MCAT Round #2: Psych/Soc (TPR Glossary)
observational learning
(or vicarious, social learning) a type of learning that occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations
psychomotor stimulants
-amphetamines, cocaine MDMA, cathinones (methylone/mephredrone) -generally act as dopamine agonists
agoraphobia
-an abnormal fear of open or public places
properties of an ideal extraction solvent?
-dissolves compound to be extracted -volatile -immiscible (only weakly miscible with matrix solvents)
oligodendrocytes
-found in the CNS -is a type of glial cell -can myelinate multiple neurons
baby boomers
-generation born between approx. 1946 to 1964 -main sociohistorical factor that explains the projection in the passage about the increasing share of population over 65 years of age
representative heuristic
-how representative something seems to be of a category (e.g., how likely is a woman to be a librarian based on how similar she seems to the idea one has of a typical librarian)
incentive vs. drive reduction theory
-incentive is external -drive reduction is internal
social cognitive theory
-individuals learn behavior through observing others
GABA
-inhibitory neurotransmitter -related to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
criterion validity
idea that a test should correlate with other measures of the same theoretical construct
interposition
if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
acetylcholinesterase
the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft
medulla oblongata
the portion of the hindbrain that controls respiratory rate and blood pressure and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing
self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute our success to ourself and our failures to others and the external environment
soma
the cell body of a neuron
demographics
the characteristics of a population with respect to age, race, and gender.
cornea
the clear portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil
impression management or self-presention
the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others; this is achieved by controlling the amount of type of information or the social interaction
cochlea
the curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials
choroid
the darkly-pigmented middle layer of the eyeball, found between the sclera (outer layer) and the retina (inner layer)
face validity
the degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims to a casual observer, the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to the test participants
identity formation (individuation)
the development of a distinct individual personality
negative feedback
a biological process that works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a result which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the result within tightly controlled bounds
corresponding bias
the tendency to blame other people's behaviors on their dispositions instead of the situation
case study
a descriptive analysis of an individual, group, or an event, which does not involve various experimental groups. A process or record of research in which detailed consideration is given to the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time
dual coding hypothesis
a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone
attitude
a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him, and his behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations
mood
a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life
affect
a person's visible emotion in the moment
multiculturalism
a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy; also called pluralism
groupthink
a phenomenon where within a group, the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one
iris
a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye, in the center of it is the pupil: a hole though which light enters the eyeball; it regulated the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light
exogamy
a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives
decoy
a research technique often used as part of deception, generally to intentionally mislead or confuse participants
primacy effect
a tendency to better recall the first items on a list
overconfidence
an overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments
secondary reinforcers
conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct/indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; e.g. money: it is not innately rewarding, but we have learned that it can provide access to primary reinforcers
Stanley Milgram
conducted research on obedience where he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject (but was just an actor) and he monitored the degree of subjects' compliances or obedience
monoamine hypothesis
depression is caused by insufficient levels of monoamine neurotransmitters
Jean Piaget
developmental psychologist who formulated a 4 stage theory of development for children
practiced effects
enhanced performance as a function of repeated testing
GABA vs. Glycine
-both are inhibitors but GABA is THE PRIMARY inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS
dissociative amnesia linked to
-linked to removal of unpleasant memories
Agraphia
Inability to write
social dysfunction
a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society
what is a characteristic of personality disorders
are seen to be relatively stable and thus a part of an individual's "personality."
dyssomnias
broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
arousal
the degree to which an emotion or experience is being activated or deactivated
personality
the nuanced and complex individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person
midbrain
the portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes
avoidance learning
the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present
language acquisition
the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native languagek
peripheral route
cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator
Carl Rogers
considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, Carl Rogers pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy
Phineas Gage
famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy
phenomenological research study
focuses on subject elements of an experience by trying to understand individual's perceptions, perspectives, and understanding of a particular situation or event
hypochondriac aka
illness anxiety disorder
reciprocal determinism
is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura which states that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment
heuristics
mental shortcuts used for problem solving, using these sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed
quantitative method
method that is statistically or mathematically based
aggregate
people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
fundamentalists
people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs
hair cells
sensory receptors found in the inner ear, cochlear hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves, and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration used for balance
volley theory
sets of neurons fire at highest rate slightly out of sync
narcolepsy
sleep disorder in which the individual experiences periodic overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 min
sleep apnea
sleep disorder in which the individual intermittently stops breathing during sleep and may wake up gasping for breath
depression prevalence
10%
Hawthorne effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied
stimulants
TCA (tobacco, cocaine, amphetamine)
habit
action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
conscientiousness
organized, careful, disciplined
social cues
verbal/nonverbal hints guide social interactions
mores vs folkways
- Mores refer to norms in society that are related to morals. Unprofessional and unethical behavior violates standards for moral behavior. When mores are violated, people typically disapprove, but legal action is not taken. -Folkways are norms that guide everyday behavior, like saying "please" and "thank you" or holding the door open for a person behind you. There usually are no consequences for violating folkways
motion parallax
- things that are closer seem to move faster -nearby moving objects move across our visual field faster than those at a distance
parapraxis
-a Freudian slip of the tongue, or unintended action, which might reveal a hidden thought
NMDA receptors
-a subtype of glutamate receptors
what is a high score on neuroticism scale?
-means the person is temperamental and emotional
Approximately what percentage of the general population suffers from schizophrenia?
1% (one of the least common)
anxiety prevalence
18%
semicircular canals
3 loop-like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)
cross sequential
A cross-sequential study combines both longitudinal and cross-sectional designs in a research study
single payer plan
A health care reform proposal in which the financing of health care is in the government's hands.
feature detection theory
A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc.
Gestalt psychology
A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, especially for visual information, the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of serially processing all of the individual parts.
Sigmund Freud
An Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory
gynocentricism
An ideological focus on females, and issues affecting them, possibly to the detriment of non-females
anxiety disorder
Anxiety is an emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. In a person with an anxiety disorder, the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning
Multiple sclerosis
Autoimmune disorder with extensive demyelination in the CNS
CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL...
CAUSATION!!!
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment
phobia
a strong unreasonable fear that almost always causes general anxiety of a full panic attack
concrete operational stage
Piaget's third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical concepts
which psychological disorder is most prevalent among the general population of the United States?
Depression!-- is the most widely reported psychological disorder and is by far the most common reason that ppl seek help from mental health professionals
Easterners vs. Westerners
Eastern subjects are more likely than western subjects to favor situational attributions over dispositional attributions
humanistic-existential
Existential humanism is humanism that validates the human subject as struggling for self-knowledge and self-responsibility
Mary Ainsworth
Famous for her "strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants
how to determine heritability using concordance rates?
Heritability = 2 *(MZ - DZ); MZ is monozygotic and DZ is dizygotic
filter model
Model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through (Broadbent)
preoperational stage
Piaget's second stage in his developmental theory from ages 2-7; during this stage, children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can represent something else, they remain egocentric in this stage
it is estimated that approximately 3.5% of adults in US suffer from what?
PTSD
formal operation stage
Piaget's 4th stage of his developmental theory, from age 12-adulthood. During this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning
affirmative action
Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions; these policies have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination
altruism
a behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the indivudal
steroe blindness
Stereo blindness is the inability to use retinal disparity as a cue for seeing depth; these persons must rely instead on pictorial or monocular cues
true or false: control groups are only used in experimental design
TRUE
true or false: episodic memory (according to Tulving) stores personally experienced episodes with tags for context and time
TRUE!
true or false: correlation studies do not have independent and dependent variables
TRUE!! and don't you forget it!
internal locus of control
the belief of an individual that she is able to influence outcomes through her own efforts and actions
Gambler's fallacy
The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently.
main effect
The effect of one variable on another without any other variables or subgroups involvement.
genital stage
The fifth of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers
genotype
The genetic makeup of an organism
adrenal medulla
The inner region of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla is part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epinephrine and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body
fecundity
The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population
what is a type 2 error?
a "false negative" answer
what is a type 1 error?
a "false positive" error
pheromone
a chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species
ganglion
a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS
personal identity
a distinct sense of self including personally defined attributes
ecclesia
a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions
out-group
a group that an individual does not belong to
conditioned response
a previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that becomes a learned response to a conditioned stimulus
culture
a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares
deviance
a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations
sensitization
an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentation of a stimulus
ostrich effect
an individual avoiding an apparently risky financial situation by pretending it does not exist; not a social effect
ritualism
abandon's societies goals but lives by societies ways -ex.) "elections are rigged" yet the crowd who still go to polls to vote?
parasomnia
abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism (sleepwalking) and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep
psychosexual stages
acc. to Freud's psychoanalytical theory, individuals progress through 5 psychosexual stages, one corresponding to the part of the body that is the focus of sensual pleasure; the 5 stages are: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stages, the latent stage, and the genital stage
psychological fixation
acc. to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the first 3 psychosexual stages; if parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes fixated at that stage and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage
psychoanalytic theory
acc. to this theory, personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. the classical version of this theory was developed by Sigmund Freud
accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
serotonin
affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
two factor theory
aka Singer Schachter theory
Which groups of people are at risk for family or domestic violence? I. women II. children III. elders IV. men
all groups are! women and children are more common victims of domestic or family violence than men
peripheral nervous sytem
all the parts of the NS except for the brain and the spinal cord
amygdala
almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences
glycine
also an inhibitory neurotransmitter, utilized in the brain stem and spinal column
operant conditioning
also known as 'instrumental conditioning'; a form of associate learning based on consequences, in which rewards increase the frequency of behaviors associated with them and punishments decrease their frequency
basal nuceli
also known as basal ganglia, these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement
posterior pituitary gland
also known as the neurohypophysis; it is made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes 2 hormones made by the hypothalamus (oxytocin and ADH); it is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus
sleep latency
amount of time it takes a person to fall asleep
negative afterimage
an afterimage that is seen as the complement of the observed color area
food desert
an area typically in a highly populated, lower income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find
rational choice theory
an economic principle that assumes that individuals always make prudent and logical decisions that provide them with the greatest benefit or satisfaction and that are in their highest self-interest
capitalism
an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit
socialism
an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; it includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit)
priming
an effect of implicit memory whereby exposure to a given stimulus "primes" or prepares the brain to respond to a later stimulus
true experiment method
an empirical research design requiring the use of both experimental and control groups, random assignment of subjects to experimental vs. control groups, and researcher-manipulated variables
manic episode
an experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms: grandiose, exaggerated, or delusional self-esteem, high energy with little need for sleep, increased talkativeness and pressured speech, poor judgement, increase psychomotor and goal-directed activity, and distractibility with flight of ideas or racing thoughts
basic research
attempts to answer theoretical questions or gather new information
reflex
automatic behaviors that occur without thinking
self-consciousness
awareness of oneself
consciousness
awareness of self, internal states, and the environment
primary circular reaction
babies learn to repeat pleasant bodily sensation first achieved by chance via reflexes
qualitative method
based on narrative or words
social cognitive theory
based on people changing behavior or attitudes based on observation
aggression
behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. In sociology, aggression is considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group
self-enhancement
behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others
instinct
behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species
selective priming
being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected
specific real area bias
bias occurs when the sampling for a study occurs at one location, which results in the omission of other populations
procedural bias
bias related to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results, leading to this phenomenon
hypothalamus
brain structure located above the brainstem that is involved in many autonomic processes including body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep; it is also involved in the physiological aspects of emotion including sweating and increased HR
phosphodiesterases
breaks phosphodiester bonds
self-concept (self-identity)
broadly defined as the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his/herself including physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influence by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas; an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others
feminism
can help to explain differences experienced by women and men in any social institution or social situation
discrete variables
can only take certain numerical value and are measured (ex. number of children a couple have)
external locus of control
the belief that once does not have control over outcomes, but they are controlled by outside forces
olfactory receptors
chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that responds to odor chemicals
gustatory receptors
chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food
avoidant attachment
children exhibiting avoidant attachment show no preference for the caregiver over strangers and may even avoid the caregiver
Sherif's Robber's Cave Experiment
children were grouped into different camps and, through manipulation, were encouraged to have negative attitudes towards each other. However, after given a task in which they had to collaborate, they began to view each other more favorably
depressant
class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates
Emile Durkheim
considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism, Emile Durkheim was the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy
parallel forms reliability
consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation
material culture
consists of physical objects that are particular to a culture which helps to explain the relationship between artifacts and social relations (e.g. saree in indian culture)
differential association
criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime
fatigue effects
decreased performance as a function of repeated testing
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
disorder characterized by 3 clusters of symptoms: 1) re-experiencing of traumatic events through flashbacks or nightmares 2) hypervigilance of one's surroundings 3) avoidance of situations related to stressful events
hegemony
domination over others
three types of temperamnt are
easy, difficult, and slow to warm up to
emic vs. etic perspective
emic, from within the social group (from the perspective of the subject) and etic, from outside (from the perspective of the observer) Emic: assumed that the meaning of behavior can only be defined from within the culture studied (cultural specific) Etic: assumes that the underlying psychological mechanisms are subjectively experienced and are very similar cross culture (universal)
self-schemas
the beliefs and ideas people have about themselves
Histrionic personality disorder
excessive emotionality and attention seeking
Ludwig Gumplowicz
expanded upon Marx' ideas about conflict theory by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups
social roles
expectations for people of a given social status
Robber's cave experiment
experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases
Erik Erikson
extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. He added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus or unconscious conflicts within a person. And he delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood. His stages include: trust vs. mistrust (infancy), autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation (18-40), generativity vs. stagnation (40-65), and integrity vs. despair (old age)
external validity
extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings
type II error
false negative
Type I error
false positive
executive functions
higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making
melatonin
hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles, and seasonal functions
Framing effects example
how you present the decision. Ex. Disease that will kill 600 people, option A is 100% chance exactly 200 people saved, option B 30% chance all 600 saved. Which do you pick? OR A. 100% chance 400 die B. 1/3 chance no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 die.
free will falls under what sociological theory?
humanism--known as personal agency
stroboscopic effect
images in a series of still pictures presented at a certain speed will appear to be moving
generalization
in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also become conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response
extinction
in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
punishment
in operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; types includes positive and negative punishment
shaping
in operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate proximal behaviors until a final desired behavior is achieved
confederates
in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation
palmar grasp reflex
in response to stroking a baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months
Babinski reflex
in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out
rooting reflex
in response to touching or stroking on of a baby's cheek, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple
dynamic equilibrium
in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability
church
in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers
postganglionic neuron
in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a pre-ganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ
primary appraisal
initial decision regarding whether an event is harmful
language acquisition device
innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood as hypothesized by Noam Chomsky
what trait is unique to antisocial personality disorder?
intentional malevolence/sadism
nonverbal communication
involves all of the methods of communication that we use that do not include words
oxytocin
is a hormone that is known to be involved in the social and romantic bonding that occurs between individuals
semi-structure interview
is a qualitative method of inquiry that combines a pre-determined set of open questions (questions that prompt discussion) with the opportunity for the interviewer to explore particular themes or responses further
general anxiety disorder
is an anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry, that is, apprehensive expectation about events or activities.
quasi-experiment
is an empirical study used to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on its target population without random assignment
lazarus cognitive appraisal theory
is the theory in psych that emotions are extracted from our evaluations (appraisals or estimates) of events that cause specific reactions in different people
K complex
large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep
nonassociative learning
learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events; two types are habituation and sensitization
latent learning
learning this takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred; this learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required (learning about cancer when your close family member has been diagnosed with it, even though you don't have to study it for a school test)
biofeedback
means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate); is a technique you can use to learn to control your body's functions, such as your heart rate. With biofeedback, you're connected to electrical sensors that help you receive information (feedback) about your body (bio). This feedback helps you focus on making subtle changes in your body, such as relaxing certain muscles, to achieve the results you want, such as reducing pain. In essence, biofeedback gives you the power to use your thoughts to control your body, often to improve a health condition or physical performance
modeling
mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behavior being performed by another person; this model is utilized to allow the observer to later imitate the observer; aka observational learning
explicit (or declarative) memory
memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge
semantic memory
memory for factual information
echoic memory
memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds
chunking
memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall
attenuation model of selective attention
model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect
elaboration likelihood model
model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument
information processing models
models for cognition that assume that information form the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including, attention, perception, and storage into memory
insomnia
most common sleep disorder characterized by difficult falling or staying asleep
One of the study participants reports continuing to smoke in order to avoid the pain and anxiety associated with drug withdrawal. In this scenario, the drug serves as: positive or negative reinforcement?
negative because` the drug has the impact of preventing or removing the painful stimuli associated with withdrawal symptoms, this is a case of negative conditioning, not positive conditioning
out-group bias
negative bias shown against those not in your "in-group"
social exclusion
negative impact of poverty in which low SES individuals are excluded from mainstream society & social benefits. They may also resort to crimes/rebel to meet their basic needs.
feral children
neglected/abandoned children who grow up without without human contact/care. Much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized
mirror neurons
neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another; may be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy
folkways
norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.)
penis-envy
occurs during phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis
role-strain
occurs when a single status results in conflicting expectation, e.g. a homosexual man may feel pressure to avoid being "too gay" and also "not gay enough"
generlization
occurs when a specific stimulus comes to be paired with similar stimuli
amalgamation
occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
retrograde amnesia
occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded
self-reporting bias
occurs when subjects skew their responses often to impress/appease researchers
role conflict
occurs when there is a conflict in the society-s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person, e.g. 'male' and 'nurse'
sleep cycle
one of these consists of the progression through sleep stages 1-4 in sequence followed by an ascension from 1-->2-->3-->2-->REM sleep; typically takes about 90 min
self-esteem
one's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth
coercive organizations
organization in which members do not have a choice in joining
cultural universals
patterns or traits that are common to all people; cultural universals tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing good and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, and illness
category
people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together as a group
cocktail party effect
phenomenon of information of personal importance from previously unattended channels "catching" one's attention
cones
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision
rods
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to dim light and provide us with black and white vision
classical conditioning
process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them
social identity theory
posits that a person's sense of self-identity is derived from the group to which they belong
racism
prejudices and discriminatory actions that are based on race (or ethnicity), or hold that one race/ethnicity is inferior to another
group pressure (peer pressure)
pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs
meaningful encoding principle
principle that states that experts use prior knowledge in the encoding of new domain-specific information
associative learning
process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning
stigma extension
refers to a tendency to impute limitations to a person's abilities beyond those of the disability itself.
validity
refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure
epistemic authority
refers to situations in which only people with certain kinds of experience can claim privileged knowledge about what it is like to have that experience
social facilitation
refers to the beneficial effect that being in the presence of others has on the performance of well-learned tasks
intragenerational mobility
refers to the changes in someone's social mobility throughout the course of his or her lifetime
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future
ethnographic research
research method that involves spending extensive time among the people being studied
social recipricity
responding to a kind or generous action with another kind or generous action
reliable
results must be replicable; repeated
recognition
retrieving information from memory with the use of cues such as a multiple choice format
recall
retrieving information from memory; free _____ involves retrieval without any cues, whereas cued _____ prompts retrieval with a cue
positive reinforcement
reward immediately following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior; e.g. praise
sanctions
rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms
role strain vs. role conflict
role strain = tension among the roles connected to a single status (an athlete wants to be the best on the team but doesn't want to make teammates look bad) role conflict = conflict among the roles connected to two or more statuses (ex. a student employee--has a test the same time he/she has to work a shift)
comparative psychology
scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals
applied research
scientific study that aims to answer/solve practical problems
ethnographic methods
systematic observation of a complete social environment
displacement
shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
strain theory
social structures within society may pressure citizens to commit crime
resource model of attention
states that attention is a limited resource if multiple tasks do not exceed this limit, they can be done simultaneously; if they do, then they interfere with each other and are difficult to do simultaneously
sweating is controlled by which nervous system?
sympathetic nervous system but is still dependent on acetylcholine--is an exception
nucleus accumbens
structure located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior
hypnotism
structured social interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go, individuals that have gone through this may be more susceptible to accepting suggestions
reticular formation (aka reticular activating system or RAS)
structures in the brainstem that are important for alertness and arousal as in wakefulness
behavioral genetics
study the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual's personality and behaviors
normative pressure
subtype of conformity pressure in which the individual knows the others are incorrect but still feels pressure to not dissent from the rest of the group
termperament vs. personality
temperament is inherited whereas personality is acquired
acquiescence bias
tendency to agree with most statements
pareidolia
tendency to perceive meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli
ossicles
the 3 small bones found in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) that help to amplify the vibrations from the sound waves; the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea
social cognition
the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception
divided attention
the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously
empathy
the ability to identify with others' emotions
social mobility
the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system
basilar membrane
the flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti (the structure that contains the hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch
oval window
the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear
depolarization
the movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential
optic nerve
the nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information; it is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina
norepinephrine (NE)
the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the post-ganglionic organ-level (synapse)
cultural capital
the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
phenotype
the observable characteristics and traits of an organism
Yerkes-Dodson law
the principle that moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance
integrative reminiscence
the process by which older people may take stock of their lives and come to terms with previously unresolved conflicts
Sapire-Whorf hypothesis
this hypothesis asserts that people understands their world through language and that language in turn shapes how people experience their world
halo effect
type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about his or her character
innovation
type of deviance that results from using rejected, unconventional means, rather than accepted, conventional means, to achieve a culturally approved goal
information about the amino acid content of food is communicated through which taste sensation?
umami
discrimination
unjust treatment of a group, based on group characteristics (such as age, sex, race, ethnicity, disability)
grey matter
unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short, unmyelinated axons
environmental injustice
when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being
justification of effort
when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort
retreatism
when someone rejects both the conventional means as well as the cultural goals and drops out of society
self-fulfilling prophecy
when stereotypes lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes
normative social influence
when the motivation for compliance is a desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection
nested effect
when there is an effect that occurs within another variable
fundamental attribution error
when we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a person's character or personality on their behavior
conjunction fallacy
which means co- occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one (ex. Feminist bank teller vs. bank teller - actually more likely she's just a bank teller, but people tend to think the probability of 2 events occurring together is higher than the probability of one alone)
person-situation controversy
(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)
reporting bias
(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info by subjects, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences
psychoticism
-"psychoticism" component of the Eysenck's personality theory describes persons with extreme stubbornness and non-conformity
normal distribution
-1 SD away captures about 68% -2 SD away is about 95%
In order to be diagnosed with major depressive disorder, an individual must present the requisite number of symptoms for at least:
-2 weeks
A person suffering from insomnia would receive the greatest short-term benefit from which type of therapy?
-CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) -Cognitive-behavioral therapy would be the most beneficial to someone who is suffering from insomnia, as this form of therapy is a short-term therapy that focuses on helping clients deal with a specific problem, such as insomnia, smoking cessation, or weight loss--during this form of therapy, clients learn how to identify and change patterns that negatively influence behavior
cross sectional vs. longitudinal
-CS = taking/measuring at one time point (only once) -longitudinal = measuring over a period of time (usually at least 3 months)
7 universal emotions
-FADHSS and contempt/joy -fear, anger, disgust, happy, sad, surprise
general adaptation syndrome
-GAS is a model of the body's stress response that consist of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion -an individual enters the stage of exhaustion only after the individual has encountered the stressor for a prolonged period of time
deductive vs. inductive
-Inductive reasoning uses a very small set of observations as the basis for forming a statement about a larger set of premises or conclusions -deductive reasoning is roughly the inverse of inductive reasoning; it uses a broader or more general premise to draw conclusions about narrower, more specific examples
Merton's Innovators
-Innovators accept the goal of society but have created "new," illegitimate ways of achieving these goals, such as theft and/or drug dealing. Merton proposed that this is more likely to occur within the lower classes or any disadvantaged group within society
vertical mobility vs. intragenerational mobility
-Intragenerational mobility is a general term that encompasses both horizontal and vertical mobility
Korsakoff's syndrome
-Korsakoff's syndrome is characterized by profound memory disruption and is often associated with excessive use of alcohol
Marx vs. Weber (sociologists)
-Marx = believed that conflict theory was based on economic imbalance between owners and the proletariat -Weber = extended the definition to other situations (ex. social, emotional)
proximal vs. distal stimulus
-Proximal stimulus is the stimulation that actually occurs when your sensory receptors are activated... the neural activity. -Distal stimulus is the actual stimulus or object in the real world that you end up sensing and then perceiving, which results in the proximal stimulus.
Merton's Rebels
-Rebels reject the goals of society because they want to replace them with new ones. They want to cause a revolution and create a better society for all. Examples include hippies, violent demonstrators, and eco-terrorists
divided vs. selective attention
-Selective attention: The ability to maintain a behavioral or cognitive set in the face of distracting or competing stimuli. -Divided attention: This is the highest level of attention and it refers to the ability to respond simultaneously to multiple tasks or multiple task demands.
symbolic interactionist perspective
-Symbolist interactionism is a micro-level perspective where symbols or labels are given meaning by people and can influence their behavior -Whenever you see symbolic interactionism, look out for symbols or labels and influenced behavior. Like if you go to a store and see a guy wearing a NIKE sweatshirt, you might think he likes outdoor sports more than a guy that wears a CHESS sweatshirt. There's some labeling / meaning / attachment that this theory focuses on
CBT
-Take bad thoughts and replace them with better/correct ones -is focused on enhancing strategies for addressing problems -also designed to typically requite fewer sessions than other forms of behavioral therapy
reference group
-a group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to, such as a peer group -group of people from an individual learns behavior
intrusion errors
-a memory error in which one recalls elements that were not part of the original episode -mostly due to the reconstructiveness of memory
disorganized attachment
-a mixture of erratic or unclear attachment behaviors are exhibited by the child--these children often appear confused or dazed in the presence of their caregivers
stimulus motive
-a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an inc. in stimulation, such as curiosity -motives not necessary for survival
dopamine
-a neurotransmitter associated with motivation and motor function -excessive levels of dopamine activity have been linked to symptoms of schizophrenia
systematic desensitization
-a process that relies on the principles of associative learning/classical conditioning (behaviorist) -aims to remove the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus gradually using counter conditioning
paranoid personality disorder
-a psychological disorder characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others motives and actions and suspicion of harm/betrayal -part of a class of disorders called the Cluster A Personality Disorders, all of which are characterized by odd or eccentric ways of thinking
secure attachment
-a style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs, in Ainsworth's experiments, securely attached infants were found to be willing to explore surroundings in the presence of the mother; they were upset, but consolable when the mother left and then returned to the room -children exhibiting this attachment style prefer their primary caregiver, but can be comforted by strangers
parallel processing
-a system whereby many aspects of a stimulus are processes simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion. e.g. visual processing in the brain -
confirmation bias
-a tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion -associated with search for evidence and in the interpretation of evidence and also has been found to be stronger for emotionally charged topics
conflict theory
-a theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. According to conflict theory, society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like money, land, power, and leisure -focused on social control and social inequality
electroconvulsive therapy
-a treatment in which low level electric current is passed through the brain -is a procedure, performed under general anesthesia, in which small electric currents are passed through the brain, intentionally triggering a brief seizure. This treatment is rarely employed, and only after other therapeutic options have been exhausted; treats severe depression
participant observation
-a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is actively involved in the situation - Participant observation requires the researcher to directly participate in the social phenomena being studied
self-actualization (actualizing tendency)
-according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to maintain and enhance themselves or realize their human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes; self fulfillment
tactful blindness
-actively ignoring face threatening behavior (sounds, smells) -is a term used by sociologist Erving Goffman to explain how individuals purposefully ignore mistakes or blunders in the interaction process, especially those that would threaten an individual's face. In sociology, the term "face" refers to a mask maintained by individuals that mirrors how they want to be perceived by others in a variety of social spaces. People strive to maintain the face they have created, and are emotionally attached to its maintenance
antidepressants
-acts as agonists for norepinephrine and serotonin -agent that works against depression
adaptive coping vs. maladaptive coping strategies
-adaptive = reduce stress -maladaptive = increase stress
Mead's theory on self
-agents of socialization create expectations that become part of the "me", which is the social self, but must be approved by the "I", the more creative and independent self
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
-aka Lou Gehrig's disease, is a fatal disease process in which nerves that control voluntary muscles degenerate
fMRI
-aka functional MRI, measures blood flow to certain areas of the body -provides info as to which areas are most activated by showing which receive the most blood -tells us about structure and function (activity) of brain
social proof
-aka informational social influence is a psychological phenomenon where people assume the actions of others in an attempt to reflect correct behavior for a given situation -occurs when situation is ambiguous
narcotics
-aka opiates and opioids -heroin -morphine; things that affects mood, behavior, sleep
antipsychotics
-alter neurotransmitters in the brain to alleviate symptoms of psychosis, paranoia, and schizophrenia -dopamine antagonists
secondary appraisal
-an evaluation of your coping resources and options for dealing with the stress -cannot occur independently of primary appraisals
anomie
-an individual feels disconnected from the larger community -first used by the famed sociologist Emile Durkheim, describes the breakdown in social bonds in modern societies, which is the result of a loss of social norms and reciprocity -Durkheim theorized that a breakdown in shared values that integrate a person into the larger society creates alienation as there is no social glue to bond the person to society
circular reaction
-an infant's repetition of a reflexive action that results in a pleasurable experience -infants try to repeat the event again and again
which is more stable: a primary dyad or a primary triad?
-answer: primary triad bc dyads tend to be emotional and unstable due to the high risk of dissolution bc a single person leaving the group dissolves the entity
primary reinforcer
-anything that has intrinsic value (e.g. food and water)
formal social control
-are best exemplified by codified rules of law, ethics, or conduct
group attribution error
-assumption that the activity of one individual is representative of the entire group or vice versa
diff between availability heuristic and representation heuristic?
-availability = what comes to mind first (depends on memory) -representation = generalization availability example is that when your family members at your house have the flu, when you go to work and see someone coughing you automatically assume they also have the flu. Representativeness has to do with assuming one case represents many cases, has nothing to do with our memory.
which type of psychoactive drug has the lowest risk of dependence? a.) stimulants b.) hallucinogens c.) alcohol d.) sedatives
-b--hallucinogens
easy temperament
-babies whose temperament is defined as easy are generally happy and adjust well to change
borderline personality disorder vs. bipolar disorder
-borderline personality = rapid mood swings -bipolar = swings between manic and depressive modes are gradual and less frequent
semantic vs. episodic memory
-both fall under the category of declarative memory -semantic is more general facts -episodic is more personal facts
bipolar I vs. bipolar II
-bp I = characterized by both severe manic and depressive episodes that tend to last several weeks -bp II = similar to bipolar I, but the "up" moods do not typically reach full-on mania
hippocampus
-brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain and plays a key role in forming memories; damage to this part of the brain can lead to the inability to form new memories or anterograde amnesia; also is a key structure in regulating stress and anxiety -also involved in learning
What are the three most commonly abused psychoactive drugs consumed in the United States?
-caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine
chi squared test
-can only be used when all variables in question are categorical; shows whether two distributions of categorical data differ from each other
causation vs. correlation studies
-causation happens when the experimenters took a hands on approach and were able to "manipulate" the experiment -correlation is when the experimenters were not able to manipulate anything and took more of an observational approach--researcher does not have the ability to "cause" things
Korsakoff's Syndrome
-caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism -Damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, confusion, and memory loss. At this stage called Wernicke's encephalopathy - precursor to KS. If diagnosed in time can prevent further damage. If untreated, will progress to Korsakoff's. Main symptom is severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation (patients make up stories to fill in memories).
gender schema
-children learn about what it means to be male or female from the culture in which they live -cognitive theory of how individuals acquire and understand elements of gender and sex-linked characteristics from their surrounding culture and how those characteristics are transmitted inter-generationally
episodic memory
-clear memories of unique and often highly emotional events, such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, also called flashbulb memories -the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place (autobiographical events)
r^2
-coefficient of determination -is the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable that is predictable from the independent variable
frontal lobe
-concerned with behavior, learning, personality, and voluntary movement -involved in reward behavior, inhibition, planning, motivation, and attention, but NOT part of limbic system
neurobehavioral theory
-connects behaviors with brain processes -of or relating to the relationship between the action of the nervous system and behavior -neurobehavioral disorders such as aphasia, alexia, and childhood learning disabilities
what improves with aging?
-crystallized intelligence, verbal reasoning, semantic memory (gen fact recall), and emotional reasoning
affect regulation
-describes the modulation of emotions, which is not the skill being described
biological preparedness
-describes the observation that individual organisms seem to be more readily able to form certain associations than others -aka all stimuli are NOT equally likely to be successfully associated with a given stimuli, or associated within the same number of trails
primary deviance
-deviance from a norm that is considered "acceptable" by society and does not result in any aggressive reactions that could cause ostracism
fugue state
-dissociative disorder -characterized by reversible amnesia for personal identity, including the memories, personality, and other identifying characteristics of individuality -involves memory loss and travel
proximal stimuli vs. distal stimulus
-distal stimuli are objects and events out in the world about you. proximal stimuli are the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.) -an object such as a tree, which reflects light waves is a distal stimulus with respect to the eye -proximal stimulus--is a stimulus registered by the sensory receptors (ex. light waves on retina of your eye)
treatment for depression
-dopamine boosting medications are a possible treatment -depression can be seasonal or postpartum -selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors are a common treatment
anxiolytics
-drugs that alleviate the symptoms of anxiety -act on either GABA or norepinephrine
pain perception can be affected by?
-emotions -cognitive processing -culture -learning processes
ethnographic methods
-emphasis on studying an entire culture -participant observation
systems theory
-emphasizes the influence of systems on an individual's life -concepts dealing with systems such as families represent systems theory -is a branch of both theoretical psychology and applied psychology that studies human behaviour and experience in complex systems
stress-diathesis model
-explains that underlying stress, when exacerbated by current stressors, can lead to disturbed functioning
examples of mood and anxiety disorders
-generalized anxiety disorder -panic disorder -phobias
flashbulb memories
-highly vivid memories -also susceptible to reconstruction errors
limbic system parts
-hippo wears HAT -primary structures include amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus
iconic memory vs. visualspatial sketchpad
-iconic memory is incredibly short-lived--lasting a few milliseconds -visualspatial sketchpad lasts longer
abrasia
-inability to walk, possibly due to some psychological shock or trauma
moro reflex
-infant's innate behavior to stretch out the limbs, followed by an embracing motion, in response to a sudden loss of support -this startle reflex typically occurs when the infant experiences a sensation of falling
inner vs outer hair cells of the cochlea
-inner hair cells of the cochlea are the sensory receptors for the human auditory system--they are responsible for transduction of the auditory signal -outer hair cells of the cochlea are used for mechanical amplification
meta-cognition
-involves being able to think about thinking, and enables an individual to observe his own processes and learn from them
positive illusion bias
-involves having an exaggerated or inflated assessment of one's own abilities, how good the future will be, or how much control one has over life events
aversion therapy
-is a form of behavior therapy in which an aversive (causing a strong feeling of dislike or disgust) stimulus is paired with an undesirable behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior -this form of therapy might be used to assist with something like alcohol or drug addiction, or to eliminate an undesirable habit such as nail biting, but could not be used to treat insomnia
Parkinson's disease
-is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of voluntary movement as a function of degeneration of dopaminergic projections from the substantia nigra to the basal ganglia
McDonaldization
-is a phenomenon that occurs when society, its institutions, and its organizations are adapted to have the same characteristics that are found in the fast food chains--these include efficiency, calculability, predictability, and standardization, and control
social exchange theory
-is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties -posits that human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
-is a standardized psychometric test of adult personality and psychopathology -psychologists and other mental health professionals use various versions of the MMPI to help develop treatment plans; assist with differential diagnosis; help answer legal questions (forensic psychology); screen job candidates; or as a part of therapeutic assessment procedure
Frotteurism
-is the interest in rubbing, usually one's pelvic area, against a non-consenting person for sexual pleasure--may involve touching any part of the body, including the genital area
collective rationalization
-is the tendency for individuals engaging in groupthink to discount warnings and fail to re-engage their assumptions -members discount warnings and do not reconsider their assumptions
repression
-keeping that which is painful/anxiety producing from one's conscious mind -the tendency for people to express mental discomfort at holding two mutually contradicting beliefs
MRI
-looks at structural anatomy using highly specialized magnets -can visualize brain structures on a 3d level with a lot of detail, such as bone, fluids, cartilage -just tells us about structure
structural functionalism latent functions
-masculine" and "feminine" jobs and the knowledge economy producing a decline in blue-collar jobs and an increase in pink-collar jobs
availability heuristic
-mental shortcut of making judgments on the frequency of something occurring based on how readily it is available in our memories -ex.) After seeing many news stories of home foreclosures, people may judge that the likelihood of this event is greater.
when does crystallized intelligence peak?
-middle adulthood
secularization thesis
-modernization inevitably leads to the decline of religion
anhedonia
-negative symptom of schizophrenia -characteristic of depressive episodes of bp disorder
korsakoff syndrome
-neurological disorder caused by a lack of thiamine (vit. B1) in brain -linked to chronic alcohol abuse, severe malnutrition, or both -Wernicke's encephalopathy is a precursor to this
endorphins
-neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pleasure and pain
mores
-norms that are highly important for the benefit of of society and so are often strictly enforced, mores are general (but not always) formal norms -(ex. attending church nude)
secondary deviance
-not considered acceptable and often results in the individual being excluded from a group
anchoring bias
-occurs when one uses an initial piece of information (the anchor, e.g., an original price for an item) to make judgements about subsequent pieces of information (e.g., a sale price for the item)
social inequality
-occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically through norms of allocation, that engender specific patterns along lines of socially defined categories of persons
General paresis
-one form of neurosyphilis, an infection of the brain and spinal cord -mental disorder aka dementia paralytica
common fate
-one of Gestalt's principle -the tendency to perceive objects that are moving together as belonging together
figure ground
-one of gestalt's principle the tendency to perceive objects, or figures, as existing on a background
Schwann cells
-one of the 2 peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; they form the myelin sheathe on the axons of peripheral neuron -can direct axonal regeneration unlike oligodendrocytes -provides myelin to one axon segment of a single neuron
arousal theories
-operate under the assumption that individuals act to maintain some optimal level of physiological arousal
telencephalon
-part of the developing forebrain that ultimately gives rise to the cerebral cortex
somatic symptom disorder
-physical symptoms include pain, high anxiety about disease -a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic form without apparent physical cause -you would be worried about this disorder (all in your head) -diagnosis requiring symptoms of physical illness or injury which cannot be explained fully by a general medical condition, the direct effect of a substance, and are not attributable to another mental disorder
positive vs. negative symptoms
-positive symptoms = Feelings or behaviors that are usually not present -negative symptoms = A lack of feelings or behaviors that are usually present
transtheoretical change
-posits that health behavior change involves progress through six stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and termination
Merton's strain theory
-ppl react in five unique ways: -innovator = accepts the societal goal but rejects the socially acceptable means of achieving that goal and therefore devises new means -rebel = reject both socially-approved goals and the means to achieve them, and would then try to drastically change society -ritualist = someone who rejects the overall societal goal, but continues to go through the motions of performing the means society has approved to achieve that goal -retreatist = rejects both societal goals and the approved means of achieving them, but then retreats from society completely
prejudice vs. stereotype
-prejudice refers towards the inclination toward or against certain people that is not based on reason, but on group membership -stereotype is when specific preconceived traits or characteristics are associated with people based on their group membership
primary vs. secondary vs. tertiary kin
-primary = immediate fam -secondary = immediate kin of someone with whom you have a primary kin relationship (husband and mother-in-law) -tertiary = secondary kin of someone with whom you have a primary kin relationship (son of your husband's brother)
primary vs. secondary vs. tertiary prevention
-primary = refers to prevention of a disease or problem behavior before any signs, symptoms, or risk behaviors have developed -secondary = is seen when there is an established risk factor present or when a disease/problem behavior has already begun to develop -tertiary = refers to prevention of a disease or problem behavior from getting significantly worse
proactive vs. reactive social movement
-proactive = promotes social change -reactive = resists social change
dialectal behavioral therapy
-provides clients with new skills to manage painful emotions and decrease conflict in relationships
push and pull factors
-pull = describes something that promotes moving to a new area -push = describes something that promotes leaving the old area
central tendency bias
-rater uses middle range - rater bias - rater uses only middle range of scale
sick role
-refers to a role a patient plays in which he is expected to try to recover from his illness
rumination
-refers to continuously thinking about or replaying in one's mind aspects of a situation that are upsetting -is thought to maintain negative emotions and lead to depressive symptoms
dyad relationship
-refers to face-to-face verbal communication between two people involving their mutual ideas, thought, behaviour, ideals, liking, disliking, and the queries and answers concerning life and living in nature -brings the two people into a sphere where each person influences the other.
top down processing
-refers to how our brains make use of info that has been already brought into the brain by one or more of the sensory systems -cognitive process that initiates w/ our thoughts, which flow down to lower-level functions such as the senses
regression
-refers to responses becoming less extreme -or Freud said, when a person returns to a child state to escape the present
illusion of unanimity
-refers to the tendency for members of a group affected by groupthink to act and speak as if all members agree with the group's judgment
client centered therapy
-reflects the belief that the client and therapist are partners in therapy -carl rogers
secondary circular reaction
-repetitive actions in substage 3 of the sensorimotor period, oriented around external objects -a circular reaction involving the effects of an infant's behavior on an external object
Berkson's fallacy
-sampling bias that results from selecting both the observed and control population from a hospital setting -this results in bias because a control from the hospital location is likely different than a control drawn from the general population
self image vs. self esteem vs. self concept
-self image = one's persistent mental picture of one's own appearance -self-esteem = sense of one's own value -self concept = an all-encompassing term that includes one's self-image and self-esteem
SAD MEN
-sensory afferent dorsal; sensory neurons enter the dorsal (back side) of spinal cord -motor efferent ventral; motor neurons exit the ventral (front) side of the spinal cord
thalamus
-sensory relay station -also involved in memory
Which pharmacological agent might be used to treat the depression suffered by study participants?
-serotonin agonist -SSRIs
common monoamine neurotransmitters
-serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and histamine
signal detection vs. difference threshold
-signal detection theory is about the hit, miss, correct rejection, false alarm stuff -difference threshold is about the Max weber JND stuff
CT scan
-similar to MRI and x-ray -gives structural information, yet less detail and uses radiation -just tells us about structure of brain
panic disorder symptoms
-similar to those of a heart attack -sympathetic response
split brain patient side effects
-since the left side of the brain is responsible for language, if shown an object in the left visual field, this then is processed in right side of the brain and patient is unable to name the object or pick it up with right hand because this is controlled by the left side--however, they can still pick it up with their left hand bc that is controlled by right side of brain; if shown an object in the right visual field, then this is processed in the left side of the brain and so the person can pick it up with right hand and also say the object
social vs. cultural capital
-social capital usually refers to social circles. An example is how rich/successful people tend to have rich/successful friends who can help them with career opportunities. Or a blue-collar worker might have social capital by being friends with mechanics and plumbers, and thus never has to pay for repairs. -cultural capital refers to how "cultured" you are - dressing well, speaking eloquently, interest in arts/music, education level, etc. These qualities are respected by society and imply high social status. You might describe a lawyer who wears nice suits and has a taste for fine wine and art as having lots of cultural capital.
sociology melting pot
-society in which people of different nationalities assimilate to form one culture an environment -in which many ideas and races are socially assimilated
sociologists vs. anthropologists
-sociologists, are for the most part, interested in studying non-material, or symbolic culture -anthropologists are generally more interested in studying material culture or artifacts
somatic symptom disorder vs. conversion disorder
-somatic symptom disorder = is a condition in which a patient experiences verifiable physical symptoms that cannot be explained by a medical condition or any other mental disorder -conversion disorder = is a condition in which a psychological stressor is converted to physical symptoms that have no underlying medical cause. Usually, a mental illness or psychologically stressor is present first, after which a person begins to feel physical pain or symptoms related in some way to the event
Merton's strain theory
-states that society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals though they lack the means, this leads to strain which may lead the individuals to commit crimes
MDMA
-stimulant bc increases the amount of monoamine (aromatic amines) neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft -would decrease the time spent asleep and increase the latency to sleep
Talcott Parsons's sick role
-suggest that health professionals will respond more to individuals falling into the "sick role." -describe how society requires individuals to change their behaviors in order to fit within the treatment models and expectations set up by institutions such as hospitals -It excuses patients from normal role obligations, increasing available assistance
Expectancy Value Theory
-suggests that motivation is related to the interplay of two primary factors: 1) the individual's perceived likelihood of success and 2) the relative value of the rewards likely to be associated with success
cochrane review
-systematic reviews of primary research in human health care and health policy and are currently the highest standard in evidence-based health care -investigate the effects of interventions for prevention, treatment and rehabilitation
EEG
-tells us about brain function -doesn't give us info on certain areas of the brain but more about the sum totals of activity of overall brain
self reference effect
-tendency to better remember things related to ourselves
self-verification
-the desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves -the desire for feedback that is consistent with one's existing self-concept
Thomas theorem
-the idea that if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences -ex.) Guy in prison with a violent history thinks other people in the prison are talking about him even though they arent, but, since he thinks they are he goes over and hits them. His perception of the situation led to the action
night terrors vs. nightmares
-the major diff between night terrors and nightmares is that night terrors occur during NREM sleep, or non-rapid eye movement sleep -since the person experiencing night terrors is not immobile as they would be during REM sleep, or rapid eye movement sleep, he or she will often "act out" the incident -night terrors are often much more psychologically disturbing than nightmares, and are associated with an overwhelming sense of panic
taboos
-the most deeply held norms in our society--prohibit actions that are thought to be either too sacred or too dangerous, awful or accursed to be performed by anyone -violation of such norms brings about an extreme response by other members of society -ex.) kidnapping, harming children or elderly, murder
Alzheimer's Disease
-the most prevalent form of dementia, this disease is characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia; acetylcholine deficiency
acetylcholine (ACh)
-the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system, and by the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system -also impacts learning and memory and is reduced in those suffering from Alzheimer's disease
sensory interaction
-the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
p-value
-the probability that the result was obtained by chance -Determines statistical significance: want number to .05 or lower
Internalization
-the process of consolidating and embedding one's own beliefs, attitudes, and values when it comes to moral behavior. Internalization of norms might take place following religious conversion and is often associated with learning skills and making use of what has been learned from then on
socialization
-the process through which people learn to be proficient members of a society; a lifelong process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture The process by which people learn customs and values of their culture. -the adoption of behavior patterns surrounding a certain culture
informal social control
-the reactions of individuals and groups that bring about conformity to norms and laws, includes peer and community pressure, bystander intervention in a crime, and collective responses such as citizen patrol groups
interactive effect
-the simultaneous effect of two or more independent variables on at least one dependent variable in which their joint effect is significantly greater (or significantly less) than the sum of the parts
structural functionalist
-the sociological paradigm of functionalism makes a distinction between manifest, or intended, and latent, or unintended, functions of social activities -from the functionalist perspective, almost all social actions have both manifest functions and latent functions, both of which are connected to overall social stability
second shift
-the unpaid housework women typically do after they come home from their paid employment -is a concept used within the conflict theory perspective to explain the unequal division of labor in the household between women and men
Canon-Bard Theory
-theory of emotion that asserts that the physiological and cognitive aspects of emotion occur simultaneously and collectively lead to the behavioral reaction. Example: A woman is hiking in the forest when she stumbles upon a bear. All at once, she starts sweating, trembling, and feeling extremely afraid. -physiological arousal and emotion are simultaneous and independent
Kohlberg's Heinz dilemma
-this is frequently used as an example in many ethics and morality classes: a women is on her deathbed but there is one drug that the doctors thought might save her but is really expensive. The husband does not have enough money to pay for this drug....what should he do...steal it and revive his wife or follow the law and let her die....
Gibson's visual cliff
-this was an experiment to study the depth perception in infants--wanted to know if depth perception is a learned or innate behavior -this showed that when healthy infants are able to crawl, they can perceive depth -however, results do not indicate that avoidance of cliffs and fear of heights is innate
retreatists
-those who reject both these goals and the socially accepted ways to achieve them and, in effect, drop out from society. -Retreatism can manifest itself as alcoholism and drug addiction
predictor variable
-to avoid the potential inference of causality, the value on the x-axis in a regression analysis used to calculate correlation is referred to as the predictor variable -in statistical modeling, the predictor variable is analogous to an independent variable and used to predict an outcome (the criterion variable)--one of the main differences between independent/dependent and criterion/predictor variables is the concept of causation -i think basically used for correlation studies to avoid causation
operationalize
-translating a concept into something that can be measured -the process of using measurable variables, such as responses to survey questions, as a proxy for something that cannot be directly measured, like stress levels or groupthink
true or false: the Wechsler Scales of Intelligence (WISC) scores are "normalized" to a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15
-true!
monoamines
-typically refers to epinephrine and dopamine -generally have excitatory effects in the central nervous system -drugs that increase the amount of monoamines are called stimulants
primary reinforcers
-unconditional consequences that are innately satisfying of desirable; maybe biologically driven -act to reinforce a behavior without previous conditioning
PET
-use a radioactive dose, usually glucose, is ingested by the patient and the substance will release positrons via beta decay -usually this procedures is used to detect for tumors, since they will have the highest consumption of radioactive glucose -tells us about both structure and function (activity)
Eysencks' concept of personality
-using factor analysis to devise his theory, E identified three factors of personality: extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism -each of these three factors has an opposite: ~Extroversion vs. Introversion ~Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability ~Psychoticism (antisocial behaviors) vs. Self Control
1 general intelligence
-vidence comes from fact people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of test, ex. Verbal and math. -Factor underlying these consistent abilities is called g factor (g = general intelligence)
Means-end analysis
-we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between problem and goal (heuristic)
narcolepsy vs. microsleeps until adequately rested
-when body suffers from sleep deprivation, it uses microscleeps (brief unintended episodes of loss attention) to accommodate the lack of sufficient sleep -Nacolepsy is a psychological disorder thought to have an organic/biological cause
prejudice is made up of what two parts?
1.) cognitive - describes how stereotypes are formed from and justified by the information an individual has available to him or herself 2.) emotional - describes how a person's feelings impact his or her prejudices
4 types of social support
1.) emotional--validation, love, expressions of care 2.) instrumental--money, transportation, housing 3.) informational--knowledge about how to do something or acquire a resource 4.) appraisal social support--self-evaluative information, affirmation, constructive feedback
temperament vs. personality
1.Temperament refers to the different aspects of an individual's personality like extroversion or introversion. It is regarded as innate or inborn and is not learned. 2.Personality is what arises within an individual. Personality, which remains throughout an individual's life, is made up of certain characteristic patterns like: behavior, feelings, and thoughts. 3.Temperament is a basic inherited style whereas personality is acquired on top of the temperament. 4.The personality of an individual can be acquired in years. Factors such as education, socialization, various pressures in life, and other various aspects affect the personality of an individual. 5.Some of the fundamental characteristics related to personality are: consistency, psychological and physiological impact on behaviors and actions, and multiple expressions
meta-analysis
A meta-analysis combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic
five-factor model
A model developed to explain personality using five overarching personality traits which include extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreableness, and concentiousness, this was developed by Costa and McCrae -aka OCEAN
GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)
A psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks.
auditory tube
AKA the Eustachian tube, the auditory tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. It functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal
anterior pituitary gland
AKA the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus
tactile hallucinations
Hallucination primarily involving the sense of touch
Sociologists suggest that overall health conditions in many Western countries have improved as a result of which of the following socio-historical events? I. Urbanization. II. Improved medical technology III. Industrialization.
II and III
which of the following are possible characteristics of a caste system? I. intergenerational mobility II. horizontal mobility III. a closed system
III and II; II is correct bc is possible in a caste system, as ppl can change jobs but not classes
In a human eye, the highest density of cones is found in which location relative to the center of the retina?
In the human eye, cones are found in their highest concentration in the macula densa, or more specifically, at the fovea centralis, which is located at the center of the retina.
Asperger's Syndrome
Mild form of autism; may have concomitant learning disabilities and/or poor motor skills.
Pigeon A is placed in a Skinner box and rewarded with food for pecking a key. On average, the reward appears every 6th peck, but the number of pecks between rewards varies. Pigeon B is yoked to Pigeon A such that whenever Pigeon A gets rewarded, Pigeon B gets rewarded, regardless of Pigeon B's behavior. What reinforcement schedule is being utilized for Pigeon A and Pigeon B, respectively?
Pigeon A is on variable ratio and Pigeon B is on variable interval Because of the yoking of the two pigeons, Pigeon B cannot be on a ratio schedule, given that his rewards are independent of his behavior. To Pigeon B, rewards randomly appear at various time intervals (based on Pigeon A's behavior, NOT his).
Harlow, Harry, and Margaret
Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food, also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social defecits
source monitoring error
When people recall information they often forget the information's source - an error in source monitoring, ex. angry with someone but forgot it happened in a dream. Or recognize someone but don't know from where.
inter-generational mobility
a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.)
neurotransmitter
a chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize slightly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP) e.g. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, etc.
hallucinogens
a class of drugs, also known as psychedelics, that distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions (e.g. LSD, marijuana, psychedelics, MDMA/ecstacy)
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. it helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. It also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord; HOWEVER, it is NOT concerned with delivering oxygen to the brain. This is the job of red blood cells; it also helps reduces brain ischemia by reducing its own volume to reduce pressure on the blood vessels
caste system
a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into
group
a collection of any number of people 'as few as two' who regularly interact and identify with each other sharing similar norms, values, and expectations
mixed methods
a combination of research designs and methodologies (like both quantitative and qualitative)
global stratification
a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries
social isolation
a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears; not the same thing as loneliness, which is temporary
social institutions
a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people; they provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society and mediate social behavior between people
door-in-the-face technique
a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by first making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. This is followed by a smaller request which the respondent will now more easily agree to.
addiction
a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal
learned helplessness
a condition where on has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards
reinforcememnt
a consequence that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will be repeated: two types are there: positive and negative
covariate
a continuous control variable that is observed rather than manipulated but can affect the outcome of an experiment or study
interdependence
a culture in which members contribute to each other and view the collective good as the primary goal. This is closely related to the goals of a transformational leader who seeks to inspire deep loyalty and shared vision across the organization
habituation
a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations
downward mobility
a decrease in social class
endocrine gland
a ductless gland hat secretes hormones into the blood
delusion
a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false
hallucination
a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)
egalitarian family
a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions
rational-legal authority
a form of leadership that is organized around rational-legal rules
charismatic authority
a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people)
polygyny
a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman
polyandry
a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man
polygamy
a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously
monogamy
a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other
personality trait
a generally stable predisposition towards a certain behavior
exocrine gland
a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Example: sweat glands
society
a group of people who share a culture and live /interact with each other within a definable area
in-group
a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are
implicit bias
a hidden, automatic attitude that may guide behaviors independent of a person's awareness or control
pupil
a hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball; its diameter is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of light
peptide hormone
a hormone made of amino acids, in some cases, just a single modifies amino acid; they are generally hydrophilic and can't cross the plasma membrane of cells; thus receptors for them must be found on the cell surface; and exception is THYROXINE which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily; binding of these hormones do its receptor usually triggers a second-messenger system within the cell
epinephrine
a hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system
parathyroid hormone
a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increase blood calcium levels; it targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption); use for bone rebuilding
growth hormone
a hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body and stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents and increased cell turnover rate in adults
prolactin
a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce milk
organization
a large group, more impersonal than a network that comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently
secondary group
a larger and more impersonal group than a primary group which usually interacts for specific reasons for relatively short periods of time; these groups serve pragmatic needs
action potential
a localized change in a neuron's membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. Action potentials are all-or-none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels repolarizes the membrane
axon
a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated
glutamate
a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory and cognition (and learning) as well
method of loci
a memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place such as your home and in each place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be rememebered
functional amnesia
a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde autobiographical memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years, also called psychogenic and dissociative amnesia. These gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature consciously, but subconscious recall (sweating and increased HR) is common
ennui
a mental state characterized by lethargy and apathy, often associated with depression; it is not a social effect
spreading activation
a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks.
cognitive bias
a mistake or deficiency in the way that a person thinks, which can be causing problems with memory, rational thinking, or a misunderstanding of the situation
parkinson's didsease
a movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigr, 2 subcortical structures in the brain; among the symptoms are a resting terror (shaking, slowed movemement, rigidity of movements and the face, and a shuffling gait)
interneuron
a neuron found completely within the central nervous system that typically connect sensory and motor neurons especially in the reflex arcs
efferent neurons
a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron
multipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system
bipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axon and single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory organs
glucagon
a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, which primarily targets the liver stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose level
illusory correlation
a perceived relationship between two things (people, events, or behaviors) even when none exists (e.g. A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. )
long-term potentiation
a persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation leads to increased sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated; believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory
acculturation
a process that occurs when one group adopts the behavior and cultural patterns of another after the two have made contact
neural plasticity
a process that refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, environment, and neural processes
dendrite
a projection off the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites
dysthymic disorder
a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. A person with dysthymic disorder has felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years, with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major depressive episode
conversion disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms of conversion disorder begin or worsen after an emotional conflict of other stressor. is a mental condition in which a person has blindness, paralysis, or other nervous system (neurologic) symptoms that cannot be explained by medical evaluation
antisocial personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation
dependent personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself
mood disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning
dissociative disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness
hypochondriasis
a psychological disorder characterized by a pre-occupation with a fear of having a serious illness
body dysmorphic diorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia
depersonalization disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing one's self from the outside
histrionic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior
somatization disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a variety of symptoms over an extended time period, including pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, sexual symptoms, and pseudoneurological symptoms
dissociative identity disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by alternating between two or more distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts with other people at any one time
personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by an enduring rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder, or to those in his or her life
dissociative amnesia
a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or traums
pain disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors
bipolar disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes of "poles," depression and mania. In bipolar I disorder, a person has experiences at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II disorder, the manic phases are less extreme
borderline personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and to damage both of the person with the disorder and of others in his or her life
narcissistic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power
avoidant personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism and rejection; resulting in the person becoming socially withdrawn
schizoid personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
a psychological disorder characterized by obsessions (repeated intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety); compulsions (repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring or both
major depressive disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes where a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks
Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by perfectionistic like behaviours that are carried out by individuals, caused by their underlying desire for the need to control their environment and complete things to an unreasonably high, (self-determined) "standard"
catatonic-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded or excited motor activity)
paranoid-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions usually relating to a certain theme
schizotypal personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions
schizophreniform disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning
Schizoaffective disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms; in this disorder, both the symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced for at least one month
panic disorder
a psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks which can be cued by certain situations but are more often uncued or spontaneous, "occuring frequently" and unexpectedly
disorganized-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior
schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal function
cyclothymic disorder
a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. A person with cyclothymic disorder has experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years
dissociative fugue
a psychological disorder where someone suddenly goes on a journey, during which he or she cannot recall personal history prior to the journey
residual-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms
prison study (Stanford Prison Study)
a psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo designed to elucidate the extreme effects of roll-playing on human behavior. 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards. The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations. The guards enforced extreme measure including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it.
attachment theory
a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby)
humanistic psychology
a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology
Raymond Cattell
a psychologist interest in personality, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control
saltatory conduction
a rapid form of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier
social sanction
a reaction or measure intended to enforce norms and punish their violation
proprioceptor
a receptor that responds to changes in the body position such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle; the receptors allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts
photoreceptor
a receptor that responds to light
reflex arc
a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement
sect
a religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed
cult (aka a new religious movement)
a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle
neobehaviorism
a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments; closely associated to B.F. skinner
critical theory
a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities; it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society
baroreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure
mechanoreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances such as shape changes, being squashed, bent, pulled; they include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells in the ear, muscle spindles, and others
chemoreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and central chemoreceptors (which respond to changes in CSF pH)
psychological disorder/illness or mental illness
a set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or sufficient impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential
IPSP
a slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell moving the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold
social construct
a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, e.g. the idea of gender, social class
class system
a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)
meritocracy
a social stratification where people's social standing's are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system - no society solely stratifies based on effort
matriarchy
a social system where females, esp. mothers within families are the primary authority figures
patriarchy
a social system where males are primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family
ethnicity
a socially defined concept referring to whether of not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry
social constructionism
a sociological theory that argues that people actively shape their reality through social interaction; it is therefore something that is constructed, not inherent; it looks to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality
physical attractiveness stereotype
a specific type of halo effect bias; people tend to rate attractively individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive
algorithm
a step-by-step detailing of steps that aids with problem solving
progesterone
a steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of the fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response in the absence of outside interference (conditioning)
self-handicapping
a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly
meta-analytic study
a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies, with the aim of finding patterns among the results that might bring about new information
language
a symbolic system that is codified for communication
endocrine system
a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood
patrilineal descent
a system of lineage in which relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage
bilateral descent
a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important
matrilineal descent
a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage
dichotic listening
a task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear
distraction
a technique in which researchers attempt to redirect the brain while conducting an experiment, usually in order to allow a previously acquired memory to be encoded
rehearsal
a technique of repeating verbal information in one's phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory
belief bias
a tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic
mental set
a tendency to fixate on ideas and solutions that have worked in the past even if they may not have applied to the current situation
misinformation effect
a tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the. (e.g. if an interrogator questions an individual about an event using leading questions, the person's perception of the event will change to fit the question)
functional fixedness
a tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging
recency effect
a tendency to recall the last item presented in a list
Drive Reduction Theory
a theory about the impact of motivation on human behavior that suggests that a physiological need (a drive) creates an aroused state that motivates the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior
continuity theory
a theory focusing on how people adjust to retirement by continuing aspects of their earlier lives
attribution theory
a theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior - both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes; it is the idea that individuals make inferences in order to understand the causes of various behaviors or actions
signal detection theory
a theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus (the signal), amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (noise), there are 4 possible outcome: a hit (signal present and detected), a miss (signal present but not detected), a false alarm (signal not present but person thought it was), and a correct rejection (signal not present and the person did not think it was)
cognitive dissonance theory
a theory that explains that we feel tension ("dissonance") whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs ("cognitions") that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making our views of the world match how we feel or what we've done.
inclusive fitness
a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behaviors) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all of the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation (e.g. a lapwing will fake injury to distract a hawk from its young, thereby acting altruistically toward its offspring)
incentive theory
a theory that suggests that incentives (objects or events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior
game theory
a theory used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population
cerebral cortex
a thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the conscious mind, and is functionally divided into four lobes: the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes
aqueous humor
a thin, watery fluid found in the anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). The aqueous humor is constantly produced and drained, and helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea, as well as remove metabolic wastes
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone
luteinizing hormone (LH)
a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads; in females, it triggers ovulation and the development of corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, it stimulated the production and release of testosterone
exposure therapy
a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy whereby the individual is introduced to the specific anxiety-inducing situation gradually and in a controlled environment until his or her anxiety level decreases through adaptation; it has been found to be the most effective form of treatment for agoraphobia
retroactive interference
a type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously
proactive interference
a type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently
bottom-up processing
a type of sensory processing that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain; note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing
chemical synapse
a type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ)
electrical synapse
a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques
humanistic psychotherapy
a type of therapy that focuses upon the more positive aspects of human beings in general and rejects the medical model, the psychoanalytic emphasis upon maladaptive personality traits, and the labeling of individuals as pathological. Accordingly, it places considerably less emphasis upon dispositional factors than does psychoanalysis
social network
a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others, as well as those in which people are directly connected through others
A dramatic change in which variable is most likely to improve health outcomes in countries where mortality rate is high and life expectancy is low? a.) average income b.) healthcare access c.) medical technology d.) physicians per capita
a! average income is the answer--bc Multiple sociology studies, as well as reports by the World Health Organization, suggest that increased income is the single change that has the greatest impact on health outcomes in developing countries
intelligence
ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
ego
according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle)
id
according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the largely unconscious id is the source of energy and instincts ruled by the pleasure principle, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure; it does not use logical or moral reasoning and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects; according to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id.
latent content
according to Freud, the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underly dreams (e.g. falling in a dream might have to do with feeling out of control in your life or failing at something. It might even represent giving in to sexual temptation)
libido
according to psychoanalytic theory, it is the life instinct which drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain, avoidance, and seeking pleasure
death instinct
according to psychoanalytic theory, the death instinct drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others
behaviorism
according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people being as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities
social cognitive perspective
according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors
social learning theory
aka observational learning..states that behavior is learned primarily through modeling or observation
mesolimbic pathway
aka the "reward pathway" ; dopaminergic pathway in dopaminergic pathway in brain; VTA (midbrain), nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus
deindividuation
an explanation of people's startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility
relative poverty
an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society
Huntington's Disease
an inherited (autosomal dominant) disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain; it has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders
myelin
an insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body; it is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells: in the PNS they are Schwann cells and in the CNS they are Oligodendrocytes
conditioned stimulus
an originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present
social phobia
an unreasonable paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom
drive
an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. Drives can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium
3 intelligences
analytical (Academic), creative (generate novel ideas and adapt), practical (solve ill-defined problems).
instrumental conditioning
another term for operant conditioning
mental retardation
another way of saying intellectual disability
prefrontal cortex
anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, sequencing, social responses, and decision-making; directs behavioral aspects of emotion, including approach and avoidance behaviors; damage to this are may lead to inappropriate social behavior, impulsivity, and trouble with initiation
gonadotropins
anterior pituitary tropic hormones, follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids
The type of "blackout" amnesia produced by excess alcohol consumption is likely to be?
anterograde amnesia
mnemonic
any memory technique used to promote the retention and retrieval of information
psychodynamic theory
any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces
linguistic relativity hypothesis
asserts when the language one speaks determines their thoughts and perceptions of the world
dramaturgical approach
assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. Also called the dramaturgical perspective
selection bias
bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen
biopsychosocial model of health
broad view that attributes disease outcome to the intricate, variable interaction of biological factors (genetic, biochemical, etc), psychological factors (mood, personality, behavior, etc.), and social factors (cultural, familial, socioeconomic, medical, etc.)
psychoanalytic
brought about by Freud focuses on the role that the unconscious mind plays on conscious behavior
rapid eye movement (REM)
bursts of quick eye movements present in the last stage of sleep
sleep spindle
bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep
intellectual disability
classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives; previously called mental retardation
Karl Marx
closely identifies with conflict theory, he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production; he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism; he along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology
Pygmalion effect
closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.
central route
cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument
B.F. Skinner
coined the term "operant conditioning"; he is famous for his box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior
institutional memory
collective memory of the individuals in an organization about its history, situations the organization has confronted, and what was necessary to deal with them
t-test
compares the mean values of a continuous variable between two categories or groups
agents of socialization
condition individuals to behave in certain social manners
Solomon Asch
conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believes the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions
Weber's Law suggests that the difference threshold from Study 1 will be a....
constant ratio of the original stimulus for all stimulus magnitudes
ideal self
constructed out of life experiences, societal expectations, and admirable traits, from role models, the ideal self is the person you ought to be while the real self is the person you actually are
Without conscious effort, people are unlikely to automatically visually process: a. spatial info b. temporal info c. frequency of specific events d. novel info
d. novel info; SPACE (During an exam, you may recall the place on the textbook page where forgotten material appears) TIME (recreating the sequence of events to retrace your steps to find something you lost) FREQUENCY (realizing that this is the 3rd time you forgot your keys; or that this has happened before) These don't require much effort unlike novel (new) information such as learning Anatomy for the first time where you had to sit and consciously try to drill names and functions of structures into your mind and commit them to memory via mnemonics, rote memorization, self-reference, grouping, spacing
depressive realism
depressed individuals make more realistic inferences than do non-depressed individuals
valence in emotion
describes the inherent attractiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus, event or situation (pleasant/+ or unpleasant/-)
experimental research
designed to demonstrate cause-and-effect.
differential association theory
deviance can be learned through interactions with others
true or false: the poverty line for absolute poverty is lower than the poverty line for relative poverty
false! -it is possible that someone who cannot afford basic necessities (absolutely poor) is not considered poor on the relative poverty scale, because he earns more than 60% of the village's median income
kinship
familial relationship including blood-ties, family-ties, and common ancestry
Albert Bandura
famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning
Ivan Pavlov
famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell
REM stage
final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and beta waves which are seen in individuals when they are awake; despite these wave patterns, however, the sleeper is paralyzed aside from small twitches leading to the description of the stage as 'paradoxical sleep', this is generally when dreams occur
neuroleptics
first antipsychotic drug for schizo - cognitive dulling --used to treat positive symptoms
sensorimotor stage
first stage of Piaget's developmental theory from birth to age 2 where babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety
taboo
forbidden by custom/tradition or religious practice
taste aversion
form of classical conditioning in which a food comes to be avoided
medial geniculate nucleus
found in the thalamus and conveys information to the auditory cortex, which is located in the temporal lobe
lateral geniculate nucleus
found in the thalamus but contributes to visual processing
general intelligence
foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities
in which lobe of the brain is the premotor cortex located?
frontal
which part of the brain is involved in working memory
frontal lobe
nodes of ranvier
gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of the peripheral neurons; action potentials can jump from node to node; thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction)
socialization
general term referring to the process by which social institutions instill ideals, values, mores, taboos, etc., into members of the social group
eustress vs. distress
good stress and bad stress
primary groups
groups that play a more important role in an individual's life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages within person, in long-term, emotional ways
symptoms of schizophrenia
hallucinations, delusions, distorted speech, disturbances in effect, social withdrawl -positive and negative symptoms -sleep pattern changes are also common and can be either positive (insomnia) or negative (hypersomnia)
social cognitive theory
idea that people learn through observation and own experiences
preganglionic neuron
in the autonomic nervous system of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron's axon synapses with the target organ)
back stage
in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves, as opposed to the "front stage," where we are playing a role for others
front stage
in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people
symbolic racism
in which respondents believe that racism is wrong but do not see racism as a significant institutional problem in society since the 1960s
anhedonia
inability to experience/feel pleasure
anomia
inability to name things
false memory
inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination of suggestion
serial position effect
includes the primacy and recency effect; when information is presented serially in a list format, individuals are more likely to recall the first and the last items presented
positive levels of schizophrenia is related to what?
increased levels of dopamine
reaction formation
individual deals with an objectionable impulse by behaving in a manner diametrically opposite to that impulse e.g. being super sweet to a group of girls you greatly despise
long-term memory
information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity
ISPS
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; hyperpolarization
positive punishment
introduction of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior
categorical variables
involve non-numeric groups or categories (ex. eye color, car brands, ethnicity)
norepinephrine
involved in the body's response to stressful stimuli
cultural relativism
judging another culture based on its own cultural standards
hippocampus
key structure in regulating stress and anxiety
infantile amnesia
lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown
alogia
lack of speech
sapir-whorf hypothesis is also known as..?
linguistic relativity
duration of long term mem vs. short term mem?
long term = more than a few minutes short term = less than a minute sensory mem = a second or so
neuroticism
long term tendency to be in a negative emotional state; like emotionally unstable
cross-sectional analysis
looks at data collected at a single point in time
alpha waves
low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. Alpha waves are the first indicator that a person is read to drift off into sleep
social constructivism
maintains that what we consider "reality" is largely our own mental creation
manifest content vs. latent content
manifest content is the actual literal subject-matter of the dream while the latent content is the underlying meaning of these symbols
implicit (procedural) memory
memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do things
short-term memory
memory that is limited in duration and in capacity
schemas
mental frameworks/blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience
meditation
mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way; may involve intense focus on one object of attention or broad attention to a field of awareness
fundamental movement skills
movement patterns that involve different body parts. They are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialized, complex skills used in play, games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. (Autistic children have the ability to master these)
polysomnography (PSG)
multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG
ciliary muscle
muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye
overgeneralization
occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence; e.g. the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future
false consensus
occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)
projection bias
occurs when we assume that others have the same feelings we do due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourself an others
gender bias in medicine
occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness
double-blind study
of or relating to an experiment or clinical trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the active medication, treatment, etc., and which are not: a technique for eliminating subjective bias from the test results.
SES (socioeconomic status)
often defined in terms of power; the ability to get other people to do something, property (sum of possessions and income), and prestige (reputation in society), because these three concepts tend to (but not always) be related in the US society
acting out
overt expression of unconscious emotions and impulses without insightful understanding of one's behaviore
nociceptors
pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain
authoritarian parenting
parenting style in which parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally in an attempt to control children. his style is demanding and often relies on punishment
permissive parenting
parenting style that creates few rules and demands and little discipline; parents are warm and loving to their children, but very lenient and allow their children
authoritative parenting
parenting style that places limits on behavior and consistently follows through on consequences, but also expresses warmth and nurturing and allows for two-way communication between parents and children
episodic buffer
part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that acts as a 'backup' store which communicates with both long-term memory and the components of working memory.
central executive
part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention
phonological loop
part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory
agreeable
pleasant and easy to like
positive vs. negative in terms of operant conditioning
positive is added something while negative is taking something away
projective identification
process whereby in a close relationship, as between mother and child, lovers, or therapist and patient, parts of the self may in unconscious fantasy be thought of as being forced into the other person
encoding specificity principle
proposed by researchers Thomson and Tulving, states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval; explains why a subject is able to recall a target word as part of an unrelated word pair at retrieval with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during encoding; provides an general theoretical framework for understanding how contextual information affects memory
mindfulness-based stress reduction
protocol involving mindfulness meditation, shown to be effective for helping individuals with pain, stress and anxiety
stress diathesis model
psychological theory that attempts to explain a disorder as the result of an interaction between a predispositional vulnerability and a stress caused by life experiences
reinforcement vs punishment
punishment--doing something to stop the target behavior; reinforcement--doing something to encourage the target behavior
electroencephalogram (EEG)
recording of electrical impulses in the brain
electrooculogram (EOG)
recording of eye movements
electromyogram (EMG)
recording of skeletal muscle movements
miscenigation
refers to the mixing of racial and ethnic groups in intimate relationships
demand characteristics
refers to the phenomenon by which study participants pick up on subtle or overt clues about the purpose of the study, the hypothesis, or the expectations of the experimenters, and alter their behavior as a result
constancy
refers to the tendency to perceive an object you are familiar with as having a constant shape, size, and brightness despite the stimuli changes that occur
institutional discrimination
refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives (e.g. laws and decisions that reflect racism, such as the Plessy vs. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case. The verdict of this case ruled in favor of separate but equal public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans.)
Broca's area
region of the brain located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe. Involved with speech production. Damage to this part of the brain results in Broca's aphasia, where individuals know what they want to say but are unable to express it verbally
pineal gland
region of the brain responsible for the production of melatonin: a hormone that influences slepp/wake cycles and seasonal functions
regression vs. correlation
regression assumes that one variable influences another, while correlation simply describes the relationship between two variables without assuming the direction of influence or even the existence of influences at all
fixed-interval schedule
reinforcement schedule in which a reward is offered after a set period of time has passed
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior
reappraisal
reinterpreting a situation to make it seem less threatening
it is estimated that approx 1% of adults in the US suffer from what?
schizophrenia
stereotype threat
situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group; Because of stereotype threat, students who are reminded of negative stereotypes about their race or gender before taking a test perform worse on those tests
max weber
sociological thinker whose theories of symbolic interactionism emphasize how individuals relate to society--one of his ideas was "iron cage" which led to disenchantment with society
insecure attachment
style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs; in Einsworth's experiments, these infants were found to be less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their mother; they may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when the mother returned to the room
insight learning
sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem; the aha moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways
social-cognitive perspective
supported by Bandura focuses on modeling behavior observed in others (aka social learning)
humanistic perspective
supported by Maslow and Rogers focuses on the potential for self-fulfillment that resides among all human beings
savings
take less time to learn list second time around (when memorizing/learning)
eidetic memory
the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics; also called photographic memory
social perception
the ability to understand others in our social world; the initial info. we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions
glass escalator
the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization, especially in feminized jobs
feature detection
the activation of neurons in the cortex by visual stimuli of specific shapes or patterns
retention interval
the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled
crude death rate
the annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population
crude birth rate
the annual number of live births per thousand people in a population
general fertility rate
the annual number of live births per thousand women of child-bearing age within the population
auditory cortex
the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information
neuron
the basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system; it is a highly specialized cell designed to transmit action potentials
self-efficacy
the belief in one's own competence and effectiveness
optimism bias
the belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us
race
the biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual, wand includes the following U.S> census categories: white, black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander
optic disc
the blind spot of the eye; this is where the axons of ganglion cells exit the retina to form the optic nerve; there are no photoreceptors here
iconic memory
the brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second
fluid intelligence
the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge; it involves the ability to identify patterns and relationships that underpin novel problems and to extrapolate these findings using logic.
beliefs
the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold
mortality
the death rate in a population
construct validity
the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring, the appropriateness of inferences made on the basis of observations or measurements (often test scores), specifically whether a test measures the intended variable
parasympathetic nervous sytem
the division of the autonomic nervous system known as the "resting and digesting" system. it causes a general decrease in body activities such as heart rate, and blood pressure and an increase in blood flow to the GI tract and an increase in digestive function; because the paraganglionic neurons all originate from either the brain or the sacram, it is also known as the craniosacral system
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system and can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
social facts
the elements that serve some function in society such as laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and roles that make up a society
incongruity
the emotional result when the real self falls short of ideal self
religiosity
the extent that religion influences a person's life
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
global inequality
the extent to which income and wealth is distributed in an uneven manner among the world's population
bystander effect
the fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around
oral stage
the first Freud's 5 psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing
latency stage
the fourth of Freud's five psychosexual stages; in this stage, sexual interest subsides and is replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports
reinforcement schedule
the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval
activation-synthesis theory
the hypothesis suggests that dreams are created by changes in neuron activity that activates the brainstem during REM sleep. Suggests that the content of dreams is not purposeful or meaningful
looking-glass self
the idea that a person's sense of self develops from impersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others; according to this idea, people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them
principle of aggregation
the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act
place theory
the idea that different sound frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrane
depth of processing
the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered
social behaviorism
the idea that the mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others
absolute poverty
the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare
sensory memory
the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; it is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays
retina
the innermost layer of the eyeball; it is made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells
manifest function
the intended or obvious consequences of a social structure; basically intended functions
intersectionality
the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage
corpus callosum
the largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
organic amnesia
the loss of memory due to biological factors such as brain disorders, tumors, strokes, degenerative diseases, or any other of a multitude of other disruptions of neurological function
belief perseverance
the maintenance of beliefs even in the face of evidence to the contrary
representativeness heuristic
the mental shortcut where one judges the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations or examples of those things; diff from availability (more instances and numbers) whereas rep is more stereotyping
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
mere presence
the most basic level of interaction between individuals; when people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or just minding their own business
replacement level fertility
the number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people int he population who die
life expectancy
the number of years that an individual of a certain age can expect to life at present mortality rates
functionalism/ structural functionalism
the oldest of the main theories of sociology, which conceptualized society as a living organism with many different parts/organs, each of which has a distinct purpose (Prominent theorists include Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Auguste Comte, Davis and Moore, Robert Merton, almond and Powell)
master status
the one status that dominates the other statuses and determines that individual's general position in society (e.g. occupation, disability, role, etc)
effector
the organ that carries out the command sent along a particular motor neuron
adrenal cortex
the outer region of the adrenal gland. The adrenal cortex produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress and aldosterone in response to low BP or low blood osmolarity
reticular activating system
the part of the brain that is involved in attention, sleep, and arousal
scapegoat
the people or group who are unfairly blamed for something, or at whom displaced aggression is directed
social support
the perception that one is cared for and part of a social network; supportive resources can be tangible or emotional
relative refractory period
the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)
conformity
the phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others
social facilitation effect
the phenomenon that describes how people tend to perform simple well-learned tasks better when other people are present
group polarization
the phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the pre-existing views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was
mere-exposure effect
the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them sometimes repeatedly; e.g. listening to a song sounds better the second time; also called familiarity principle
social loafing
the phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable
hypophysis
the pituitary gland
healthcare disparities
the population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and qualities of healthcare in different social groups
outer ear
the portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal; it is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
diencephalon
the portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus
social capital
the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility
endogamy
the practice of marrying within a particular group
mindguarding
the pressure to conform within a group causes individuals to censor their own opinions in favor of consensus which creates an illusion of unanimity
estrogen
the primary female sex hormone. It stimulates the development of the female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy
retrieval structure principle
the principle which states that experts develop memory mechanisms (called retrieval structure) to facilitate the retrieval of information stored int he long-term memory; these mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can be later regenerated to retrieve stored information effectively without a lengthy search
selective attention
the process by which one input is selected to focus on out of the field of possibilities in the environment
assimilation
the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group
informational social influence
the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others know something I don't know
role exit
the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on a new role
relearning
the process of learning material that was originally learnt
immunosuppresion
the process of reduction in either the activation or the efficacy of the immune system as a result of stressful events
encoding
the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system
meninges
the protective connective tissue wrappings of the CNS (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater)
self selection bias
the reality that certain groups of people may be more willing than others to participate in a study, and therefore the sample may not be an accurate reflection of the population
cerebellum
the region of the brain that coordinates and smooths skeletal muscle activity
negative reinforcement
the removal of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior
negative punishment
the removal of a positive or rewarding stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior
deception
the research equivalent of lying to participants, frequently used to mislead participants so that they do not learn what the actual purpose of the research may be
dishabituation
the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation
anal stage
the second of Freud's five psychosexual stages, in this stage the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination
residential secgregation
the separation of groups into different neighborhoods, which most often occurs due to racial differences, ethnic differences, and/or socioeconomic differences; it is NOT based on laws, but rather enduring social patterns, which are attributed to suburbanization, discrimination, and personal preferences
social identity
the social definition of self including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like
organ of corti
the structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane; the Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials
social reproduction
the structures and activities in a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next; cultural capital and social capital are two mechanisms by which social reproduction occurs; reproducing social inequality across generations
sociobiology
the study of how biology and evolution have effected human social behavior, primarily it applies Darwin's principle of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors
sociology
the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live
demography
the study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration
social epidemiology
the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population
central nervous system
the subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
just world phenomenon
the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve; when bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act, and when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it
self-reference effect
the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourself, a prediction comes true because the individual accepts something as the truth and receives the feedback about his belief from at least one other person
actor-observer bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
negativity bias
the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences
ethnocentrism
the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture
the facial feedback hypothesis
the theory suggests that the physical expression of an emotion also activates the experience of that emotion
contact hypothesis
the theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions
phallic stage
the third of Freud's psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through the genitals
prejudice
the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings that someone holds about a group that are not based on an actual experience; a pre-judgment or biases thinking about a group and its members
object permanence
the understanding that things continue to exist once they're out of sight
latent functions
the unintended or less recognizable consequences or a social structure, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful (e.g. A newspaper acting as a fly swatter)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
the universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders; the current latest edition is the fifth edition of the DSM (the DSM-5)
norms
the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society; they help define what type of behaviors are acceptable and in accordance with a society's values and benefits; formal _____ are generally written down; laws are examples of formal _____. Informal _____ are generally understood, but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments
circadian rhythm
the waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day
social stratification
the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income, among other things
sclera
the white portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball
Schachter-Singer Theory
theory of emotion that asserts that the experience of psychological arousal occurs first, and is followed by a conscious, cognitive interpretation/appraisal that allows for the identification of the experiences emotion
James-Lange Theory
theory of emotion that claims that emotional experience is the result of physiological and behavioral responses (e.g. forcing a smile makes you feel slightly happy)
control theory
theory that compliance with social norms requires strong bonds between individuals and society
social control theory
theory that explains deviance as the result of the weakening of social bonds
labeling theory
theory that society creates deviance by identifying particular members as deviant
world systems theory
there are significant economic and social difference across countries based on their economic abilities and global positioning
Oedipus complex
this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a male child is sexually attracted to his mother and hostile towards his father who is seen as a rival.
Electra complex
this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
this guy sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs (demonstrated by a pyramid) at the base of this pyramid are physiological needs or the basic element necessary to sustain human life; in order, the rest of the needs include, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization; lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs
pearson correlation coeff.
this is calculated to compare the association between two variables
frustration-aggression principle
this principle suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression
cortisol
this steroid hormone is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body's use of fuel from glucose toward fats and proteins, thus "sparing" glucose for the brain's use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity and increased susceptibility to illness
psychoanalytic therapy
this therapy approach uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are causing difficulties
difference threshold (aka the just noticeable difference or JND)
this threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time
behavioral therapy
this type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction
ascribed status
those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts
achieved status
those statuses that are considered to be due largely to an individual's efforts
escape learning
through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus
ego defense mechanisms
to cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop defense ego mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality. Ego defense mechanisms are therefore normal, and become unhealthy only when taken to extremes; developed by Sigmund Freud
cognitive psychology
tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus-response behaviors
true or false: As the night progresses, less time is spent in slow-wave sleep
true
true or false: Each eye receives information from both the right and the left visual field. That information is then transferred to areas of the thalamus and/or midbrain before being sent to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe
true
true or false: working memory is generally necessary to carry out cognitive tasks
true
true or false about stereotypes: stereotypes develop when all out-group members are viewed as similar (known as outgroup homogeneity). Rather than considering each individual based on merit or personal characteristics, it is easy to apply a stereotype to everyone in the group. We tend to see members of our own group, or in-group as different from one another relative to out-groups
true!
true or false: Maslow's hierarchy of needs dictates that higher needs do not produce drives until lower needs are met.
true!
true or false: REM rebound, or an increase in the amount of REM per sleep event, often occurs after periods of sleep deprivation or periods of sleep that do not involve REM sleep
true!
true or false: according to the theory of operant conditioning, when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer positively or negatively reinforced, it leads to a decline in that behavior, called extinction
true!
true or false: females exhibit less lateralization than males?
true!
true or false: increasing emotional arousal may cause a restriction of focus of attention
true!
true or false: frontal lobes are most closely associated with executive functions, which include both working memory and attention
true! -hippocampus is primarily involved in episodic memory formation
comorbidity
two or more disorders or illnesses occurring in the same person. They can occur at the same time or one after the other. Comorbidity also implies interactions between the illnesses that can worsen the course of both
linear regression
used for prediction from independent variables
semantic networks
used to activate several memories linked by meaning
night terrors
usually occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares; the individual may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified although none of it is remembered the next morning
two aspects of emotion
valence and arousal
The payout system for scratch-off lottery tickets results in zero reinforcement for the majority of behaviors and sporadic positive reinforcement on rare, unpredictable occasions. This is an example of which schedule of reinforcement?
variable ratio; slot machines or other forms of gambling are very good examples of variable ratio--A variable-ratio schedule occurs when a person is rewarded at a certain overall average ratio, but the individual ratio of behaviors to reinforcement varies, and is therefore unpredictable to the subject.
continuous variables
variables that can take any numerical value and are measured (ex. age is a continuous variable because you are getting older each day--but is now considered more of a numerical value rounded to whole numbers; other examples are height, weight, intelligence)
psychodynamic therapy
views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences
symbolic-interactionism theory
views society as a product of everyday social interactions of individuals; symbolic interactionists also study how people use symbols to create meaning
normative organization
voluntary membership based on shared goals
operational definitions
ways to measure and define a construct
which lobe is broca and which lobe is wernicke found in?
wernicke = temporal lobe broca = left frontal lobe
ambivalent attachement
when a child is visibly upset when his or her caregiver leaves the room, but is not comforted when the caregiver returns
generalized other
when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the ____.
mood-dependent memory
when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state
positive transfer
when old information facilitates the learning of new information
gender and age is considered intersectionality?
yes!