Journalism Final Study Guide
International co-production of movies
International co-production of movies has been common since the 1990's. Coproductions allow companies with differing strengths and capabilities to combine creative, financial, and technological resources across countries. They also offer international locations for storytelling Coproduction has significant economic benefits. Involve international treaties and regulations, with host countries often providing tax incentives for companies involved; also receive public funding to enhance production budget. Should feature material intended for and generated by local markets whose lone funding is inadequate to support high production value in American shows/movies that dominate the market BUT usually recreates common Hollywood media rather than culturally relevant programming Hollywood execs make movies with global market in mind, shaping subject matter and the manner in which stories are told--local stuff takes a back seat--pressure is increasing in countries to create their own content and tell their own stories.
Citizen Journalism
Internet and social media accelerated growth; broad fields encompassing everything from blogging to slashdot to more formal ventures that emulate professional journalism (i.e Wikinews); some consider consumer product review sites in this category. No radical political agenda; driving force is citizens rather than professional journalists; so cautiously welcomed by mainstream journalism. Some newspapers have adopted an integrated approach; citizen journalists nows post news stories on a stand alone website or mobile app; perhaps partially cobranded with the newspaper, which publishes the best stories in a weekly edition; other papers have training session with citizen journalists to teach them interviewing, reporting, and writing skills; critics claim they are used as unpaid reporters to fill holes in local news coverage, leads to staff cutbacks. Citizen journalism emphasizes participant conversation and interaction--line between audience and journalists is blurring--journalists no longer have priveleged position as arbiter of the news. The problem is, citizen journalism lacks a business model to promote sustainability and support paid reporters and editors, BUT is leading to shift to more interactive citizen participation
Traditional Pac's
can accept only limited funds from individuals Consequently, a traditional PAC can spend money any way it sees fit to advocate for a favored candidate.
National security
controlled through Alien and Sedition Acts in US back in 1789--stops people from writing or saying anything negative about US government; passed periodically, often during wars; prior restraint (when government blocks a publication, broadcasting, or distribution of news) can only be used in cases of serious or grave threats to international security, since ruling of Near V. Minnesota Age of digital communication and international terrorism, can privacy exist?
Democratic versus nondemocratic
respects peoples' interest and freedom versus opposite of that The general public plays a role in decision making versus has no role to play in decision making processes of the country
Ethical Systems
1. Character/Virtue Ethics 2. Duties 3. Consequences 4. Relationships or Dialogical Ethics
Advocacy Journalism
A descendent of the muckrakers that maintains its critique of society and commitment to political and social reform; i.e. environmental journalism; EX: Gloria Steinem (founder of Ms. and leader of women's movement); Pete Hamill (one-time editor of the Daily News in NY); Nicholas Von Hoffman
Quantitative Research
A method of inquiry favored in the physical sciences that focuses on numerical data and statistical measures to describe phenomena. Researchers often attempt to prove or disprove a hypothesis through the empirical method, particularly controlled experimentation. Includes methods of experimentation, surveys, and statistical analysis
Al Jazeera Network
A pan-Arab news service and media company launched in 1996 Only international news organization with correspondents in Iraq during Operation Desert Fox in 1998 1999: began broadcasting 24 hrs/day, well known for coverage in Iraq and Afghanistan acrquired Current TV, cable channel and gained a huge hold of US TV market, competes with CNN, Fox, MSNBC makes itself impartial, though critics say otherwise People are suspicious of network obligations to Qatari government, despite the network's for quality journalism combatted censorship and contributed to free and open exchange of news and information in the Arab world, has won many American news awards operates multiple sports channels, children's channels, documentaries channels
Murrow
A radio, and later, television journalist and announcer who set the standard for journalistic excellence during TV's Golden Age Comments on television at Radio-Television News Directors Association meeting in 1958 that applies for internet today: "This instrument can teach, it can illuminate, and yes, it can inspire. But it can only do so to the extent that humans are determined to use it to those ends. Otherwise it is nothing but wires and lights in a box. In TV Guide: "Television in the main is being used ti distract, delude, amuse, and insulate us."
Fairness Doctrine
Adopted by the FCC in 1949, it required broadcasters to present all sides of a controversial issue they were covering. It was discontinued by the FCC in 1987.
Public opinion is significant but...
Alexis de Tocqueville: tyranny of the majority does not rule: a situation in which governmental laws and policies benefit the majority without concern for the welfare or right of other groups or individuals
Joseph Pulitzer
American newspaper magnate whose publications competed vigorously with those fo Hearst. After 1900, Pulitzer gradually retreated from sensational journalism, favoring instead more socially concious reporting and muckraking. St. Louis Post Dispatch; New York Post; New York World Publisher of the New York World, St. Louis psot Dispatch, and others American newspaper magnate who publications competed vigorously with those of Hearst; after 1900, Pulitzer retreated from sensational journalism (news that exaggerates or features lurid details and depictions of events to increase its audience); favoring instead more socially conscious reporting and muckraking. He founded the Pulitzer prize, annual awards for outstanding journalism Focused on city news, compelling stories (humorous, romantic, thrilling) and accurate writing--sued illustrations (color comics on Sundays were a huge success; famous for The Yellow Kid); racy style and colorful headlines)
William Randolph Hearst
American newspaper magnate; late nineteenth/ early twentieth centuries; sensational journalism and political influence Publisher of the San Francisco Examiner and New York Journal American newspaper magnate during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries whose newspapers were noted for sensational journalism and political influence Lured away lots of Pulitzer's best reporters and editors with higher pay for Evening Journal, also took Pulitzer's cartoonist; big issue in the circulation wars of 1890s. Colorful banner headlines, splashy photography, and some say, fabricated news. Criticized for his sensational tactics His editorial guidelines: "Make the thorough, print all the news, condense it if necessary, frequently it is better when intelligently condensed, but get it in." Hearst Foundation: Provides important support for journalism education and other concerns, including health and culture
Adolph Ochs
American newspaper publisher under whose ownership (from 1896) The New York Times became one of the world's most outstanding newspapers. Made The New York Times great Despised yellow/sensational journalism and emphasized comprehensive and trustworthy news gathering.
Political Advertising
As sound bite has gotten shorter, media campaign coverage has become increasingly poll driven, and candidates are trying to find new ways to control their own messages, more candidates are using political advertising, which is more expensive and more complex. Candidates gravitate toward negative advertising but studies have show that tactic backfires on candidates. Voters tend to see the candidates who make negative ads about their opposition in a negative light. The problem for journalism becomes that many ads promote falsehoods or encourage audiences to make false inferences. With the rise of political advertising, the news media is now more focused on candidates' advertising versus the actual issues fo the campaign. The negative tone of political campaigns alienates young viewers from the political process by making them cynical and less interested.
Four theories
Authoritarian, Libertarian, Social Responsibility, and Soviet
Beat reporters
Beat: reporters specialized area of coverage based on geography or subject; common beats in large or medium sized newspapers include education, crime, and state politics. EX: education, city hall, state capital, or science. Small hyperlocal news sites cannot afford these specialized reporters--instead have general assignment reporters who cover a range of topics
Ida B.Wells
Born a slave, spent life fighting racism, especially lynching of African Americans Wrote for the religious weekly The Living Way and for various African American newspapers, including Free Speech and Headlight Elected secretary of the Afro-American Press Association in 1889
New Journalism
Developed in the 60's/70's with social/political/economic upheaval in US post-Vietnam and due to Watergate Scandal. Reporters trying to capture the spirit of the times and explore current social issues: drug culture; Used literary techniques such as point of view, first person narrative, and descriptions of characters emotions. Critics said it blurred the line between fact and fiction: Truman Capote; Tom Wolfe; Norman Mailer
digital divide
For many developed nations, the majority of people have internet access. As more people get online in places like Asia, however, the gap between those who have access to the internet and those who don't widens. Existing within and between nations, the digital divide is particularly acute for broadband, high speed, wireless and mobile internet access. Because internet access has a cost attached, this gap reflects larger socioeconomic trends. Experts are worried about the potential societal impacts of the digital divide. Internationally, even if developing countries have internet access, poor quality information or lacking education to take full advantage of resources only sets the country behind.
James Gordon Bennett
Founded the New York Herald in 1835 Introduced staples of modern journalism including editorial commentary, financial page, and public affairs reporting
Media hegemony and Globilization
Gramsci dominant groups in society control the mass media, largely through ownership international coproduction of movies and TV--once a means of increasing collaboration between different countries and cultures, now focus is on higher financial benefits and increased resources
Intellectual Property
Ideas that have commercial value, such as literary or artistic works, patents, trademarks, business methods, and industrial processes
Objectivity
Journalistic principle that says reporting should be impartial and free of bias. Because of the difficulties involved in complete objectivity, this principle has largely been replaced by the concepts of fairness and balance. HISTORY: the news wire service led to impartiality of news. Associated press: 6 NY newspaper publishers formed it in 1846 to take advantage of the telegraph because it was too expensive for one paper to afford); gathering news for a dozen papers with varying political viewpoints meant AP reporters had to be politically neutral and by the beginning of the 1900's, these dispatches were virtually free fo editorial content.
Walter Lippmann
Lippman's book Public Opinion grew out of his study criticizing inaccurate U.S. coverage of the Russian Revolution
Consequences
Looks at consequences as a way to judge what is ethical and what is not Utilitarianism: most ethical action is the one that does the greatest good for the greatest number of people Social Justice: the greatest good=the most fairness to everyone
Duties
Must follow a prescribed set of rules, or duties, regardless of the outcome Moral obligation to follow these duties Here, individual choice is eliminated in favor of a set of rules that apply equally to everybody Categorical Imperative: in ethical thought, Kant's concept of an unconditional moral obligation that does not depend on an individual's personal inclinations or goals
Newspapers of the black press, blog
New Orleans Daily Creole (1856): first African American Daily Newspaper; Frederick Douglas: journalist who published the antislavery paper The North Star Minority voices introduced the value of diversity to journalism, which promoting more nuanced, balanced, and alternative perspectives Mary Ann Shadd Cary: published a minority newspaper "Self-reliance is the fine road to independence." First African American woman to edit a weekly newspaper and to publish in North America First woman publisher in Canada Teacher and lawyer too; only second African American woman to earn a law degree Fled from Delaware to Canada due to Fugitive Slave Act. Wrote "Notes of Canada West" outlining opportunities for blacks in Canada in response to a vigorous campaign to deter runaway slaves from escaping to Canada Building on this success; established Provincial Freedom
Fairness
News reporting on all relevant sides of an issue that allows representatives of those various sides the same coverage.
Character/Virtue Ethics
Oldest of the ethical systems Notion of virtue and the role of character in living a virtuous life Courage, modesty, stoicism, honesty, etc. A virtuous character lets you lead a virtuous life Golden Rule: treat others how you want to be treated Golden Mean: finding a balance between two extremes in the most ethical way
Balance
Presenting sides equally and reporting on a broad range of news and events.
Legal Standards Supreme Court decision Sullivan vs. NYT 1964
Regarded as the most important legal decision to establish a free press in the United States Very important in establishing a free press in the United States Supreme Court ruled that public figures and public officials may not sue for libel unless they can prove actual malice. Court defined actual malice as either: 1. The defendant's intent being malicious OR 2. The defendant's knowing the statement was false but publishing it anyway For private citizens, the standard for libel merely requires that the plantiff show that a reasonable person knew or should have known that the defamatory statement was false
News Leak
Secret information deliberately given to journalists with the hope that they will publish the item builds relationship between a journalist and a public official as a good source of information can damage opponents, stop programs and projects often illegal
Seditious Libel
Sedition: speech or action that encourages overthrow of a government or that subverts a nation's constitution or its laws
How does social media help increase civic engagement and aid social media movements?
Social media allows candidates to communicate in more informal ways with voters than they previously could with traditional media forms. Politics is more relatable and more accessible with social media Ex. Obama, Eastwood tweet, empty chair
Role of internet and social media in civic engagement and social movements
Social media and the internet have transformed politics and elections Candidates have used social media and the internet to fundraise and communicate messages directly to the public versus via traditional traditional media sources Social media and the internet have also become tools for voters, who can organize quickly and effectively regarding causes or candidates
Public opinion
The public sphere is key to the formation of the public opinion. The notion that the public, as a group, can form shared views or ideas about a topic and that these idea guide the public's actions
Push Poll
Type of political advertising Seems like a telephone poll Actually a telemarking campaign to sway voters by making a favored candidate look good or misrepresenting the opposition Try to sway voters by giving them false information about opposing candidates under the guise of conducting a poll Or they try to make a candidate look good by asking leading questions
Opinion Polls
Usually conducted by a professional polling organization, a poll asking members of the public their opinions on issues or political candidates. Drives the tone of campaign coverage. Political scientist Thomas Patterson found that news: becomes more positive as poll support rises or a candidate's lead widens becomes more negative if the candidate trails significantly or his or her poll standing drops
Society of Professional Journalists
a large organization of working journalists and student chapters that tries to ensure that journalism is being practiced professionally and ethically as it fulfills its role in society Principles in the SPJ Code: Accuracy of information Give the subjects of news stories the opportunity to respond to allegations of wrong doing Identify sources whenever feasible Make certain to never mispresent Never distort photos or videos Avoid misleading reenacments or staged news events Support open exchange of views Avoid undercover methods of gathering information Ways to avoid problems with ethics in journalism
Freedom of Information Act
a law that gives you the right to access information from the Federal government. It is often described as the law that keeps people in the know about their government provided the public the right to request access to records from any federal agency allows for the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased information and documents controlled by the US government
Qualitative Research
a method of inquiry favored in the social sciences that explores typically unstructured phenomena through interviews, focus groups, and participant observation among other techniques that produce descriptive rather than predictive results Includes in depth interviews, focus groups, participant-observation, and ethnography Ethnography: a variety of qualitative research techniques that involve immersion of a researcher in a particular culture to allow interaction with participants through observation, participation, interviews, or a combination of methods Participant-observation: a qualitative research technique in which researchers participate as members of the group they are observing Makes no claims as being generalizable to the larger population
Astroturfing campaign
a movement or campaign that looks as though it was created by concerned citizens as a grassroots movement when in fact it was actually created or controlled by an organization with a vested interest in the outcome Example of problem with ethics in public relations
Pragmatism
a practical approach to problems and affairs
Libel
a published false statement that is damaging to a person's reputation; a written defamation Slander: a spoken defamation Zenger case established an important principle of freedom of the press and departed from the way much of the world sees libel Something must be untrue to be libel. However, in England, a true statement can be considered libel if its defamatory and damaging to a person's reputation
Tocqueville's tyranny of the majority
a situation in which governmental laws and policies benefit the majority without concern for the welfare or rights of other groups or individuals While public opinion may influence government policy, that is not to say that government is controlled by a tyranny of the majority Various groups can manipulate public opinion for their own ends, and an entire media industry-- public relations-- exists for the primary purpose of swaying public opinion with campaigns that cast their clients and their policies in the most attractive light possible
Relationships/Dialogical ethics
a system in which ethics can be judged by attitudes and behaviors Do not force your own agenda but strive for open and honest dialogue that accepts other views without judgement
Authoritarian
a theory of international mass communication that contends authoritarian government exerts direct control over the media in an attempt to squash any media content that would undermine the government's authority, such as a critical take on government policy
Social Responsibility
a theory of international mass communication that perhaps best describes the media's role in democratic societies. It asserts that the media should be free from most government constraints to provide the most reliable and impartial info to the public.
Soviet theory
a theory of international mass communication that states that the should be publicly owned and used to further the needs of the working class
Separation of editorial and business operations
aka separation of church and state in newsroom parlance--news coverage not be influenced by business decisions or advertisers. Some say threatened today: LA Times demanded a special "news" section on Staples Center, without explicitly informing staff that Staples both sponsored and approved the content
Fair Use
allowable use of someone else's copyrighted work that does not require payment of royalties, with a number of factors that determine if something falls under fair use or violates copyright
News Hole
amount of total space available after advertisement space has been blocked out, typically in newspapers. In regard to TV, when news channels became 24 hours, there were much larger news holes to fill and consequently much lower standards for what stations deemed newsworthy--resulted in promotion/entertainment. The rise of twenty four hour news channels means a much larger news hole to fill and consequently much lower standards for what stations deem news worthy. Coverage of events that would not otherwise reach a televised audience is not necessarily a bad thing, but often this material simply promotes or entertains. EX: 2013 Jodi Arias trial coverage, a lurid case in which a woman was charged with first degree murder of her boyfriend testified on the stand about their often strange sexual exploits. Amount of total space available after entertainment has been blocked out, typically in newspapers. In regards to TV, when news channels became 24 hours, much larger news hole to fill and consequently much lower standards for what stations deemed newsworthy--resulted in promotion and entertainment.
S.S McClure
an Irish American publisher who became known as a key figure in investigative or muckraking journalism McClure's Magazine Ida Tarbell and Lincoln Steffens wrote for his magazine
Paywall
an arrangement whereby access is restricted to users who have paid to subscribe to the site
Public sphere
an idealized conversational forum in which people discuss and debate mutual interests and societal issues first described by Habermas as an arena for rational critical debate, where the best argument won the day and where rank or privilege took a backseat to the quest for knowledge and truth.
Separation of commercial interests from news gathering
economic factors and corporate decisions often influence what is and what is not covered in the news At the local level, reducing the number of reporters at a news organization to save money can result in a noticable drop in local news coverage At a struggling local paper, a company that advertises heavily in a local newspaper may gain undue influence in the paper's decision as to whether to publish local articles. A newspaper publisher with other business interests in tourism or real estate may influence coverage by discouraging or even forbidding reports on certain crimes that hurt these commercial ventures.
Cybersecurity and Media
hacking by China and North Korea; While media convergence can bring people together, local cultural identity issues and global national security issues come with Backlash against American foreign policy can take the form of cybercrime Hackers try to break into western computer networks Chinese based company hacked Apple, Facebook, and Google--same or related group hacked Sony Chinese group accessed private info of four million federal employees
Fairness and Balance
have increasingly replaced objectivity, a goal that has been questioned in recent years; critics argue that reporter bias cannot be avoided, and to objectivity in a given situation simple masks partiality. Even if the reporter has no strong personal opinion when writing a story, subsequent editing and placement in a newspaper or news broadcast can still reflect bias. Unintended biases can also inform an editor's choice of assignments and a reporter's choice of sources. Fairness and balance mean equal and just consideration of all sides of a topic. This does not mean equal space, however. Support for a fringe candidate from a small group of fifty people, however vocal, would not receive the small amount of coverage as popular candidate from a major political party. A journalist must consider factors such as contextual importance and source validity or authority.
A Spoils System/Patronage System
in politics and government, a practice in which a political party, after winning an election, gives government civil service jobs to its supporters, friends, and relatives as a reward for working toward victory, and as an incentive to keep working for the party
Super PAC's
independent expenditure-only committee cannot contribute directly to a politician's campaign But can accept unlimited donations from individuals, corporations, unions, and associations Even though Super PAC's cannot give directly to candidates and are supposed to operate independently from the candidate or staff, many are run by former staff members or aides who have other close ties to the candidates they support.
Trial Balloon
leaking information to the press about a proposed plan or idea to see how the public will respond Politicians use trial balloons to test public opinion on proposals EX: announce plans for an industrial park, even though no plans have been finalized. Subsequent media coverage/public discussion reveals whether project will be well received or not and whether government should move forward with it or not.
Sound bites
length of time a news subject is allowed to speak without editing short, catchy utterances designed to capture media attention In 1968, Kiku Adatto of Harvard University did a study on political soundbites, specifically, how long a source in a television news story was allowed to speak without editing. Since 1968, the sound bite of a poltical candidate has shrunk by some 80 percent to just 9.8 seconds, which has greatly reduced the context of factual information. The short nature of sound bites just focuses on campaign strategy/depicting politicians as those who will say and do anything to get elected. Therefore, public cynicism and apathy have increased.
Tension between global and local
media critics argue that western media, profit driven and privately owned and operated, dominates global flow of news and entertainment media and carries commercial/corporate bias; many countries have developed more authentic, culturally relevant media programming to combat foreign commercial media, which costs the government money but incentivizes local broadcasting and possibly a more global audience Bollywood: more indigenous culture reflected Noncommercial media: tells seldom heard stories of marginalized people using social media and online videos to help reach global audiences while educating locals Governments fund domestic arts/music production; while the US government provides little finding to the arts and public broadcasting; Since 1968, Canada has devoted significant resources to distributing Canadian voices, stories, and content through public broadcasting; Netflix is an example of digital distribution of media content; content is different in Canada versus the US
Hard News
more men; politics, business, anything fast paced (as opposed to soft news; which is more like human interest stories
How entertainment functions in political campaigns
played an increasingly important role in helping political candidates create a more down to earth image Appearances on late-night talk shows/comedy shows are now the norm for many political candidates Saturday Night Live The Daily Show The Colbert Report Popular with young viewers, who are typically high educated
Counterpublics
public forums of resistance created by those who consider themselves to be excluded from or marginalized within dominant media and communication. Michael Warner believes that the public is not a cohesive entity, but actually comprised of multiple reflexive counterpublics that respond to the Habermasian public that excludes the interests of potential participants.
Framing
structure or angle given to a news story that influences reader understanding covering the event. I.E Phrasing an event as a terrorist attack versus armed resistance; describing an event or public figure as super conservative versus super liberal. Which facts are chosen/included changes how a story is looked at; could be intentional and threaten fair and balance or could be unintentional; as some reporters just think their stories reflect reality. Traditional news media often decide how they will frame a story before the reporting is completed and sometimes before it has even begun. Forcing facts to fit a preconceived frame is one of the biggest threats to fairness and balance. Yet this tendency cannot be wholly avoided because it makes writing a news story easier and faster and partly because it helps us make sense of the world. Journalists, who often believe their work simply reflects a reality may not even be aware of their frame. This can create problems, especially when treating more ambiguous and complicated situations that tend to defy simple framing. Consider for example the media's tendency to demonize, reducing complex events and people to good and bad.
Yellow Journalism
style practiced notably by publishers Pulitzer and Hearst during the late 1890's in which stories were sensationalized and often partly or wholly fabricated for dramatic purposes. Name came from the The Yellow Kid's shirt in Pulitzer's Sunday comic strip, coined by critics
Egalitarianism
the doctrine that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities
Telecommunications Act of 1996
the first major regulatory overhaul of telecommunications since 1934, designed to open the industry to greater competition by deregulating many aspects of it.
Chilling effect
the phenomenon that occurs when journalists or other media producers decide not to publish stories on a topic after a journalist has been punished or jailed for such a story
Greenwashing
the practice of companies making themselves or their products appear to be organic, environmentally friendly, or supportive of free trade when in fact they are not Example of problem of ethics within advertising
Network Neutrality
the principle that broadband networks should be free of restrictions on content, platforms, or equipment and that certain types of content platforms, or equipment should not get preferential treatment on the network.
Developed and developing nations
the sovereign state, whose economy has highly progressed and possesses greater technological infrastructure versus countries with low industrialization and low human development index
Libertarian
theory of international mass communication that supports the individual's right to publish whatever he or she wants, even material critical of the government and government officials. Emphasis on the truth above all else.
Prior restraint
when the government prevents or blocks the publication, broadcasting, showing, or distribution of media content, whether in print, over the air, in movie theaters, or online; MUST present a grave threat to national security Similar to censorship, which occurs after content has been published