Lifespan Development Test 1
Multiple causation
How we develop results from biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces. For example, two children growing up in the same family will have different experiences if one has a developmental disability and the other does not.
age of viability
age at which a fetus can survive because most of its bodily systems function adequately; typically at 7 months after conception
Bronfenbrenner's Theory
The best-known proponent of the ecological approach was Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005), who proposed that the developing person is embedded in a series of complex and interactive systems. These systems are: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.
What is significant about the sequence of Erikson's theory?
The eight stages represent the order of this ascendancy. Because the stages extend across the whole life span, it takes a lifetime to acquire all of the psychosocial strengths.
Sensorimotor stage (0-2)
categorized by learning via touch (mouth), dirt can build immunities, egocentricism, object permanence
formal operational thought (adolescence and beyond)
categorized by the ability to think in hypotheticals, to know/understand consequences of actions/ consequences in different contexts
homozygous heterozygous
homozygous: when the alleles in a pair of chromosomes are the same heterozygous: when the alleles in a pair of chromosomes differ from each other
chronic villus sampling
in which a sample of tissue is obtained from part of the placenta. A small tube—typically inserted through the vagina and into the uterus but sometimes through the abdomen—is used to collect a small plug of cells from the placenta.
Biological forces
include all genetic and health-related factors that affect development.--includes biological, psychological, sociocultural and life-cycle forces ex: Prenatal development, brain maturation, puberty, menopause, facial wrinkling, and change in cardiovascular functioning may occur to you as examples of biological forces.
Psychological forces
include all internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality factors that affect development. ex: For example, think about how you describe yourself to others. Most of us say that we have a nice personality and are intelligent, honest, self-confident, or something similar. Concepts like these reflect psychological forces.
type of infant sleep
irregular or rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep: irregular sleep in which an infant's eyes dart rapidly beneath the eyelids while the body is quite active regular (nonREM) sleep: sleep in which heart rate, breathing, and brain activity are steady
Punishment
is a consequence that decreases the future likelihood of the behavior that it follows. Punishment suppresses a behavior either by adding something aversive or by withholding a pleasant event. Should the daughter fail to clean her room, the father may punish her by nagging (adding something aversive) or by not allowing her to watch television (withholding a pleasant event).
reinforcement
is a consequence that in- creases the future likelihood of the behavior that it follows. Positive reinforcement consists of giving a reward such as chocolate, gold stars, or paychecks to increase the likelihood of a previous behavior. --giving treats for cleaning room Negative reinforcement consists of rewarding people by taking away unpleasant things. The same father could use negative reinforcement by saying that whenever his daughter cleans her room she doesn't have to wash the dishes or fold laundry.
Imitation or observational learning
learning that occurs by simply watching how others behave
period of the fetus
longest period of prenatal development, extending from the 9th until the 38th week after conception
longitudinal study
longitudinal study research design in which the same individuals are observed or tested repeatedly at different points in their lives More important, it is the only way to answer certain questions about the stability or instability of behavior: Will characteristics such as aggression, dependency, or mistrust observed in infancy or early childhood persist into adulthood? weakness: Expensive, participants drop out, and repeated testing can distort performance
Qualitative research
method that involves gaining in-depth understanding of human behavior and what governs it qualitative research seeks to uncover reasons underlying various aspects of behavior. Because qualitative research typically involves intensive observation of behavior over extended periods of time, the need is for smaller but focused samples rather than large random samples.
threats to prenatal development
mom's diet, drugs, alcohol, cigarettes, antibiotics, pesticides
monozygotic twins dizygotic twins
monozygotic twins: the result of a single fertilized egg split- ting to form two new individuals; also called identical twins dizygotic twins: the result of two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm; also called fraternal twins
population vs sample
population: broad groups of people that are of interest to researchers sample: subset of the population
amniocentesis
prenatal diagnostic technique that uses a syringe to withdraw a sample of amniotic fluid through the mother's abdomen
proximodistal principle
principle of physical growth that states that structures nearest the center of the body develop first
cohort effects
problem with cross-sectional designs in which differences between age groups (cohorts) may result as easily from environmental events as from developmental processes
in vitro fertilization
process by which sperm and an egg are mixed in a petri dish to create a zygote, which is then placed in a woman's uterus
Huntington's disease
progressive and fatal type of dementia caused by dominant alleles
psychodynamic theory
theories proposing that development is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages
ecological theory
theory based on idea that human development is inseparable from the environmental contexts in which a person develops The ecological approach proposes that all aspects of development are interconnected, much like the threads of a spider's web are intertwined, so that no aspect of development can be isolated from others and understood independently. An ecological theorist would emphasize that, to understand why adolescents behave as they do, we need to consider the many different systems that influence them, including parents, peers, teachers, television, the neighborhood, and social policy.
information-processing theory
theory proposing that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software
life span perspective
view that human development is multiply determined and cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework
Life course perspective Including 3 major dimensions
description of how various generations experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in their respective historical contexts 1. The individual timing of life events in relation to external historical events. This dimension addresses the question: How do people time and sequence their lives (e.g., getting a first job) in the context of changing historical conditions (e.g., economic good times or recession) 2. The synchronization of individual transitions with collective familial ones. This dimension addresses the question: How do people balance their own lives (e.g., work obligations) with those of their family (e.g., children's soccer games)? 3. The impact of earlier life events, as shaped by historical events, on subsequent ones. This dimension addresses the question: How does experiencing an event earlier in life (e.g., a male turning 18 years old) at a particular point in history (e.g., when there is a military draft) affect one's subsequent life (e.g., choosing a particular career)?
sequential design
developmental research design based on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs Basically, a sequential design begins with a simple cross-sectional or longitudinal design. At some regular interval, the researcher then adds more cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, resulting in a sequence of these studies. ex: suppose a researcher wants to learn whether adults' memory ability changes with age. One way to do this would be to follow several groups of people of different ages over time, creating a sequence of longitudinal studies. The start would be a typical cross-sectional study in which 60- and 75-year-olds are tested. Then the two groups would be retested every 3 years, creating two separate longitudinal studies. weakness: Very expensive and time consuming; may not completely solve limitations of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs
sickle cell trait
disorder in which individuals show signs of mild anemia only when they are seriously deprived of oxygen; occurs in individuals who have one dominant allele for normal blood cells and one recessive sickle-cell allele
dominant recessive
dominant: form of an allele whose chemical instruc- tions are followed recessive: allele whose instructions are ignored in the presence of a dominant allele
fetal medicine
field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth
non shared environmental influences
forces within a family that make siblings different from one another For example, parents may be more affectionate with one child than another, they may use more physical punishment with one child than another, or they may have higher expectations for school achievement by one child than another. All these contrasting parental influences tend to make siblings different, not alike
Gene Alleles
genes: group of nucleotide bases that provides a specific set of biochemical instructions. Genes are units of heredity because they determine the production of chemical substances that are, ultimately, the basis for all human characteristics and abilities. alleles: variations of genes
Genotype Phenotype
genotype: person's hereditary makeup phenotype: physical, behavioral, and psychological features that result from the interaction between one's genes and the environment
3 different baby cries
A basic cry starts softly and then gradually becomes more intense; it usually occurs when a baby is hungry or tired A mad cry is a more intense version of a basic cry A pain cry begins with a sudden, long burst of crying followed by a long pause and gasping
preclampsia
A pregnant woman has high blood pressure, protein in her urine, and swelling in her extremities (due to fluid retention).
Competence-Environmental Press Theory
Another view of the influence of environments on human development comes from Lawton and Nahemow's (1973) competence-environmental press theory. According to this theory, people adapt most effectively when there is a good match between their competence or abilities and the environmental "press," or the demands put on them by the environment.
NBAS: Neo- natal Behavioral Assessment Scale The baby's performance is used to evaluate the functioning of these four systems:
Autonomic: the newborn's ability to control body functions such as breathing and temperature regulation Motor: the newborn's ability to control body movements and activity level State: the newborn's ability to maintain a state (e.g., staying alert or staying asleep) Social: the newborn's ability to interact with people Newborns step reflexively when they are held upright and moved forward.
Guidelines to ethical research
Avoid deception Minimize risks to research participants Describe the research to potential participants so they can determine whether they wish to participate Results should be anonymous or confidential
concrete operational thought (7-early adolescence)
Child understands and applies logical operations to experiences provided they are focused on the here and now
Multidirectionality
Development involves both growth and decline; as people grow in one area they may lose in another and at different rates. ex: people's vocabulary ability tends to increase throughout life, but reaction time tends to slow down.
DNA
Each chromosome actually consists of one molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid—DNA for short. molecule composed of four nucleotide bases that is the biochemical basis of heredity four different chemical compounds: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
chromosomes autosomes sex chromosomes
Each egg and sperm cell has 23 chromosomes, thread- like structures in the nucleus that contain genetic material. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes. The 23rd pair determines the sex of the child, so these are known as the sex chromosomes. When the 23rd pair consists of an X and a Y chromosome, the result is a boy; two X chromosomes produce a girl.
Historical context
Each of us develops within a particular set of circumstances determined by the historical time in which we are born and the culture in which we grow up. For example, living in a middle-class suburb in 1950s Indianapolis has little in common with living in a poor Latino neighborhood in 1990s Texas.
psychosocial theory
Erikson's proposal that personality development is determined by the interaction of what a child wants to do vs what society wants them to do
operant conditioning
Skinner studied this. learning paradigm in which the consequences of a behavior determine whether a behavior is repeated in the future
Optimization
Involves minimizing losses and maximizing gains. The main idea is to find the best match possible between one's resources (biological, psychological, and sociocultural) and one's desired goals. Because people cannot achieve optimal out- comes in everything, development becomes a dynamic process of selecting the right goals and compensating when possible to help maximize the odds of achieving them
systematic observation
Involves watching people and carefully recording what they do or say
Vygotsky's Theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was one of the first theorists to emphasize that children's thinking does not develop in a vacuum but rather is influenced by the sociocultural context in which children grow up. His 2 themes were connection between thought + language, importance of society + culture
Compensation
Occurs when a person's skills have decreased so that they no longer function well in a particular domain. When a person compensates, she searches for an alternative way to accomplish the goal; for example, if an injury reduces one's ability to drive then one might compensate by taking the bus. Sometimes, compensation requires learning a new skill; for example, an older adult who is experiencing short-term memory problems might compensate by learning to use a personal digital assistant. Thus, compensation differs from selection in that the task or goal is maintained— although other means are used to achieve it.
Plasticity
One's capacity is not predetermined or carved in stone. Many skills can be learned or improved with practice, even in late life. For example, people can learn ways to help themselves remember information, which may help them deal with the declines in memory ability that accompany aging.
Selective optimization with compensation (SOC) model
Selection processes serve to choose goals, life domains, and life tasks, whereas optimization and compensation concern maintaining or enhancing chosen goals. The basic assumption of the SOC model is that the three processes form a system of behavioral action that generates and regulates development and aging. EX: A college athlete who excels at ice hockey and baseball may decide to concentrate on hockey (selection), work on training all year (optimization), and develop a wicked wrist shot to make up for a mediocre slap shot (compensation).
epigenetic principle
The sequence of stages in Erikson's theory is based on this principle-- which means that each psychosocial strength has its own special period of particular importance.
Nature vs. Nurture
This involves the degree to which genetic or hereditary influences (nature) and experiential or environmental influences (nurture) determine the kind of person you are. Nature and nurture are mutually interactive influences.
Mesosystem
This provides connections across microsystems, because what happens in one microsystem is likely to influence others. Perhaps you've found that if you have a stressful day at work or school then you're often grouchy at home. This indicates that your mesosystem is alive and well; your microsystems of home and work are interconnected emotionally for you. ex: school/friends
hypoxia
a birth complication in which umbilical blood flow is disrupted and the infant does not receive adequate oxygen
spina bifida
a disorder in which the embryo's neural tube does not close properly during the first month of pregnancy. Since the neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord, the result when it does not close properly is permanent damage to the spinal cord and the nervous system. Many children with spina bifida need crutches, braces, or wheelchairs.
reaction range
a genotype is manifested in reaction to the environment where development takes place, so a single genotype can lead to a range of phenotypes Ex: 2 children with the same genotype for "average intelligence." The children's phenotypic intelligence would depend on the environments in which they develop. If one child is brought up in an impoverished, unstimulating environment, then his or her phenotypic intelligence may be below average. In contrast, if the second child is brought up in an enriched environment filled with stimulation, then this child's phenotypic intelligence may be above average.
Heritability coefficient
a measure (derived from a correlation coefficient) of the extent to which a trait or characteristic is inherited ex: intelligence has a heritability coefficient of about .5, which means that about 50% of the differences in intelligence between people is due to heredity
cephalocaudal principle
a principle of physical growth that states that structures nearest the head develop first
microgenetic study
a special type of longitudinal design in which participants are tested repeatedly over a span of days or weeks, typically with the aim of observing change directly as it occurs For example, researchers might test children every week, starting when they are 12 months old and continuing until 18 months. Microgenetic studies are particularly useful when investigators have hypotheses about a specific period when developmental change should occur
experiment
a systematic way of manipulating the key factor(s) that the investigator thinks causes a particular behavior
meta analysis
a tool that enables researchers to synthesize the results of many studies to estimate relations between variables In conducting a meta-analysis, investigators find all studies published on a topic over a substantial period of time (e.g., 10 to 20 years) and then record and analyze the results and important methodological variables.
Biopyschosocial Framework
a useful way to organize the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces on human development
correlation coefficient
an expression of the strength and direction of a relation between two variables The size or strength of a relation is measured by how much the correlation differs from 0, either positively or negatively. The sign indicates the direction of the relation between variables: a positive sign means that larger values of one variable are associated with larger values of the second variable, whereas a negative sign means that larger values of one variable are associated with smaller values of the second variable.
Theory
an organized set of ideas that is designed to explain development
crowning
appearance of the top of the baby's head during labor
significant events in fetal development
begins with appearance of bone cells, fetus has fair chance of surviving after 7 months, avg size = 20 inches, 7 lbs
significant events in embryonic stage
brain and spinal chord develop, heart beats, can react to stimuli, most susceptible to external chemical influences (teratogens)
pre operational thought (2-6)
categorized by thinking logically + symbolically, language development, egocentricism, no reverse operations. Child learns how to use symbols such as words and numbers to represent aspects of the world but relates to the world only through his or her perspective
temperament and the 3 types of it
consistent style or pattern of behavior ■ Surgency/extroversion refers to the extent to which a child is generally happy, active, vocal, and regularly seeks interesting stimulation. ■ Negative affect refers to the extent to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy, and not easily soothed. ■ Effortful control refers to the extent to which a child can focus attention, is not readily distracted, and can inhibit responses.
Microsystem
consists of the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment. ex: family, day care setting etc
ectoderm mesoderm endoderm
ectoderm: outer layer of the embryo, which will become the hair, the outer layer of skin, and the nervous system mesoderm: middle layer of the embryo, which becomes the muscles, bones, and circulatory system endoderm: inner layer of the embryo, which becomes the lungs and the digestive system
eugenics
effort to improve the human species by letting only people whose characteristics are valued by a society mate and pass along their genes
validity
extent to which a measure actually assesses what researchers think it does
reliability
extent to which a measure provides a consistent index of a characteristic
Sociocultural forces
include interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors that affect development. ex: This larger system includes one's parents, children, and siblings as well as important individuals outside the family, such as friends, teachers, and co-workers. The system also includes institutions that influence development, such as schools, television, and the workplace. At a broader level, the society in which a person grows up plays a key role.
independent vs dependent variables
independent variable: the factor being manipulated dependent variable: the behavior being observed
phenylketonuria (PKU)
inherited disorder in which the infant lacks a liver enzyme
correlational study
investigation looking at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world ex: researcher who wants to test the idea that smarter people have more friends. To test this claim, the researcher would measure two variables for each person: the number of friends that the person has and the person's intelligence.
Elective selection
occurs when one chooses to reduce one's involvement to fewer domains as a result of new demands or tasks, such as when a college student drops out of some organizations because of the amount of work required in the courses she is taking that term.
Loss-based selection
occurs when this reduced involvement happens as a result of anticipated losses in personal or environmental resources, such as when an older person stops going to church because he can no longer drive.
self reports
people's answers to questions about the topic of interest When questions are posed in written form, the self-report is a questionnaire; when questions are posed orally, the self-report is an interview. May be invalid because people answer incorrectly (due to either forgetting or response bias)
self efficacy
people's beliefs about their own abilities and talents Bandura argues that experience gives people a sense of self efficacy
doula
person familiar with childbirth who provides emotional and physical support throughout labor and delivery
Life-cycle forces
reflect differences in how the same event affects people of different ages. 2 women get pregnant at same time, 1 is 35 with job and married, 1 is 16 yrs. old, both will be impacted differently
incomplete dominance
situation in which one allele does not dominate another completely
germ disc
small cluster of cells near the center of the zygote that will eventually develop into a baby
exosystem
social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development For example, changes in government policy regarding welfare may mean that poor children have less opportunity for enriched pre- school experiences. Although the influence of the exosystem is no more than second- hand, its effects on human development can be quite strong.
implantation
step in which the zygote burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with a woman's blood vessels
umbilical cord
structure containing veins and arteries that connects the developing child to the placenta
placenta
structure through which nutrients and wastes are exchanged between the mother and the developing child
cross sectional study
study in which developmental differences are identified by testing people of different ages Development is charted by noting the differences between individuals of different ages at the same point in calendar time. The cross-sectional approach avoids almost all the problems associated with repeated testing; it avoids costly record keeping and sample loss as well. Weakness: Because people are tested at only one point in their development, we learn nothing about the continuity of development. Ex: we cannot tell whether an aggressive 14-year-old remains aggressive at age 30 because the person would be tested at age 14 or age 30 but not at both ages.
structured observation
technique in which a researcher creates a setting that is likely to elicit the behavior of interest May be invalid if structured setting distorts the behavior
naturalistic observation
technique in which people are observed as they behave spontaneously in some real- life situation Difficult to use with behaviors that are rare or that typically occur in private settings
behavioral genetics
the branch of genetics that studies the inheritance of behavioral and psychologi- cal traits
Macrosystem
the cultures and subcultures in which the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded A mother, her workplace, her child, and the child's school are part of a larger cultural setting, such as Asian Americans living in Southern California or Italian Americans living in large cities on the East Coast. Members of these cultural groups share a common identity, a common heritage, and common values.
prenatal development
the many changes that turn a fertilized egg into a newborn human
Human development
the multidisciplinary study of how people change and how they remain the same over time
infant mortality
the number of infants out of 1,000 births who die before their first birthday
Continuity Versus Discontinuity
whether a particular developmental phenomenon represents a smooth progression throughout the life span (continuity) or a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity)
Universal Versus Context-Specific Development
whether there is just one path of develop- ment or several paths
zygote embryo
zygote: fertilized egg embryo: term given to the zygote once it is completely embedded in the uterine wall
4 different baby states
■ Alert inactivity—The baby is calm with eyes open and attentive; the baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the environment. ■ Waking activity—The baby's eyes are open but they seem unfocused; the arms or legs move in bursts of uncoordinated motion. ■ Crying—The baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoordinated motion. ■ Sleeping—The baby alternates from being still and breathing regularly to mov- ing gently and breathing irregularly; eyes are closed throughout.