Learning and Memory B302 Midterm (ch. 1-6)

Which description is an example of a stimulus in René Descartes' reflex arc? spirits flowing from the shoulder to the brain spirits being reflected back from the brain to the muscles a person being tapped on the shoulder a person turning around to see who has tapped him on the shoulder

a person being tapped on the shoulder

The difference between whether an animal expects the US and whether the US actually occurs is known as: a prediction error. homeostasis. an error-correction rule. latent inhibition

a prediction error.

Emerging in the 1920s, the American approach to learning known as ____________ centered around the argument that psychology should exclusively study observable behaviors.

behaviorism

Lightning is usually followed by thunder. Eventually, one can be startled just by the lightning alone. What is the unconditioned response? being startled by lightning being scared of thunder being scared of lightning being startled by thunder

being startled by thunder

When the eyeblink reflex is conditioned using a tone, the conditioned response is: the puff of air. the tone. blinking in response to the tone. blinking in response to a puff of air.

blinking in response to the tone.

A regular drug user can have an elevated reaction to his/her usual drug if he/she takes that drug (same dose) in a new environment. In this example, the familiar environment in which the drug is normally taken in is the: CS US UR CR

CS

In trace conditioning, the: US begins before the CS and ends before the onset of the CS. CS begins before the US and ends before the onset of the US. US begins before the CS and stays on until the CS has occurred. CS begins before the US and stays on until the US has occurred.

CS begins before the US and ends before the onset of the US.

Incoming sensory information is passed from the thalamus to the: muscles. primary motor cortex. primary sensory cortices. spinal cord.

primary sensory cortices.

After a neuron fires, there is a brief period during which it is unable to fire again. What is this period called? reuptake refractory inactivation postsynaptic

refractory

In operant conditioning procedures, ___________ is the process of providing outcomes for a behavior that increases the probability of that behavior occurring again in the future, whereas __________ is the process if providing outcomes that decrease the probability.

reinforcement, punishment

The matching law of choice behavior states that, given two responses that are reinforced on different VI schedules, an organism will: give both responses at roughly equal rates. give only the response that provides the better rate of reinforcement. become confused and stop responding altogether. respond in order to approximately match the relative rate of reinforcement for each response.

respond in order to approximately match the relative rate of reinforcement for each response.

My friend from high school was on the TV show The Bachelor. After she was in US Weekly, I also became something of a town celebrity. This is most analogous to the process of _____. sensory preconditioning overshadowing latent inhibition higher-order conditioning

sensory preconditioning

The trial-by-trial variability in the elements we attend to when experiencing a stimulus is captured in __________ proposed by________.

stimulus sampling theories, William Estes

If one buys lottery tickets, one may win on average every 15 times one plays. This is an example of a _____ schedule of reinforcement. variable-ratio fixed-ratio variable-interval

variable-ratio

_____ is the process by which non-human animals and humans learn to classify stimuli into different categories. category learning discrimination learning learning differentiation stimuli classification

category learning

The ____________ looks like a smaller brain hiding underneath the cereal cortex and helps coordinating sensation and movement.

cerebellum

The temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and frontal love are all subdivision of the __________.

cerebral cortex/hemispheres

The fact that by nature babies placed underwater do not inhale water is an example of ___________.

diving reflex

Many basic reflexes: use only the sensory neurons. involve the pumping of spirits or fluids into the muscles. do not require the brain's involvement. end with input to the sensory neurons.

do not require the brain's involvement.

The relationship between US and a UR does/does not involve learning.

does NOT

If electrodes are attached a person's head, it is probably because _________ recordings are being collected.

electroencephalography

_______ are naturally occurring neurotransmitter-like substance that may help signal hedonic value ("liking") in the brain.

endogenous opiod

A ____________ is a hypothetical physical change in neurons that forms the basis of a memory.

engram

If a pigeon is allowed to peck at the switch in order to receive food whenever it chooses, this is an example of which type of paradigm? operational conditioning learning discrete trial free-operant

free-operant

Skinner's method of studying learning is known as a: discrete-trial paradigm. behavioral economics method. free-operant paradigm. drive-reduction paradigm.

free-operant paradigm.

The transfer of past learning to new situations and problems is known as: negative patterning. acquired equivalence. discrimination. generalization

generalization

Varieties of cells such as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes that are found throughout the brain collectively called _______________.

glia

The neural mechanism for habituation is thought to be a progressive decrease in the number of vesicles containing the neurotransmitter ____________, available in the sensory neuron's axons.

glutamate

In Aplysia touching the siphon causes the gill to withdraw. If the siphon is touched repeatedly, eventually the gill will not withdraw anymore. This is an example of: mere exposure learning. sensitization. habituation. learned non-use

habituation.

When Brenda and Don first got married, she was bothered by his snoring, but after 15 years of marriage she barely notices it anymore. This is an example of: priming. habituation. sensitization. dishabituation.

habituation.

Two proteins found in neurons play critical regulatory roles in the synapse-creation process. The first protein, CREB-1, activates genes in the neuron's nucleus that ___________ the growth of new synapses. The second protein CREB-2 _________ the action of the CREB-1.

initiate, inhibits

The __________ is a part of the brain that helps determine subjective values of punishers, such as whether the intense heat of chili pepper on the tongue is perceived as pleasurable or painful. The ___________ is a part of the brain that helps determine the motivational value of punishment- that is, what we do about it.

insular cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex

The final exit point of CR information from the cerebellum is/are the: inferior olive. interpositus nucleus. Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex. motor

interpositus nucleus.

The hippocampus: must be intact for normal eyeblink conditioning to occur. is important in mediating response timing. is especially active during the early phases of classical conditioning. computes the degree to which the US is unexpected.

is especially active during the early phases of classical conditioning.

Repeated unreinforced presentations of a tone CS would cause _____ neurons in the auditory cortex to respond to the tone. equivalent more zero less

less

Which neuroimaging technique uses changes in magnetic fields to generate images of internal brain structure? magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lesions computed tomography (CT) single-cell recording

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

The part of cerebral cortex that is important for processing visual elements is the: occipital lobe. brainstem. parietal lobe. frontal lobe.

occipital lobe.

Learned non-use occurs when a stroke patient stops using a body part because: that body part being physically restrained. of damage to the hippocampus. of damage to the motor areas controlling that body part. of lack of sensory input from that body part.

of lack of sensory input from that body part.

In _______, organisms learn to make responses in order to obtain or avoid certain outcomes.

operant conditioning

Thorndike referred to the training in which organisms learn to make certain responses in order to obtain important consequences as ____________, which is know also known commonly as _________________.

operant conditioning, instrumental conditioning

Frank once ate an orange and shortly afterwards he got the flu. Although the orange did not cause Frank to become ill, he no longer likes to eat oranges. What is the conditioned stimulus? feeling ill from the flu feeling ill from the orange the virus that caused the flu oranges

oranges

An area of the prefrontal cortex called the _____________ is important for learning to predict which outcomes follow particular responses.

orbitofrontal cortex

Pavlov paired a bell with food until a dog learned to salivate in response to the bell. To produce extinction, Pavlov: paired the bell with the absence of food. paired the bell with a different kind of food. stopped ringing the bell. rang the bell more quietly

paired the bell with the absence of food.

The unconditioned response occurs: without any training or conditioning. after repeated pairings of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. in response to a neutral stimulus. with training or conditioning.

without any training or conditioning.

What are the four key stages of memory experimentation according to Dr. Ebbinghaus (19th century)?

learning, delay, testing, relearning.

In which example would one MOST likely see a steady rate of responding without any noticeable pauses? A charitable organization receives a donation for every 10 phone calls it makes on average. A teenager receives an allowance every Saturday. A blueberry picker receives $1 each time he fills three boxes. A college student gets a call from home every Friday morning.

A charitable organization receives a donation for every 10 phone calls it makes on average

According to Aristotle's principle __________________, we form a strong association between peanut butter and jelly because they appear together very often.

Associationism

If one pairs a tone with a shock, a rat can learn that the tone predicts the shock. If one then pairs a tone and light with a shock, the person finds that the rat gives a: CR only to the tone. UR only to the tone. CR only to the light. CR to the tone and light together.

CR only to the tone.

The brain and spinal cord together makes up _______.

CNS

In Pavlov's experiments, he presented a sound followed by meat. Gradually the sound came to elicit salivation. The salivation to the sound in this example is the: CS US UR CR

CR

In the eye blink conditioning, the blink is both a ____________ and a ___________, although they differ in their ________________.

CR, UR, timing

Although the work of ____________ is no longer considered relevant today, his students and followers carried on toward developing mathematical equations to explain learning.

Clark Hull

The person who FIRST attempted to develop a comprehensive mathematical model of animal learning was: Edward Thorndike. Clark Hull. John B. Watson. Ivan Pavlov.

Clark Hull

Who proposed connectionist models of the mind? Gordon Bower Clark Hull George Miller David Rumelhart

David Rumelhart

Why is dopamine believed to be involved in reinforcement? Dopamine release is triggered by primary and secondary reinforcers. It leads to extinction. All of the answers are correct. It leads to activity in brain areas known as the dopaminergic region.

Dopamine release is triggered by primary and secondary reinforcers.

In ___________ law of __________, behaviors that lead to desirable consequences are ________ likely to happen again in the future.

Edward Thorndike , law of effect

Mary wants to encourage her son to work harder in school. She has decided to reward him with money for good grades and punish him by adding extra chores for bad grades. Mary's approach is MOST similar to the ideas of: Ivan Pavlov. Edward Thorndike. David Rumelhart. Herbert Simon.

Edward Thorndike.

Who believed that rats were forming a "cognitive map" when they learned to navigate through a maze? John B. Watson Clark Hull Ivan Pavlov Edward Tolman

Edward Tolman

"Behavior reeks of purpose" was the maxim of: B. F. Skinner. Edward Tolman. John B. Watson. Edward Thorndike.

Edward Tolman.

The number of digits in a standard phone number (not including area code) is relevant to the work of ___________.

George Miller

A contemporary of William James, _________ proposed that the psychology of memory can be defined precisely through mathematical laws as a rigorous natural science.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

The law of effect predicts which statement? If a teenager is grounded for taking the car without permission, he will ask for permission next time. If a child is scratched by a black cat, the child will fear all cats, not just black ones. If one remembers a couple of phone numbers a few hours after being told, one is less likely to forget them later. If a tone is played while the dog is provided food, the dog will eventually salivate in response to the tone.

If a teenager is grounded for taking the car without permission, he will ask for permission next time.

What is the main difference between classical and operant conditioning? In classical conditioning, the outcome depends on the response, while, in operant conditioning, the outcome occurs, regardless of the response. Classical conditioning shows extinction but operant conditioning does not. In operant conditioning, the outcome depends on the response, while, in classical conditioning, the outcome occurs, regardless of the response. Operant conditioning shows extinction but classical conditioning does not.

In operant conditioning, the outcome depends on the response, while, in classical conditioning, the outcome occurs, regardless of the response

Which statement is TRUE regarding the use of constraint-induced movement therapy to treat learned non-use? It helps muscles to recover but has little effect on brain activity. It is less effective than encouraging people to use their affected limb. It is used when motor control is lost but sensation is retained. It exploits mechanisms of cortical plasticity

It exploits mechanisms of cortical plasticity

Why was Charles Darwin's view of natural selection controversial? Darwin had no data to back up his claims. All of the answers are correct. It suggested that there was not a major distinction between man and other species. Nobody believed that traits could be inherited.

It suggested that there was not a major distinction between man and other species.

Who believed that children are born a "blank slate"? John Locke Gottfried Leibniz Plato René Descartes

John Locke

Neurons in the ___________ play an important role in the generation and control of motor responses in humans.

M1

A major technique currently used to collect structural images of human brain is ________.

MRI

Which statement is TRUE? Only vertebrates have both a central and a peripheral nervous system. Animals must have both a central and peripheral nervous system in order to be able to learn. Animals with larger brains have higher intelligence than animals with smaller brains. The cerebral cortex takes up about the same percentage of total brain volume in humans as it does in other vertebrates.

Only vertebrates have both a central and a peripheral nervous system.

Sensory receptors in your fingers and toes are part of your _________.

PNS

Which is an example of appetitive conditioning? rats freezing in response to a tone that predicts a shock eyeblink conditioning Pavlov's conditioning of salivation in dogs flies being shocked in the presence of a particular odor

Pavlov's conditioning of salivation in dogs

Which book is William James most famous for?

Principles of psychology

In mammals, the two sites where information about the CS-US association can be stored in the cerebellum are the _____ and the _____. Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex; interpositus nucleus pontine nuclei; interpositus nucleus pontine nuclei; inferior olive Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex; inferior olive

Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex; interpositus nucleus

Appealing because its simplicity, the ____________ model has served as a starting point for many promising models of learning.

Rescorla-Wagner

What is considered the most controversial scientific book ever written?

The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin

Suppose a student is trained to press the "A" key when a high-pitched tone is played and the "B" key when a low-pitched tone is played. Even after hundreds of trials of training, the student will probably still occasionally press the wrong button. How can this be explained by stimulus sampling theory? The student is tired and more prone to mistakes after so many trials. The student may temporarily forget which key is the correct one after a while. The tone activates a subset of elements that are not yet linked to the correct key. The connection between the tone and the key deteriorates after repeated presentation.

The tone activates a subset of elements that are not yet linked to the correct key.

Which statement is TRUE? Philosophers gain insight through scientific experiments. The study of learning and memory has always been a scientific pursuit. Today, people who study learning and memory consider themselves to be scientists. Insights gained through philosophy are more important than those gained through science.

Today, people who study learning and memory consider themselves to be scientists.

The Rescorla-Wagner model is a(n) _____ theory of learning. US modulation CS modulation attentional latent

US modulation

What 2 books did B.F Skinner write?

Walden Two, Beyond Freedom and Dignity

According to _____, attending a soccer game might activate a memory of having attended a hockey game the previous day because there would be an association between some of the components the two events have in common. René Descartes Charles Darwin William James Francis Galton

William James

Who was a proponent of associationism? Plato René Descartes William James Gottfried Leibniz

William James

Long-term potentiation is when: neurons respond in the absence of a stimulus. a strong stimulus leads to a weaker-than-normal response in a neuron. neurons continue to respond long after a stimulus has been removed. a recent strong stimulus causes a neuron to over-respond to a subsequent stimulus.

a recent strong stimulus causes a neuron to over-respond to a subsequent stimulus.

In Garcia and Koelling's taste-aversion studies, which was an unconditioned stimulus? an unfamiliar taste feeling sick a tone a shock

a shock

In the peak shift effect, discrimination training results in a maximum response to: the non-rewarded stimulus. a stimulus value that is far away from the nonreinforced stimulus value. the rewarded stimulus. a stimulus value that is closer to the nonreinforced stimulus value.

a stimulus value that is far away from the nonreinforced stimulus value.

Mark and Kaori enjoy many of the same foods and people. Based on the observation, Mark guesses that Kaori will also like a particular song of which he is fond. This is an example of _____. negative patterning acquired equivalence discrimination training sensory preconditioning

acquired equivalence

The ________ of the sensory neuron's release of glutamate onto the motor neuron is a presynaptic form of _____________.

activity-dependent enhancement, synaptic plasticity

_________ is the study of organisms allocate their time and resources among possible options.

behavioral economics

According to the Premack principle, if a teenager would rather go shopping than clean her room: cleaning her room could be used as a reward for going shopping. her desire to go shopping will be increased by restricting her access to cleaning her room. her desire to clean her room will be increased by restricting her access to going shopping. allowing her to go shopping could be used as a reward for cleaning her room.

allowing her to go shopping could be used as a reward for cleaning her room.

Parents who decide to use punishment on a misbehaving child should: not use spanking because it has been shown to be completely ineffective. make sure that the punishment involves giving the child lots of attention. also reinforce good behavior. spank the child, as spanking is the only effective punisher.

also reinforce good behavior.

___________ refers to actions or behaviors that benefit another individual at the expense of some cost to the actor. Some such actions may reflect ________________, or "tit-for-tat"behavior, in which one friend helps another with the expectation that the friend will reciprocate later on.

altruism, reciprocal altruism

Barry was in a car accident in which he was not wearing a seatbelt. He was not injured, and now, based on this experience, he believes that seatbelts are unnecessary. Barry exhibits the views of: associationism. dualism. nativism. empiricism.

associationism.

The learning that takes place in order to avoid or minimize the consequences of expected aversive events is know as ___________.

aversive conditioning

The prototypical connections between neurons are between __________ and _________.

axons, dendrites

Bouton's work suggests that cue-exposure therapy should: be done in a new, unfamiliar setting. be spread out over time. not include any actual drugs. be conducted in a single location.

be spread out over time.

Rats that are given a dopamine antagonist will: prefer rat chow to sugar pellets if both are freely available. work for rat chow, even if sugar pellets are freely available. choose rat chow that is freely available over sugar pellets for which they must work. work for sugar pellets, even if rat chow is freely available.

choose rat chow that is freely available over sugar pellets for which they must work.

Edward Tolman, a Neo-behaviorist, argues that his rats intrinsically motivated to learn the general layout of mazes, had formed ____________ internal psychological representations of the external world.

cognitive map

What is the study of similarities and differences between organisms' brains? neuropsychology comparative neuroanatomy cognitive development conditioning

comparative neuroanatomy

_______________ conditioned responses in the body are most often the result of a biological mechanism called _____________.

compensatory, homeostasis

In an ______________ reinforcement schedule, an organism has a choice between multiple possible responses that may each lead to different outcomes. The __________ predicts that the organism will make each response at a rate proportional to how often that response is reinforced relative to the other choices.

concurrent reinforcement schedule, matching law of choice behavior

Rats can be protected from overdose by the _____ that they learned during the administration of lower doses of heroin in the same setting.

conditioned tolerance

In the __________ models of cognitive, ideas and concepts from the external world are representations as distinct symbols but as pattern of activity over populations of many nodes. In these models, a _______________ representation consists of the activation of any different nodes as opposed to only one.

connectionist models, distributed representation

In a ________ schedule, every instance of the response is followed by the consequence; in a __________ schedule only some responses are reinforced.

continuous reinforcement schedule, partial reinforcement

A child is given a gold star every time she gets an "A" on a test. This is an example of: partial reinforcement. a fixed-interval schedule. continuous reinforcement. a variable-interval schedule.

continuous reinforcement.

When visual input is absent from birth, it is often seen that other cortical areas take over the areas of the brain normally devoted to vision. This demonstrates: cortical plasticity. habituation. perceptual learning. learned non-use

cortical plasticity.

A doctor is concerned that Martha has dysfunction involving the axons of her brain. Which neuroimaging technique would BEST be able to detect this problem? computed tomography (CT) scan diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) positron emission tomography (PET)

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

Which imaging method is particularly useful for physicians trying to assess brain injury, as well as diseases such as multiple sclerosis that specifically target axons? magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) computed tomography (CT) diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) positron emission tomography (PET)

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

A mouse is placed in a maze and timed to see how long it takes him to reach the end. Once the first trial is completed, the experimenter places him back in the maze again to see if the speed in which he completes it changes; this is referred to as a: drive-reduction method token response discrete trial free-operant paradigm

discrete trial

The _____ network gives no response to a similar stimulus despite great similarity to the trained stimulus. It only responds to the trained stimulus, thus not showing the smooth generalization gradient seen in other contexts. discrete-component generalization conditioning sensory

discrete-component

Joe can tell from the way his son cries whether he is hungry, needs changing, is sick, or is tired. This is an example of _____. generalization. discrimination. spontaneous recovery. extinction.

discrimination

My husband and I quickly learned that we needed to use different techniques to calm our second child than those that had worked with our first child. This is an example of _____ discrimination conditioning sensory preconditioning generalization

discrimination

By playing snippets of music by Brahms, then Schubert, and then Brahms again, a music teacher is able to teach his class how to recognize the style of each. This is an example of _____. discrimination training negative patterning sensory preconditioning acquired equivalence

discrimination training

In operant conditioning, _______________ signal whether a particular response will lead to a particular outcome.

discriminative stimuli

What neurotransmitter is damaged in individuals suffering from Parkinson's disease? dopamine serotonin endorphins striatum

dopamine

One suggestion regarding the roles of dopamine and opioids in the brain is that: dopamine and opioids are both involved in "liking" a drug. dopamine and opioids are both involved in "wanting" a drug. dopamine is involved in "wanting" a drug, whereas opioids are involved in "liking" a drug. opioids are involved in "wanting" a drug, whereas dopamine is involved in "liking" a drug

dopamine is involved in "wanting" a drug, whereas opioids are involved in "liking" a drug.

The ________ theory states that learning is driven by an organism's biological need to reduce innate drives to obtain primary reinforcers.

drive reduction

Chemical substances that, when brought into the body, can change how long neurotransmitters can activate receptors in synapse are called _______.

drug

It has been suggested that drug addicts should use small amounts of their drug during therapy to extinguish their habit. This is because: drug use is part of the context. the addict will experience fewer cravings. the addict will experience less withdrawal. drug use has become a US.

drug use is part of the context.

The belief that the mind and body exist as separate entities is known as ___________. A believer in this principle, ____________ reasoned that a sensory stimulus and motor response follow a pathway known as the ____________.

dualism, René Descartes

According to the phenomenon of conditioned compensatory response, drug addicts develop a tolerance to their drug because: environmental cues elicit URs that enhance the effect of the drug. environmental cues elicit CRs that counteract the effect of the drug. the drug elicits a UR that becomes weaker over time. the drug elicits a CR that enhances the effect of the drug.

environmental cues elicit CRs that counteract the effect of the drug.

According to Darwin, a trait can evolve through ___________ if it is inheritable, variable, and ___________.

evolution, fit

Malcolm's 2-year-old daughter throws a tantrum when she doesn't get what she wants. Malcolm has decided to ignore his daughter whenever she has a tantrum. This is an example of: reinforcement of alternative behaviors. distancing. delayed reinforcement. extinction

extinction

Suppose a child acquired a fear of the doctor's office because the office came to be associated with getting shots. To remove this fear, the child's parents decide to bring the child to the doctor's office several times each week without the child getting a shot. What technique are the parents using to eliminate the child's fear? latent inhibition extinction blocking trace conditioning

extinction

When a previously acquired association is diminished through repeated presentation of the CS in the absence of the US, it is known as: homeostasis. aversive conditioning. extinction. appetitive conditioning.

extinction.

In most paradigms, extinction is faster/slower than the original acquisition of the conditioned response.

faster

When two cues compete to predict a US or other outcome, the now that is most strongly learned is usually the cue that is learned ____________, as revealed in studies of blocking.

first

A postreinforcement pause is seen when _____ schedules of reinforcement are used. variable-interval and variable-ratio fixed-interval and fixed-ratio variable-interval and fixed-ratio fixed-interval and variable-ratio

fixed-interval and fixed-ratio

Which is an example of a primary reinforcer? praises food grades money

food

How memory deteriorates ever time is known as ___________. Measuring how much information is retained at various intervals of time following learning. Ebbinghaus was able to plot a __________.

forgetting, retention curve

According to the idea of latent inhibition, pre-exposing a rat to a light by itself will make it: harder for the rat to learn to associate a tone with food. easier for the rat to learn to associate the light with food. easier for the rat to learn to associate the light with a tone. harder for the rat to learn to associate the light with food.

harder for the rat to learn to associate the light with food.

Which result suggests that the hippocampus is critical for CS modulation effects? easier for the rat to learn to associate the light with a tone. harder for the rat to learn to associate a tone with food. harder for the rat to learn to associate the light with food. easier for the rat to learn to associate the light with food.

harder for the rat to learn to associate the light with food.

__________ refers ti the subjective "goodness"of a stimulus. The amount of work an organism will be willing to do to obtain that stimulus depends on the _________ of that stimulus.

hedonic value, motivational value

latent inhibition and other expressions of CS modulation are impaired or eliminated by lesions to the ___________.

hippocampus

Hedonic value refers to _____, while motivational value refers to _____. the salience of a stimulus; the strength of a reinforcer how much one likes a reinforcer; how much one wants a reinforcer the strength of a reinforcer; the salience of a stimulus how much one wants a reinforcer; how much one likes a reinforcer

how much one likes a reinforcer; how much one wants a reinforcer

In Aplysia, sensitization results from a(n): increase in the number of motor neurons. increase in glutamate released from the sensory neurons. decrease in the number of sensory neurons. decrease in glutamate released from the sensory neurons.

increase in glutamate released from the sensory neurons.

Cocaine and amphetamine work by: increasing the levels of endogenous opioids. increasing the levels of dopamine. decreasing the levels of dopamine. decreasing the levels of endogenous opioids.

increasing the levels of dopamine.

In Ebbinghaus's studies of memory, the length of delay between learning and relearning was the _____ variable. independent extraneous dependent confounding

independent

An air puff US to the eye activates neurons in the ________, a structure in the lower part of the brainstem.

inferior olive

The US first activates which brain area? interpositus nucleus inferior olive pontine nuclei cerebellar cortex

inferior olive

According to Charles Darwin, what three conditions are required to evolve species?

inheritability, variances, fitness

Purkinje cells inhibit/excite the interpostitus nucleus, the major output pathway driving the conditioned motor response.

inhibit

Which factor has been implicated in implementing the Rescorla-Wagner error-correction mechanism? inhibitory connections between the interpositus nucleus and the Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex inhibitory connections between the interpositus nucleus and the inferior olive pontine nuclei in the brain stem

inhibitory connections between the interpositus nucleus and the inferior olive

Imagine you are the experimenter for a psychological study. In phase I of your study, a person with schizophrenia hears a tone played over and over 10 times with nothing following it. Later, this same tone is repeatedly followed by a mild shock. Based on what you know about the tone-shock relationship and the speed of which your participant learns the association, how would you explain this finding? impaired configural node stimulus representation latent inhibition maladaptive receptive field

latent inhibition

Learning that takes place even in the absence of any specific motivation to obtain or avoid important consequences is called ________.

latent learning

The results of Garcia and Koelling's taste aversion studies demonstrate that animals: learn some associations more readily than others. cannot learn to associate food with shock. cannot learn to associate tones with feeling sick. can learn most associations equally quickly.

learn some associations more readily than others.

If rats are allowed to freely explore a maze without being given a food reward and later are put in the maze again with a food reward in the goal box, the rats: are unable to learn the maze regardless of being rewarded. learn the maze more slowly than rats that have never been exposed to the maze. learn the maze more quickly than rats that have never been exposed to the maze. learn the maze as quickly as rats that have never been exposed to the maze.

learn the maze more quickly than rats that have never been exposed to the maze.

Gordon Bower believed that: learning is a gradual, incremental process. learning can be explained by a mathematical model. it is important to look at the average of learning scores. All of the answers are correct.

learning can be explained by a mathematical model.

Increasing the learning rate in the Rescorla-Wagner model means that each training trial will have _____ impact on the changes in associative weights. more immeasurable less no

more

CS information travels up to the deep nuclei of the cerebellum along axon tracts called the ______.

mossy fibers

Plato was a proponent of _____________, which holds that the bulk of our knowledge is ingrained from birth. His student, Aristotle was identified with a school of though known as ___________, which claims that our ideas stem from experience.

nativism, empiricism

If a rat in a Skinner box expects that making a response will result in a delivery of surgery water but the rat instead only receives plain water, the phenomenon of __________ will predicts that the rat will respond less than if it had received plain water if it has received plain water for its effort all along.

negative contrast

You read about an experiment where a rabbit was classical conditioned to appropriately respond with an eyeblink when either a tone or light was presented but to withhold responding with the compound cue of both tone and light was presented. This is an example of _____. negative patterning a generalization gradient discrimination conditioning sensory preconditioning

negative patterning

Suppose a man has his driver's license revoked due to several unpaid traffic tickets. The taking away of his license would be _____ of the man's behavior of not paying tickets. negative punishment positive punishment positive reinforcement negative reinforcement

negative punishment

If an organism expects its favorite reinforcer but receives a less-preferred reinforcer, the phenomenon of _____ predicts that the organism may respond less than if it had received that less-preferred reinforcer at the start. negative behavior negative reinforcement negative correlation negative contrast

negative reinforcement

If it rains, opening the umbrella keeps one from getting wet. Escaping from getting wet would be _____ of the behavior of opening the umbrella. positive punishment positive reinforcement negative punishment negative reinforcement

negative reinforcement

Drug addicts continue taking drugs in part to avoid the unpleasant effects of withdrawal. In this case, the behavior of taking drugs is being: negatively punished. positively punished. negatively reinforced. positively reinforced.

negatively reinforced.

In Bower and Trabasso's study of blocking in humans, students were trained to categorize geometric figures based on shape. Blocking was demonstrated when the students could: not use a redundant cue to classify a new figure. not learn to categorize the figures based on shape. use a redundant cue to classify a new figure. learn to categorize the figures based on shape.

not use a redundant cue to classify a new figure

__________ refers to a strong habit that is maintained despite harmful consequences, if the habit is a behavior, it is called _________.

pathological addiction, behavioral addiction

A pigeon is given a choice between pecking an upper key on a VI 2' schedule and pecking a lower key on a VI 4' schedule. According to the matching law of choice behavior, the pigeon should: always peck the lower key. always peck the upper key. peck the lower key twice as frequently as the upper key. peck the upper key twice as frequently as the lower key.

peck the upper key twice as frequently as the lower key.

If a friend pats one on the back, the neurons that carry the information from the touch receptors on one's back to one's brain are part of the: central nervous system. right hemisphere. left hemisphere. peripheral nervous system.

peripheral nervous system.

In order to get Pavlov's dog to experience extinction, one would: give the dog a little extra food on each trial. play the tone more loudly on each trial. play the tone repeatedly without any food. present the food repeatedly without playing the tone.

play the tone repeatedly without any food.

Animals with lesions to the cerebellum show CRs, but they are ___________.

poorly timed

Training paradigms that can cause responses to become less frequent over time include __________, in which an undesirable element is delivered after a response, and ____________, in which a desirable element is taken away after the response.

positive punishment, negative reinforcement

Training paradigms that can cause responses to become more frequent over time include ____________, in which a desirable element is delivered after a response, and _____________, in which an undesirable element is taken away after the response.

positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement

___________ collect neurotransmitters released from a presynaptic neuron.

post synaptic, receptions, dendrites

The phenomenon of blocking reveals to us the importance of _____ in order for classical conditioning to occur. prediction regulation extinction classification

prediction

Latent inhibition cannot be explained by Rescorla-Wagner model because during the pre-exposure, there is no _________.

prediction error

___________ are stimuli such as food and sleep that can function as reinforcers due to their innate biological value to the organism; if these stimuli are paired with another stimuli that have no biological value, such as money or clicking sounds, those other stimuli can become __________.

primary reinforcer, secondary reinforcer

The Bell-Magendie law: applies to the central nervous system but not to the peripheral nervous system. applies to the brainstem but not to the spinal cord. proposes one nerve system for sensing and another for responding. proposes that the brain is divided into two hemispheres.

proposes one nerve system for sensing and another for responding.

Beneath the __________ cells of the cerebella cortex lie the cerebellar, including the _________ nucleus.

purkinje, inerpostitus

To use extinction to prevent relapses in a recovering drug addict, one would: reward the addict for every day he stays off drugs. keep the addict in a rehabilitation center for as long as possible. put the addict in his normal drug-taking environment without the drugs present. keep the addict away from the places where he normally takes drugs.

put the addict in his normal drug-taking environment without the drugs present.

Regarding spatial learning, it has been found that: rats learn to navigate mazes primarily by learning a sequence of movements rats can learn spatial layout even if they are not rewarded during learning. conscious effort is required for people to learn spatial layout. wasps rely on an internal sense of direction, rather than environmental cues, to navigate to and from their nests.

rats can learn spatial layout even if they are not rewarded during learning.

A rat with a dorsal striatum lesion would have trouble learning to: jump over a barrier to escape shock. receive food when a red light comes on. run in an exercise wheel to obtain a drink of water. press a bar for a food reward.

receive food when a red light comes on.

Molecules on the surface of the postsynaptic cell that bind with and respond to neurotransmitters are called: glia. synapses. neuromodulators. receptors.

receptors

Molecules on the surface of the postsynaptic cell that bind with and respond to neurotransmitters are called: glia. receptors. neuromodulators. synapses.

receptors.

Interfering with dopamine seems to: reduce enjoyment of a reinforcer but have no effect on motor responses. impair motor responses but have no effect on enjoyment of a reinforcer. reduce enjoyment of a reinforcer but have no effect on motivation to perform a behavior. reduce motivation to perform a behavior but have no effect on enjoyment of a reinforcer.

reduce motivation to perform a behavior but have no effect on enjoyment of a reinforcer.

If a person wants to use shaping to train a new puppy to respond to a name, he would call the name and then: jingle some keys or shake a dog toy to get the puppy interested enough to come over to him. pull the puppy with a leash, then reward when the puppy reaches him. reward when the puppy looks at him, then for turning toward him, and then for taking a few steps in his direction. reward once the puppy comes all the way to him.

reward when the puppy looks at him, then for turning toward him, and then for taking a few steps in his direction.

Suppose one conditions a dog to salivate in response to a tone (by pairing the tone with food). Then, the person presents both the tone and a light together, followed by the food. The dog will: not salivate to the tone or the light. salivate in response to both the tone and light. salivate only in response to the light. salivate only in response to the tone.

salivate only in response to the tone.

As a child, Samson learned that people who have deep voices also tend to have beards. When he later discovered that men with beards are strong, he inferred to a deep voice was also likely a sign of strength. This is an example of _____. discrimination training sensory preconditioning negative patterning acquired equivalence

sensory preconditioning

Darren is trying to get his young son to eat his peas. At first, Darren praises him whenever he moves his fork near the peas; after the child does this reliably, Darren praises him only if he actually puts a pea on his fork; then Darren's praise is only given when the child puts a pea on his fork and moves the fork toward his mouth. Darren carries on this way until the child eats his peas. Darren is using _____ to get his son to eat his peas. shaping a token economy the matching law chaining

shaping

In the operant conditioning technique known as _______________, successive approximations to a desired response are reinforced. In the operant conditioning technique known as ___________ organisms are gradually trained to execute complicated sequences if discrete responses.

shaping, chaining

Which factor plays a role in helping the individual concentrate allowing the brain to encode information in order to organize and store memories? exercise learning sleeping diet

sleeping

In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement, organisms typically give bursts of responding leading up to each enforcement, followed by a _________________ before the next bought if responding begins.

specific number

The part of the brain called ____________ contains dopamine-producing neurons that project to the ____________, which is important for stimulus-response learning. A different area called the _________ contains dopamine-producing neurons that project to the frontal cortex and other brain areas.

substantia nigra compacta, striatum, ventral tegmental area

When connected neurons are firing at the same time, ____________ can result.

synaptic plasticity/Hebbian learning

Classical conditioning involves learning: that a particular behavior leads to a reward. by observing another person perform a behavior. about a stimulus by being repeatedly exposed to it. that one stimulus predicts an important event.

that one stimulus predicts an important event.

The spontaneous recovery of a CR suggests that: the body tends to gravitate toward a state of equilibrium. any stimulus can be a US. the CR is not gone after extinction. any stimulus can be a CS.

the CR is not gone after extinction.

In delay conditioning: the CS begins before the US and stays on until the US has occurred. the CS begins before the US and ends before the onset of the US. the US begins before the CS and ends before the onset of the CS. the US begins before the CS and stays on until the CS has occurred.

the CS begins before the US and stays on until the US has occurred.

For punishment to be MOST effective: All of the answers are correct. the organism should know under what circumstances a particular behavior will and will not be punished. it should start out weak and become gradually stronger each time the behavior is repeated. the behavior cannot be concurrently reinforced

the behavior cannot be concurrently reinforced

The central nervous system is made up of: sensory organs. sensory and motor neurons. nerves and muscles. the brain and the spinal cord.

the brain and the spinal cord.

Jeff's dog salivates when he goes to the cupboard to get a dog biscuit. What is the unconditioned stimulus? Jeff salivation the cupboard the dog biscuit

the dog biscuit

Which part of the brain seems to be especially important for maintaining habitual or automatic S-R associations? the sensory cortices the ventral tegmental area the orbitofrontal cortex the dorsal striatum

the dorsal striatum

A conditioned eyeblink response can be produced by stimulating: the pontine nuclei as the CS. the inferior olive as the CS. both the inferior olive and the pontine nuclei as the CS. the inferior olive as the US.

the inferior olive as the US.

What part of the brain is responsible for making an individual feel bad for not being picked to play in the basketball game? the frontal cortex the insular cortex the dACC the orbitofrontal cortex

the insular cortex

In Garcia and Koelling's taste aversion studies, it was found that rats in: the poison group were more likely to associate a taste with poison than a tone with poison. the poison group were more likely to associate a tone with poison than a taste with poison. both groups feared tastes more than tones. the shock group were more likely to fear a taste than a tone.

the poison group were more likely to associate a taste with poison than a tone with poison.

Which region in the brain contains the dopamine-producing neurons that project to the striatum? the substantia nigra pars compacta the nueral cortex the ventral tegmental area the orbitofrontal cortex

the substantia nigra pars compacta

Evidence that extinction is more than just unlearning comes primarily from the studies that look at shifts in ___________ between learning and testing.

timing

The orbitofrontal cortex is particularly important for learning: to predict the outcomes of behaviors. automatic S-R associations. R-O associations. the hedonic value of a stimulus.

to predict the outcomes of behaviors.

In a _____, items called "tokens" work like secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for items of value. token system primary reinforcer token economy negative reinforcer

token economy

Chaining involves _____, whereas shaping involves _____. training individual components of a complex response; reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior punishment; reinforcement reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior; training individual components of a complex response reinforcement; punishment

training individual components of a complex response; reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior

One method for activating neurons in the cerebral cortex of humans without requiring surgery is _____________.

transcranial magnetic stimulation

According to Aristotle's principle of frequency, the ideas of "chair" and "table" are linked because people see chairs and tables together: very often. in the same place. at the same time. in kitchens.

very often.

Which item is an example of a primary reinforcer? water praise grades money

water