Logical Fallacies and Examples

Appeal to Popularity Example:

"Everyone believes that humans are causing accelerated global warming, so that is without a doubt what is occurring"

Appeal to Force Example:

"I deserve a raise this year. After all, you know that my sister just married the CEO and I am sure that you wouldn't want him to find out about your habit of drinking at the office."

Hasty Generalization Example:

"I don't know anyone who has committed violence after playing Grand Theft Auto. Violent video games have no effect on teenagers." "Last Sunday, Chicago Cubs fans threw beer on the heads of the outfielders from the opposing team. It's true what they say: Chicago Cubs fans are the worst in the league."

Post hoc example

"I had been doing pretty poorly this season. Then my girlfriend gave me these neon laces for my spikes and I won my next three races. Those laces must be good luck...if I keep on wearing them I can't help but win!!" "More and more accidents involving Francis Parker students are occurring along Linda Vista Road. For the safety of its students, the school needs to seriously consider moving the location of the campus."

Appeal to Novelty Example:

"If you want to lose weight, your best bet is to follow the latest diet."

Weak analogy Example:

"Last year my high school was given 100 new computers and 20 new teachers and our test scores went up. Your school received the same number of new computers and teachers so your test scores should be up as well."

Ad Hominem Example:

"Mr. Aiston has argued that Francis Parker is the top high school in San Diego County. Francis Parker employs Mr. Aiston and he will say anything to keep his job. Therefore you shouldn't listen to Mr. Aiston's argument."

False Dilemma (aka Either/Or Fallacy) Examples:

"My dad said he saw aliens in our backyard. Either my dad saw the aliens, or he's crazy. Obviously my dad isn't crazy. Therefore, he really saw aliens."

Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning Examples:

"The study of literature is worthwhile because great literature repays close reading."

Appeal to Tradition Example:

"This law was written over 200 years ago. It has stood the test of time. To tamper with it or change it in any way would be wrong."

Appeal to People Example:

"Tiger Woods started playing golf when he was three years old. The only way your child is ever going to be as great as tiger is if he starts playing golf when he is three."

Red Herring Example:

"You may claim that the death penalty is an ineffective deterrent against crime--but what about the victims of crime? How do you think surviving family members feel when they see the man who murdered their son kept in prison at their expense?"

Appeal to Pity Example:

"Your honor, I know that I declared thirteen children as dependents on my income tax return even though I have only two. But if you find me guilty of tax evasion, then my reputation will be ruined, my job lost, and my wife will not be able to get that surgery that she desperately needs."

Equivocation Example:

(1) Christianity teaches that faith is necessary for salvation.(2) Faith is irrational; it is belief in the absence of or contrary to evidence.Therefore: (3) Christianity teaches that irrationality is rewarded. News headlines can provide amusing examples of equivocation: Police begin campaign to run down jaywalkers Grandmother of eight makes hole in one Iraqi head seeks arms

Slippery Slope Example:

(1) If you buy a Green Day album, then next you'll be buying Buzzcocks albums, and before you know it you'll be a punk with green hair and everything.(2) You don't want to become a punk. Therefore: (3) You shouldn't buy a Green Day album.

Appeal to People

(popular, valued or esteemed figures in society)

Appeal to Tradition

A claim that a point of view is correct because it has always been believed or something is correct because it has always been done that way.

Appeal to Novelty

A claim that a point of view is correct because it is modern or new

Red Herring (a subtle change of emphasis in the argument)

An argument given in reply to an original issue in order to distract by introducing irrelevant evidence. The fallacy takes its name from a strategy used during fox hunts to distract the hounds from following their quarry. The dogs were offered smoked (red) herrings, a strong-smelling diversion, to divert them from the original trail.

Equivocation

An argument in which the meaning of a crucial term changes in the middle of the argument.

False Dilemma (aka Either/Or Fallacy)

An argument in which the speaker claims there are only two alternatives, and argues that, since one isn't correct, the other must be.

Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning

An argument that assumes the conclusion. The argument itself gives no evidence to support the argument. The conclusion restates the premise.

Ad Hominem

An argument that attacks the character of the arguer instead of the issue at hand.

Hasty Generalization

An argument that contains a conclusion drawn from insufficient evidence

Straw Man

An argument that misrepresents opponent's position and then interacts with the new, misrepresented version.

Slippery Slope

Any arguments that claims (falsely) that one step will be the first on a path and will inevitably lead to certain consequences.

Post hoc

The Latin phrase "post hoc ergo propter hoc" means, literally, "after this, therefore because of this." This fallacy is committed when it is assumed that because one thing occurred after another, it must have occurred as a result of it.

Appeal to Popularity

This argument that suggests an idea must be true simply because it is widely held.

Straw Man Example:

Vice-presidential candidate Richard Nixon defended himself against charges of appropriating campaign funds for his personal use in a famous speech called the "Checkers Speech".

Fallacies of Presumption

are not errors of reasoning in the sense of logical errors, but are nevertheless commonly classed as fallacies. They begin with a false or unwarranted assumption, and so fail to establish their conclusion.