Logical Fallacies

Tu quoque

"You also" Defending yourself by attacking the opponent; Example: "Who are you to condemn me! You do it too!"

Chronological Snobbery

Appealing to the age of something as proof of it's truth or validity; Example: Voo-doo magic must work because it's such an old practice. Example: Super-Glue must be a good product because it's so new.

Special Pleading (double standard)

Applying a different standard to another that is applied to oneself. Example: You can't possibly understand menopause because you are a man. Example: Those rules don't apply to me since I am older than you.

Cause and Effect

Assuming that the effect is related to a cause because the events occur together. Example: When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise. Example: When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to run out of gas.

Division

Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the parts. Example: That car is blue. Therefore, its engine is blue. Example: Your family is weird. That means that you are weird too.

Complex question (Loaded question)

Framing the question so as to force a single answer; Example "Have you stopped beating your wife yet?"

Bifurcation (Either-Or arguments)

Reduce complex issues to black and white choices. Example: Either we go to Panama City for the whole week of Spring Break, or we don't go anywhere at all.

Circular Argument

See Begging the Question

Ignoring the Question

Similar to a red herring. Rather than answering the question that has been asked, the person shifts focus, supplying an unrelated argument. Example: During a press conference, a political candidate is asked a pointed, specific question about some potentially illegal fund-raising activity. Instead of answering the allegations, the candidate gives a rousing speech thanking all of his financial supporters.

Natural Law fallacy / Appeal to Nature

The Appeal to Nature is a common fallacy in political arguments. One version consists of drawing an analogy between a particular conclusion, and some aspect of the natural world--and then stating that the conclusion is inevitable, because the natural world is similar. Example:"The natural world is characterized by competition; animals struggle against each other for ownership of limited natural resources. Capitalism, the competitive struggle for ownership of capital, is simply an inevitable part of human nature. It's how the natural world works."

Plurium interrogationum / Many questions

This fallacy occurs when someone demands a simple (or simplistic) answer to a complex question. Example:"Are higher taxes an impediment to business or not? Yes or no?"

Appeal to tradition

Trying to get someone to accept something because it has been done or believed for a long time. Example: This is the way we've always done it. Therefore, it is the right way. Example: The Catholic Church's tradition demonstrates that this doctrine is true.

False Dilemma

Two choices are given when in actuality there could be more choices possible. Example: You either did knock the glass over or you did not. Which is it? Example: Do you still beat your wife?

Post Hoc

a fallacy with the following form. 1. A occurs before B. 2. Therefore, A is the cause of B. Example: Eating five candy bars and drinking two sodas before a test helps me get better grades. I did that and got an A on my last test in history. Example: The picture on Jim's old TV set goes out of focus. Jim goes over and strikes the TV soundly on the side and the picture goes back into focus. Jim tells his friend that hitting the TV fixed it.

Slippery Slope

suggests that one step will inevitably lead to more, eventually negative steps. Example: We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester! Example: You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over you.

Faulty Analogies

lead to faulty conclusions. Be sure the ideas you're comparing are really related. Example: Forcing students to attend cultural events is like herding cattle to slaughter. The students stampede in to the event where they are systematically "put to sleep" by the program.

Dicto simpliciter / Fallacy of accident / Sweeping generalization

A sweeping generalization occurs when a general rule is applied to a particular situation, but the features of that particular situation mean the rule is inapplicable. It's the error made when you go from the general to the specific. Example: "Men are statistically more aggressive than women. Therefore, I, a male, must be more aggressive than you, a female."

Bandwagon Appeals

A threat of rejection by one's peers (or peer pressure) is substituted for evidence in an "argument." Example: Fifty million Elvis fans can't be wrong!

False Authority

An authority in one field many know nothing of another field. Example: A popular sports star may know a lot about football, but very little about shaving cream.

Begging the Question

Assuming the thing to be true that you are trying to prove. It is circular. Example: God exists because the Bible says so. The Bible is inspired. Therefore, we know that God exists. Example: I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple. I will vouch for him.

Ad hominem

Attacking the individual instead of the argument. Example: You are so stupid you argument couldn't possibly be true. Example: I figured that you couldn't possibly get it right, so I ignored your comment.

Non Sequitar

Comments or information that do not logically follow from a premise or the conclusion. Example: We know why it rained today, because I washed my car. Example: I don't care what you say. We don't need any more bookshelves. As long as the carpet is clean, we are fine.

Inductive Fallacy

Premise 1: Having just arrived in Ohio, I saw a white squirrel. Conclusion: All Ohio Squirrels are white. (While there are many, many squirrels in Ohio, the white ones are very rare).

Deductive Fallacy

Premise 1: If Portland is the capital of Maine, then it is in Maine. Premise 2: Portland is in Maine. Conclusion: Portland is the capital of Maine. (Portland is in Maine, but Augusta is the capital. Portland is the largest city in Maine, though.)

Poisoning the well

Presenting negative information about a person before he/she speaks so as to discredit the person's argument. Example: Frank is pompous, arrogant, and thinks he knows everything. So, let's hear what Frank has to say about the subject. Example: Don't listen to him because he is a loser.

Straw Man Argument

Producing an argument to attack that is a weaker representation of the truth. Example: The government doesn't take care of the poor because it doesn't have a tax specifically to support the poor. Example: We know that evolution is false because we did not evolve from monkeys.

Reification / Hypostatization

Reification occurs when an abstract concept is treated as a concrete thing. Example: "I noticed you described him as 'evil.' Where does this 'evil' exist within the brain? You can't show it to me, so I claim it doesn't exist, and no man is 'evil.'"

Guilt by Association

Rejecting an argument or claim because the person proposing it likes someone that is disliked by another. Example: Hitler liked dogs. Therefore dogs are bad. Example: Your friend is a thief. Therefore, I cannot trust you.

Spotlight fallacy

The Spotlight fallacy derives its name from the fact that receiving a great deal of attention or coverage is often referred to as being in the spotlight. It is similar to Hasty Generalization, Biased Sample and Misleading Vivideness because the error being made involves generalizing about a population based on an inadequate or flawed sample

Genetic Fallacy

The attempt to endorse or disqualify a claim because of the origin or irrelevant history of the claim Example: The Nazi regime developed the Volkswagen Beetle. Therefore, you should not buy a VW Beetle because of who started it. Example: Frank's just got out of jail last year and since it was his idea to start the hardware store, I can't trust him.

Argument from ignorance

The fallacy of assuming that something is true/false because it has not been proven false/true. Example: "The student has failed to prove that he didn't cheat on the test, therefore he must have cheated on the test." Example: 'U.F.Os must exist, because no one can prove that they don't."

Appeal to force

The hearer is told that something bad will happen to him if he does not accept the argument. Example: If you don't want to get beat up, you will agree with what I say. 2. Example: Convert or die.

Appeal to the popular

The hearer is urged to accept a position because a majority of people hold to it. Example: The majority of people like soda. Therefore, soda is good. Example: Everyone else is doing it. Why shouldn't you?

Appeal to pity

The hearer is urged to accept the argument based upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc. Example: You owe me big time because I really stuck my neck out for you. Example: Oh come on, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline.

Red Herring

The introduction of a topic not related to the subject at hand. Example: I know your car isn't working right. But, if you had gone to the store one day earlier, you'd not be having problems. Example: I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.

Equivocation

The same term is used in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings. Example: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Therefore, a bird is worth more than President Bush. Example: Evolution states that one species can change into another. We see that cars have evolved into different styles. Therefore, since evolution is a fact in cars, it is true in species.

Apriorism (Hasty Generalization)

This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Example: Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.