growth -Global population will increase from 6.9 billion in 2010 to 9.3 billion in 2050 Resource Depletion -Non-renewables: petroleum -Renewables: fisheries, forests, keystone animal species Global Climate Change -Food production -Water

Mediation and Good Offices are types of neutral third party intervention in conflict resolution. What are Good Offices and Mediation? What historical examples were discussed in class to illustrate each?

Good Offices: Providing a neutral place and friendly assistance without becoming involved in the discussion of issues Ex. Oslo Peace Accords Mediation: Participating actively in the discussion of issues by offering proposals and interpretations that facilitate resolution of the conflict. Ex. Camp David

What are Hard Power and Soft Power? What is their relationship to diplomacy?

Hard Power: The ability to get what you want by offering inducements (carrots) and making threats (sticks). Soft Power: The ability to get what you want by co-optation: framing the agenda, providing new perspectives or information, persuasion, or positive attraction. They have a relationship with diplomacy because countries can use them to frame the narrative during a diplomatic discussion or offer incentives, etc. .

How does in-group identity, which has been essential for the survival of the human species, also encourage war? What is pseudo speciation, and how is it related to bias against out-groups, on the one hand, and in-group identity, on the other?

In-group is good, worthy of being privileged Out-groups are bad, worse, etc. (Negative connotation). It encourages war by creating an us vs. them mentality and thus creates a hostility towards "them". Pseudo speciation/dehumanization is a natural extension of out-group bias. It makes other humans LESS human, thus making easier to kill them. It is related to in-group because it creates a doctrine that everyone in the in-group can get behind.

What is International Law, and what are the two types of International Law? When is treaty law most effective typically? What are the strengths and weaknesses of international law as a peace tool?

International Law: Rules, principles, and norms that specify what behavior is or is not permissible in the interactions among states. Customary Law: Generally accepted principles, rules, and norms that have evolved over time, including accepted standards proposed in the writings of classical legal theorists such as Hugo Grotius (1625). Treaty Law: Written agreements between or among states that establish principles, rules, or norms for governing their interactions in some way. Treaty Law is most effective Binding when ratified through normal political processes -Typically written into domestic laws -Can be subject to international arbitration or adjudication -May be elaborated or clarified through interpretations of tribunals such as the International Court of Justice, Strengths: -Accepted principles, norms, and rules make behavior more predictable. •Can be transformative if we come to assume that states, like people, should operate within a framework of law. -Freud and the impact of culture on the human psyche -The defense of sovereignty (autonomy and control) •Useful when states do not have unilateral control -Environmental problems and shared resources Weaknesses: *Still operates within the state system *Enforcement depends on political interests -Why is domestic law obeyed? -Self-interest, duty, coercion, and socialization *Can be used to oppress as well as to set people free.

What are International Organizations and International Regimes? What are the strengths and weaknesses of international organizations and international regimes as peace tools?

International Organizations: Institutions created by treaty to coordinate the policies of states with respect to a particular political, military, social, economic, or environmental issue. International Regimes: A set of treaties and organizations dealing with a particular issue area that establish rules and principles through which states coordinate their policies to achieve common interests. Strengths: Rest on the theory of Functionalism: -Functional agencies allow states to deal with many issues as coordination problems. -Cooperation in functional agencies promotes learning about other people and how to cooperate. -Functional organizations help all states meet needs of people, promoting positive peace. -Interdependence among states is extended to a variety of functional areas, increasing the cost of disrupting the system by going to war. Weaknesses: -Learning in functional areas may not have an impact on power competition. -Can politicize functional issues if conflicts cannot be dealt with adequately. -Increasing interdependence can create new conflicts. -Functional organizations involve only certain elites, who may not have influence over state policy.

Did Konrad Lorenz and Margaret Mead believe that war is inevitable in human society? Why not?

NO, they do not think war is inevitable. Konrad Lorenz: Aggression is a survival instinct bred into us by evolution, but aggression is usually not designed to kill, although there are instances in other species of intra-species killing. In humans, certain adaptations facilitate killing, such as weaponry and militant enthusiasm HOWEVER, militant enthusiasm can be tamed by knowing what causes it: 1. Threat from the outside 2. Negative emotions toward the source of the threat 3. An elite willing to mobilize the response 4. Other individuals who join with us and re- enforce the reflex Margaret Mead: War is a social/cultural invention. Conducted study on Eskimos, "a people who have all the reasons for war and all the pre-adaptations necessary for war. But they do not know war." To prevent war, 2 things need to happen. 1. Recognize the defects of the old invention 2. Someone needs to come up with something better.

What are Negative Peace, Positive Peace, and Structural Violence? How does the Bom Jesus de Mata barrio in northeastern Brazil illustrate the dynamic and dilemma of structural violence?

Negative Peace: Absence of War, No active, organized military violence. Negative Peace can exist in the absence of culturally accepted notions of Social Justice. Positive Peace: An end state in which there is no physical or structural violence **A just, sustainable order; a world characterized by life- affirming and life-enhancing values and structures** **A world in which every an individual can reach their full human potential.** **A world that actively and self- consciously works toward a just, sustainable order** Structural Violence: Situations that have the effect, even if not the intention, of denying people rights or which stunt the optimum development of any individual Reason for the indeterminism of positive peace as an end state Bom Jesus de Mata illustrates the dilemma because: 1. Wages of the urban poor cannot feed the family 2. Malnutrition results in a variety of physical and cognitive problems 3. Both rich and poor attribute problems to the inferiority of the people, not poverty 4. Even babies who die of malnutrition are seen as weak and lacking the will to live So, it illustrates the fact that this situation is denying the optimum development of the poor in this neighborhood and making the problem worse by means of the system in place that is causing this wealth disparity, which in turn causes people to self-deprecate. While not necessarily intentional, it does make the situation worse.

What is Neutrality, and how is it related to the Cold War strategy of Non-alignment?

Neutrality: Policy of non- participation in any alliance -Balanced policy toward all belligerents and all alliances -Neutrals have legal rights of non- interference in wartime Non-alignment: cold War strategy of neutrality, primarily by new states -Refusal to align formally with US or USSR -Accept relationship with either or both, but not aimed at the other

What is Peacekeeping, and what are the key differences between first-generation peacekeeping and the new peacekeeping that emerged after the end of the Cold War? What are the five key characteristics of each generation of peacekeeping?

Peacekeeping: Invented by UN because of inability to make collective security work as hoped. Traditional Peacekeeping: The introduction of neutral, lightly armed military forces, under international control and auspices and at the request of the parties to the conflict, to supervise the situation and separate opposing forces. Goals of traditional peacekeeping: -To limit armed conflict while peacekeepers are in place -To help resolve the underlying conflict so fighting does not resume when peacekeepers leave Complex Peacekeeping: Complex mandate aimed at helping parties fighting on the battlefield to competing in the political arena. Security council no longer waging proxy wars. 5 Key Characteristics: Neutrality —Peacekeeping does not need to identify an aggressor; peacekeepers try not to change the balance of power in the situation. Non-enforcement mission —Goal is to facilitate ceasefire in former "hot" zones, not to stop the fighting or punish an aggressor. Consent of host countries —Peacekeepers will only be placed into a situation at the invitation of the state on whose territory they will operate. Limited military capability —Peacekeepers are lightly armed; no offensive capability poses no threat to former combatants. Limited function (Traditional) —Core purposes are to supervise the ceasefire and separate opposing forces, although additional functions may be specified from one mission to the next. Complex function (New) —Complex mandate aimed at helping parties fighting on the battlefield to competing in the political arena

What is Regional Integration? What are its strengths and weaknesses as a peace tool? How has the theory of Neofunctionalism explained the process of integration from the European Steel and Coal Community to the European Union today?

Regional Integration: Agreements by states to join together in federal-type associations in which certain state functions are located within regional rather than national institutions Strengths: -Despite conflicts, war unlikely within regional associations because of cost of disruption and institutionalized (expected) cooperation Weaknesses: Conflicts can lead to decay of commitment to integration Failure of regional institutions to cope can lead to de-legitimization Interest groups may never transcend national boundaries so states remain the most robust political institutions Regions may succeed but build walls against actors outside the region Neofunctionalist Theory: Functionalism explained why International organizations are considered peaceful. Neofunctionalists look at the historical application, but people within IOs have conflicts. People in regional packs have a lot of these conflicts. Neofunctionalists don't ignore the conflicts, but they argue that in the context of Regional Integration, you can use the conflict to form tighter bonds. Thus the European Steel and Coal Community starts snowballing into the EU. A higher level of integration, to find a common way to solve a problem. You move one step at a time. Integration = solutions of some problems.

What is the Security Dilemma? Why does the security dilemma make war more likely? How does diplomacy seek to overcome the security dilemma?

Security Dilemma: Uncertainty about the intentions of other actors which encourages each to act as if the other could pose a threat. Diplomacy seeks to overcome the security dilemma by having direct communication between actors (states, groups) aimed at coordinating their behavior or at minimizing/changing perceptions of threat that result from the security dilemma.

As peace tools, what are the strengths and weaknesses of diplomacy and negotiation, third party involvement, and arms control?

Strengths of Diplomacy/Negotiation: -Respond directly to the need for information about the intentions, demands, needs, interests of other actors, especially other parties to conflicts. -Make it possible for states to move beyond the security dilemma by establishing coherent, consistent relationships over time Weaknesses of Diplomacy/Negotiation: -Tool of statecraft that can be used to enhance prospects for peace or to position a state favorably for war. -Can be undermined by psychological and social factors inherent in information processing and decision making. Strengths of Third Party Involvement: -Neutral party can be indispensable channel of communication in difficult times -Neutral party may: 1.See real needs more clearly 2.See creative opportunities for bridging 3.Bring resources for compensation Weaknesses of Third Party Involvement: -Third party can distort communication or agenda -Third party may make enemies or lose legitimacy in the process of mediation -Third party cannot force agreement and may create false expectations Strengths of Arms Control: -Stabilize competition/reduce the likelihood of war •Antarctic Treaty (1959) •Outer Space Treaty (1966) •INF Treaty (1990) -Eliminate or reduce weapons that have little strategic value but do great potential harm •Biological Weapons Ban (1972) -Limit wasteful spending and stabilize arms competitions •London and Washington Naval Treaties (1922, 1930) -Create agreements that help build trust over time •Rush-Bagott (1817) •Partial Test-ban Treaty (1963) •SALT I, II (1972, 1979) Weaknesses of Arms Control: -Can all weapons be eliminated? -Verification dilemma -Uncertain impact is given technical complexity -Legitimize other dimensions of arms competition and create a false sense of security

What are the strengths and weaknesses of neutrality/non-alignment as peace tools?

Strengths: -Can avoid being drawn into the wars of others -Presumably pose less threat to other states -Particularly useful to smaller states that serve special niches in international politics Weaknesses: -May not be respected when it really counts -Leaves a state alone in case of aggression -May not remove need to "balance power" with local rivals -Does not necessary reflect a generalized desire for peaceful relationships

What are the strengths and weaknesses of peacekeeping as a peace tool?

Strengths: -No need to identify an aggressor or take sides -Peacekeepers resist using force and try to prevent a spiral of violence -Flexible, including attempts to address the underlying causes of war Weaknesses: Requires a ceasefire or peace agreement Requires continued cooperation of the parties to the conflict -Peacekeepers create disincentives to return to war and incentives to stay in peace process Requires special training of troops and high levels of coordination Requires commitment of international community to provide funding and risk lives of their personnel Risks escalation to peace enforcement actions

How have changes in the technology of war both discouraged war and made war more palatable? What is militant enthusiasm, and what are the four conditions that excite the war reflex according to Konrad Lorenz?

Technology has made weaponry more readily available, especially weapons that kill remotely has made war more palatable. Technology has also created weapons that are so destructive, that they can prevent the want of going to war, and discouraging it (Such as MAD during the Cold War) Militant Enthusiasm is the tendency to aggressively identify with one's own group sometimes associated with pseudo speciation. The 4 triggers are: 1.Threat from the outside 2.Negative emotions toward the source of the threat 3.An elite willing to mobilize the response 4.Other individuals who join with us and re- enforce the reflex

According to Fisher, Ury, and Patton, what are the four principles for conducting win-win or "principled" negotiation? According to negotiation theory, what are the four strategies for achieving a win-win or integrative result in negotiations?

Theory on Principled Negotiation: 1.Separate people from the problem 2.Focus on interests, not positions 3.Generate a variety of options 4.Insist that the result meets some objective standard Strategies for a win-win result in Negotiations: 1.Expanding the Pie Make distributional issues go away 2.Nonspecific Compensation: Provide something of equal value but outside the conflict to make up for lost goals 3.Logrolling: Giving each party what they really want as opposed to what they are explicitly demanding 4.Bridging: Finding creative alternatives that satisfy needs, usually in unanticipated ways.

In what ways are the ideas of philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke about human nature similar to Sigmund Freud's concept of the Ego, Superego, and Id? For each of the three, what is the relationship between socio-political-economic institutions (culture) and the propensity for violence and war?

Thomas Hobbes view: The state of nature is a condition of war of every man against every man. Connected to Freud's ID, the destructive force, instinct. John Locke view: In a state of nature violence is no more likely than cooperation. Connected to Freud's Ego. For Hobbes he thinks Social institutions, such as absolute monarchy, exist to limit violence John Locke Violence is a function of social structures and human weakness. Locke also believes people make social institutions to create societies/develop culture such that violence is unnecessary or illogical. For Freud: We cannot suppress these instincts, but we can create institutions (social/psychological) to control them. Can help the ego give preference to either the superego or the ID.

Why is the United Nations not a typical international organization?

United Nations unique among international governmental organizations: -General purpose -Universal membership -Special responsibility for international peace and security -Most of its agenda deals with economic and humanitarian issues -A forum for multilateral diplomacy -A Secretariat carries out routine functions, programs, and activities

What are the weaknesses of collective security, and how do the two instances in which the UN used military sanctions to enforce collective security illustrate those weaknesses?

Weaknesses of Collective Security: -Actors must agree that aggression has occurred and who committed the aggression -Requires commitment to intervene in conflicts with no immediate link to national interests •Threat to peace anywhere is a threat to peace everywhere -Would be aggressors must assume that the system will work, or deterrence will fail -Turning back aggression militarily is, well, WAR! -Even economic sanctions are ultimately violent because they hurt probable innocents -Economic sanctions demand even more cooperation and take time to work Korea (1950): North's invasion of South in order to reunify peninsula Iraq (1990): Invasion of Kuwait spurs economic and military sanctions and leads to the first Gulf War

What is World Government, and how would a world government compensate for some of the weaknesses of Regional Integration and International Organizations as peace tools? Why has peace researcher Gene Sharp described world government, at least in today's world, as either a dangerous illusion or a severe threat to positive peace?

World Government: Centralized, federal institutions for governing the entire planet. -Military only (Clark-Sohn Plan) -Interstate commerce (trade) -Economic development -Social policy It would compensate for the weaknesses of Regional Integration and IOs as peace tools because there are different and more centralized approaches and further integration than regional integration and could solve problems more efficiently. Also, it has more power than an International Organization would have. Compensate for some weaknesses: Gene Sharp: So many disagreements, how should it be organized? What is the basis? Is it democratic? What's the nature of the government? Is it authoritarian? If you are one world, one world government needs to deal with global issues such as a north/south divide. It would be worse if one world government has to deal with global issues, when domestic issues can't even be solved currently. Thus positive peace would be harmed.