Medicine Through Time (Edexcel)

What was miasma theory?

- illness and disease were caused by miasma, or poisoned air - some people believed the air had been poisoned by God, because they thought God caused all illness, sweet-smelling home was a sign of spiritual cleanliness, and incense was burned in churches to purify the air, homes that smelled badly suggested sinfulness and corruption and, if a person was unwashed, other people would avoid them, in case they breathed in the bad miasma and contracted a disease, also avoided lepers. - swamps, corpses and other rotting matter could transmit disease

supernatural and religious explanations for cause of disease in medieval england

- ppl very religious, followed catholic church - regular service and pay tithe - most education from church, no formal - those commit sin punish by god/ devil send as test of faith - if recovered was proof of divine - god cleanse soul of sin

pilgrims suffering from disease would...

- touch holy relics, cross where jesus crucified or bones of saint - present offering to shrine, e.g. image of body part need healing from wax to jewels - light candle as how tall you are/ as long as body part is - pray

What was the impact of Lister's work on antiseptics?

By the late 19th century, Lister's antiseptic methods of killing the germs on a wound had led to the introduction of aseptic surgery. This meant that even more germs were removed from the operating theatre, with the aim of creating a totally germ-free environment. Aseptic surgery included many aspects: the thorough cleaning of operating theatres before and after surgery the frequent cleaning of other areas of a hospital surgeons wearing sterilised gowns, masks and gloves all surgical instruments being sterilised using steam New method not fully understood. Didn't believe air had germs. Dried out skin and odd smell

Blood letting techniques

CUTTING VEIN - usually near elbow, easy access - easiest LEECHES - freshwater leech placed, bleeding could continue up to 10 hrs after leech full - those for who trad. bleeding too dangerous CUPPING - skin pierced w knife, pin, fingernails, heated cup placed over to create vacuum, drew blood out of skin - women, children and very old, different areas treat different illness (e.g. back of neck fix eye trouble)

How did the government try to prevent the spread of the Black Death?

GOVERNMENT: Under quarantine laws, people new to an area had to stay away from others for 40 days. Houses were placed in quarantine where there had been an outbreak of the Black Death. Sometimes marks were placed on the doors of those believed to have been affected. Strangers were not allowed to enter a village. Local authorities stopped cleaning the streets because they believed the smells from the waste would drive away any bad air. Events that attracted large crowds, such as religious processions, were banned. Huge burial sites were created where the dead would be buried in mass graves. This was done quickly and without much religious ceremony. SUPERNATURAL However, all of these actions were difficult to enforce because the Church continued to have a lot of power. Individuals continued to follow the advice given by the Church, which meant they tried to prevent the spread of the Black Death with prayer, fasting and confession of sins. Self-flagellation

What did people believe caused the Great Plague in 1665?

Ideas about the cause of the plague had not changed since the Black Death. Most people still believed that: - God controlled everything and sent the plague as a punishment for sin. - miasma theory, stinking rubbish and dunghills that were a feature of 17th-century, warmer weather carry vapour plague outbreaks generally appeared when the weather began to turn warmer - The disease was spread from person to person - unusual alignment between Saturn and Jupiter in October 1664, and between Mars and Saturn on 12 November, bad -people who believed a miasma caused the disease believed that, once people had caught it, they could pass it on to others, quarantine

What was the Black Death?

In 1348 a new infectious disease spread throughout the British Isles. killed between 30-40% of the entire population. In England, the impact was huge. The disease became known as the Black Death or the Plague. The Black Death affected both the rich and the poor. It also affected both those who lived in the towns and those who lived in the countryside. The main symptoms of the Black Death were buboes in the armpit or groin, chest pains and a fever. When people caught the Black Death, they could die within days. Hardly anyone who caught it survived. The Black Death was an outbreak of the bubonic plague. The bacteria were carried in the digestive system of fleas who arrived in England on rats carried by merchant ships

Why was Edwin Chadwick significant?

In 1842, a government official called Edwin Chadwick published his Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population. He carried out detailed research that showed people living in cities had a much lower life expectancy than people living in the countryside. Chadwick concluded that this was down to dirty and difficult living conditions. He recommended better supplies of clean water and more regular removal of waste. The government did not intervene immediately. However, in 1848, they passed the first Public Health Act. This law encouraged cities in England and Wales to set up boards of health and provide clean water. However, it had little impact because at this point the measures were still optional and expensive.

How did Queen Victoria influence attitudes towards surgery?

In 1853, Queen Victoria used chloroform during the birth of one of her children. This led to its usage being more accepted.

Why was Joseph Bazalgette significant?

In 1858, London experienced a very hot summer. This led to the smell from the River Thames, where human waste ended up, getting worse and worse. This became known as the 'Great Stink'. The River Thames is next to the Houses of Parliament and the smell got so bad that Members of Parliament could smell it for themselves! As a result, the government acted. Joseph Bazalgette, an engineer, was employed to build a network of sewers under the streets of London. By 1866, most of London was connected to the new sewerage. It removed waste from where people lived and therefore reduced the risk and potential spread of cholera.

What did the 1875 Public Health Act do?

In 1875, the government passed a second Public Health Act. This made it compulsory for local councils to: improve sewers and the removal of waste provide clean water appoint medical officers to inspect public health facilities

Treatment modern

In 1900, 25% of deaths were caused by infectious diseases. 1990, less than 1%. 1900 most take herbal remedies/ patent medicines e.g. Beechams. Advances mean wide variety of specific, effective medicines matched diseases that they treat - hard make vaccine against some viruses, new flu strain each year - new diseases don't respond to chemicals - Microbes are living organisms and they have evolved to beat some of the cures doctors have been using. This has led to drug-resistant bacteria, such as MRSA. Tuberculosis cases are once again on the rise in the UK. - alternative remedies e.g. herbal medicines, acupuncture and homeopathy

How did Fleming discover penicillin?

In 1928, a scientist called Alexander Fleming was studying the wounds of soldiers and infections caused by the staphylococci bacteria in his laboratory in London. He left some dishes on the windowsill containing the bacteria and went on holiday. Above his laboratory, a scientist was working with penicillin mould. While Fleming was away, some penicillin mould landed on the dishes, possibly having floated in through an open window. On his return, Fleming inspected the dishes and noticed that the penicillin mould had killed the staphylococci bacteria underneath. After carrying out several further experiments with the penicillin mould, Fleming noticed that it could kill bacteria without harming other nearby cells. He experimented and successfully used penicillin to treat a friend's eye infection. Penicillin did not work on deeper infections and it took a long time to create enough penicillin to use. In 1929, Fleming wrote about his findings in a medical journal but did not continue with his study. people were aware that mouldy bread had healing properties, and Joseph Lister used it to treat a patient in 1871 Fleming did not believe that penicillin could work to kill bacteria in living people - he did not pursue funding to perform further tests on the mould.

How did Florey and Chain build on Fleming's work?

In 1938, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain read Fleming's article on penicillin. They realised it could be effective and got £25 in funding from the British government (which would be worth approximately £1,300 today). By 1941, Florey and Chain had made enough pure penicillin to test it on a human. They used it on a policeman called Albert Alexander, who had cut himself and was dying from a bacterial infection called septicaemia. The treatment worked and Alexander's infection began to clear up. Unfortunately, Florey and Chain ran out of pure penicillin after a week and Alexander died.

How did people use religion to prevent disease in the medieval period?

It was believed disease could be prevented by the following religious actions: living a life free from sin attending church services and processions prayer - people prayed for God's forgiveness of their sins pilgrimages wearing magical or religious charms fasting - people did this to show they were sorry for their sins flagellation - some people whipped themselves in public and asked God to forgive their sins

Mass production of penicillin

July 1941, Florey visited the USA and convinced pharmaceutical companies to begin penicillin production. The companies started growing the penicillin in beer vats. It was a very slow process - after a year, the US companies only had enough penicillin to treat ten people. The US government, observing the benefits of the drug, funded 21 pharmaceutical companies to begin mass producing it. British pharmaceutical companies became involved in 1943, when they too started to mass produce the drug. By D-Day, in June 1944, there was enough penicillin available to treat 2.3 mil doses Allied casualties.

Lifestyle factors modern

Smoking - popular in 1920s, young and free. 1950s doctors notice rise in numbers of lung cancer. Link many diseases now, lung/ throat/ mouth caner, heart disease etc. Biggest cause of preventable diseases, even second hand smoke Diet - theory four humours, important what eat. balanced diet, too much sugar = type 2 diabetes, incurable, lead to heart disease. malnutrition Alcohol - liver/ kidney disease, binge or a lot Share bodily fluids - drugs/ sex for disease Tanning - skin cancer

Government lifestyle campaigns modern

• advertising campaigns warning against dangers to health, such as smoking, binge drinking, recreational drug use and unprotected sex • events such as Stoptober, which encourage people to stop smoking for a month • initiatives encouraging people to eat more healthily and get more exercise, such as the Change4Life campaign

Short term impact smallpox vaccine

by 1800, 100,000 people around the world had been vaccinated. The French commander Napoleon had his entire army vaccinated in 1805 slower in UK, anti-Jenner propaganda promoted by inoculators. some still die, mixed samples, reuse needles after the Royal Jennerian Society had been founded in 1803, 12,000 British people were vaccinated in the space of two years

influence on ideas about the cause of disease - middle ages

continuity of ideas INDIVIDUALS AND CHURCH: - important maintain status quo - controlled medical learning - chose books which were copied and distributed (e.g. 4 humours), esp Galen SCIENCE AND TECH: - lack science knowledge limited - tried make new discoveries fit into old theories, not experiment to explain discoveries - invention printing press 1440 Johannes Gutenburg, Germany, easier to share medical texts ATTITUDES IN SOCIETY: - not critical of Church, risk going to Hell - 'good' physicians 4 humours - 13c military surgeon Henri de Mondeville 'hippocrates and galen are old dogs who need to be put down' , continued practicing

Opposition anaesthetics and antiseptics

• Anaesthetics allowed for deeper surgeries to be attempted. Before the introduction of carbolic spray, infection and bleeding became even bigger problems. The death rate actually increased, which seemed to suggest that anaesthetics were bad. People did not trust the technique. • The Victorians believed that pain relief was interfering with God's plan, particularly in childbirth, which was meant to be painful. • Some doctors believed that patients were more likely to die if they were unconscious during the operation, rather than awake and screaming. • It took a long time for doctors to accept that germs caused infection. Surgeons did not want to believe that they might have been responsible for the infections that killed their patients.

How did Jenner create the vaccine?

1796 Edward Jenner was a country doctor in Gloucestershire. He had observed that milkmaids who caught the mild disease cowpox did not go on to catch smallpox. Jenner decided to scientifically test whether cowpox could prevent smallpox. He carried out a series of experiments and recorded his findings. To test his theory about smallpox, Jenner: selected a healthy eight-year-old boy called James Phipps took cowpox from a sore on a milkmaid's hand and inserted it into Phipps' body via two cuts observed that Phipps experienced uneasiness, a loss of appetite and a headache as a result of the mild disease but became well again Phipps was then inoculated with smallpox, but no disease followed Jenner repeated his experiment 23 times to prove his theory. In 1798 he published a book describing how to prevent people from catching smallpox by injecting them with cowpox. He called his method vaccination because vacca is the Latin word for 'cow'.

How did Nightingale improve hospitals in Crimea?

1854 Crimean War Nightingale was able to convince the government to send her to improve the hospitals in the Crimea, along with 38 other nurses. Nightingale worked hard to improve hospital conditions and establish better practices of cleanliness. This led to a fall in the death rate from 40% to 2%. Some of the changes put in place in the hospital included: ensuring there was regular hand washing making improvements to sewerage making improvements to ventilation

When did John Snow conduct his investigations into cholera in Soho, and what did he find?

1854, he discovered that cholera was spread through dirty water after removing the Broad Street Pump

John Snow significance

1855 - presented findings to a House of Commons committee, recommend improvements to sewer systems to avoid another outbreak The General Board of Health clung to the theory of miasma and rejected Snow's findings. Admitting that cholera was present in the water would mean having to take steps to provide clean water, which was going to be very costly - and, the Board argued, there was no scientific proof that it would work, only practical evidence short term, Snow's work had an immediate impact on the residents of Soho Square, many of whom avoided cholera thanks to his removal of the pump handle. However, his impact outside of this area was very limited. It was not until much later that the importance of clean water was accepted.

Science of genetics

1900, German Mendel theory of inheritance, fundamental laws of inheritance. No scientific proof, microscopes not powerful to identify gene pairs. 1951 - scientists knew characteristics were passed down from parents 1953- technology meant scientists identified DNA James Watson was an American biologist. Francis Crick was an English physicist. Studied x-rays provided by Franklin and Wilkins. Published paper in April 1953. Teams of scientists work to understand how DNA work. Help them understand the causes of genetic diseases e.g. haemophilia. 1990 The Human Genome Project was launched. For decade 18 teams of scientists worked to decode and map the human genome. First draft completed 2003. Use blueprint of human DNA to look for mistakes/mismatches in DNA of those e suffering from hereditary diseases. Scientists now can identify gene present in breast cancer sufferers. y cannot use this knowledge to treat breast cancer, women now have the opportunity to prevent this disease by identifying their risk of developing the disease and then having a mastectomy. Angelina Jolie

Factors helping the development of genetics and impact

1931 German physicist Ernst Ruska and engineer Max Knoll. much more powerful magnification (50x more than light) Collaboration of global scientific community. All data from study was public, benefit many people Recognise disorders Huntingdon's and Down's Syndrome. These disorders are caused by missing information in the genome: if that information can be put back in by scientists, this could theoretically lead to a treatment in some cases. No current treatment, understand cause, no treatments

What were humoural treatments?

A common belief in medieval England was that illness was caused by an imbalance of the four humours in the body. If blood was thought to be out of balance, then people would carry out bloodletting. This treatment might involve: cutting into a vein using leeches placing heated cups over a cut or scratch It was also believed that food caused the humours to become imbalanced. To overcome this, people would rid the body of leftover food. Patients were given something to make them vomit or a laxative to clear their bowels. The community also followed Galen's ideas. For example, if an ill person was believed to have too much phlegm (demonstrating characteristics that were cold and wet), they would be given a treatment that was hot and dry, such as eating a hot pepper. Or, if they were believed to have too much yellow bile (hot and dry), they would be given a cold treatment, such as drinking water.

How did science and technology lead to progress in the Industrial Period?

By 1750, the Church and classical ideas had lost their dominant influence and scientific ideas were much more accepted. With the growth of new technology, scientists continued to experiment and challenge old ideas. The use of new instruments (such as microscopes), chemicals and scientific equipment proved many new theories. Further improvements in travel - such as the development of the railways - then enabled these ideas to spread quickly throughout Britain.

How did advances in science enable medical progress in the modern period?

Advances in science, such as the discovery of DNA, have led to a greater understanding of the causes of disease. It is now accepted that germs can cause disease and illness. By the end of the 20th century, it was also understood that some diseases, conditions or disorders are hereditary - which means they are passed from parents to children in genes. This has been proven for: Down's syndrome - the extra chromosome that causes this condition was discovered in 1958 cystic fibrosis - the gene that causes this condition was discovered in 1989 sickle cell anaemia - the genetic understanding of this disorder developed from the 1940s onwards move towards laboratory medicine, with more examination of samples. These samples might include skin or blood, or more detailed samples of flesh gathered from the patient in a procedure called a biopsy. The samples would be examined by medical scientists in a laboratory, using microscopes and other technology. In addition, the patient might be x-rayed to allow doctors to see what was going on inside the body, and the pictures produced would be examined by doctors looking for the cause of the disease or illness- based on medical testing.

What were barber surgeons?

Barber surgeons would carry out basic surgery, such as bloodletting (was so common that most physicians didn't bother), sewing up wounds and removing growths from the outside of the body. They learned their skills from watching others and reading books about surgery. They were the most experienced but least qualified medical professional in medieval England.

Which battle were the first blood banks used?

Battle of Cambrai 1917

Improvements in diagnosis: the impact of the availability of blood tests, scans and monitors

Blood tests (from the 1930s) use blood samples to test for an enormous number of conditions without the need for invasive diagnosis methods. Blood pressure monitors (from the 1880s) help to diagnose high and low blood pressure. Endoscopes (from the 1900s) use a camera on the end of a thin, flexible tube to see inside the human body. They are most commonly used to investigate digestive symptoms, such as vomiting blood. Sometimes they can be used to assist in treatment, by carrying small surgical instruments into the body. X-rays (from the 1890s) help to see inside the human body without cutting into it. Since the start of the 20th century, they have helped diagnose problems such as broken bones. MRI scans (from the 1970s) use magnets and radio waves to create an internal image of the body. They are better suited to diagnosing so tissue injuries, such as ligament damage, than using x-rays. CT scans (from the 1970s) are a more advanced form of x-rays. They can be used to diagnose tumours and other growths in the body. Ultrasound scans (from the 1940s) (also known as sonograms) use sound waves to build up a picture of the inside of the body. They are helpful for diagnosing things like gall stones and kidney stones. ECGs (1900s) (short for electro cardiograms) use electrical impulses to track heart activity Blood sugar monitoring (from the 1960s) allows people who suffer from diabetes to check their blood sugar regularly to ensure they manage their condition

Cholera in Britain

Cholera did not arrive in Britain until 1831. It spread quickly across the country. Activity It arrived in London in February 1832 and there were 5,275 deaths in the city by the end of the year. Cholera mainly affected the poorest people. There were lots of cases in slum dwellings, as well as in workhouses, prisons and asylums caused diarrhoea and sickness that became so bad, the victim would become dehydrated*. It was usually fatal: sufferers would die between two and six days after falling sick.

Government legislation modern

Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968. They were triggered by bad episodes of smog in London in 1952 Caused by air pollution. era a time when everybody burned coal to heat their homes, there was a great deal of smoke and soot in the air, particularly in London, where a lot of people lived.

How did the government try to stop the spread of the Great Plague of 1665?

During the Great Plague, Charles II and his government ordered days of public prayer and fasting to allow people to confess their sins. This was because they believed that God could have sent the illness. The mayor of London also tried to prevent the spread with the following orders: Victims and their families were shut in their homes for 40 days and prevented from leaving so that they could not spread the illness by human contact. This was known as quarantine. Barrels of tar and bonfires were lit in the streets to clean the air. Around 40,000 dogs and 200,000 cats were slaughtered because people thought they were helping to spread the disease. Events that attracted large crowds, such as plays and games, were banned to prevent the illness spreading through human contact. However, these rules were difficult to enforce because there were very few authorities in London to check, and punish, the behaviour of individuals. This was before a police force was introduced in England. The mayor of London had to rely on people to follow his orders.

What was Koch's influence in Britain?

Enormous breakthrough in disease diagnosis. Instead of studying and treating symptoms, now studied disease itself. Realise microbe - symptom - disease, microbe needed to be removed. 1883 - microbe for diptheria found. mainly affected children, studying microbe scientists observed it produced poison. Scientists attacked directly, not just symptoms.

Name three Renaissance individuals

William Harvey Andreas Vesalius Thomas Sydenham

Why was William Harvey significant?

Harvey was very interested in how blood flowed around the body. Galen had taught that blood was made in the liver and then pumped around the body. However, Harvey proved that Galen's ideas were wrong. Harvey proved Vesalius' theory that the veins of the body contained valves. These valves enabled blood to flow through the veins towards the heart in one direction. Harvey tried to pump other liquids through the veins in the other direction, but this did not work. Harvey carried out a series of scientific experiments including: dissecting human corpses and carefully observing the heart dissecting cold-blooded animals, such as frogs, because they had a slower heartbeat and this enabled the movement of blood to be observed measuring blood flow to show that the same blood is pumped around the body repeatedly by the heart In 1628, Harvey published his discovery in a book called An Anatomical Account of the Motion of the Heart and Blood. This enabled doctors to learn from his discovery. Reasoned that nobody recovered from disease by simply knowing that the blood flowed to the heart. To many, it had no practical application. English medical textbooks continued to give Galen's account until 1651; Harvey's ideas only began to appear in universities from 1673.

Galen's strong influence

INFLUENCE OF CHURCH: - body work together in balance - believed in soul, Church believe created in God's image - promoted Galen's works - books produced in monasteries + libraries in Church, these texts were widely preached and believed in BOOK LEARNING: - many couldn't read, widely read was intelligent, good physician read many books, not treated lot patients LACK ALTERNATIVES: - lack scientific evidence for other theories - dissection illegal (church believe body need to be buried for ascension), occasional criminals, any contradictions explained as criminals were imperfect

Improved access to care modern

In c1900, most sick people were still cared for in the home by women. Doctors had to be paid and so were only used for serious illnesses. The situation improved slowly during the first half of the 20th century. In 1919, the government set up the Ministry of Health to help determine the level of health care across the country. There was rapid improvement in the availability of care outside the home from 1948 onwards. The NHS made medical services free at point of service. This gave everybody access to medical care and treatment. However, the introduction of the NHS made it clear, once and for all, that hospitals were just for treating the sick. In earlier periods, hospitals had been places for the elderly to rest. This change left a gap in services. Up until the end of the Second World War, elderly people with no family had often lived out the last days of their life in hospitals. This was no longer possible.

Why was James Simpson significant?

In the early 19th century, surgeons experimented with chemicals to find an effective anaesthetic: Laughing gas (nitrous oxide) was used but could not get rid of pain completely. Ether had side effects that irritated the eyes and lungs, causing coughing and sickness. A more effective anaesthetic was found in 1847 by James Simpson, a professor of midwifery at the University of Edinburgh. He wanted to find a better anaesthetic to ease the pain women experienced in childbirth. One evening he was experimenting at home with his colleagues by inhaling different chemicals. Simpson realised very quickly that chloroform was an effective anaesthetic. Simpson wrote about his discovery so that other surgeons could use it when operating. However, there was some opposition to the use of chloroform: Some surgeons preferred their patients to stay awake so that they could fight for their lives. Religious people believed God intended for humans to experience pain, especially in childbirth. Some people were worried when Hannah Greener died during an operation on her toenail after being given too much chloroform. In 1848, John Snow, who also discovered that cholera spread in dirty water, invented an inhaler to measure the dosage given. 1853 Queen Victoria administered during son birth The dose had to be carefully controlled, as it was easy to overdose a patient and kill them. • The chemical sometimes affected the heart, which caused some healthy and fit young people to die shortly after inhaling it.

Factors enabling the development of penicillin

Institutions. The US government agreed to fund Florey's research for five years. This enabled him to develop methods to mass produce the drug. Attitudes in society. There were no treatments for simple infections during the First World War. The need to find a solution to this problem became more important during the Second World War. Because of this, the clinical trials and evidence needed before the treatment was made available to the public was minimal. Science. Scientists were able to observe how penicillin attacked staphylococcus bacteria and this enabled them to modify it to attack other types of bacteria Individuals. Florey and Chain built on the work of Fleming. All three were actively looking for a chemical treatment for disease and illness. Florey also refused to patent the drug, saying that it should be available for everybody. This meant that developing it didn't cost as much money. Technology. The development of new ways of mass-producing and storing penicillin made the drug available in vast quantities.

How did technology enable Harvey's experiments?

It is believed that mechanical water pumps used by firefighters in the 17th century may have given Harvey the idea that blood is pumped around the body by the heart. These pumps had valves to help direct the flow of water. However, Harvey was unable to explain everything about the circulation of the blood. He was unable to explain how blood moves from the arteries to the veins. Harvey believed tiny passages carried the blood but that they were invisible to the naked eye. Soon after his death, this was proven by Marcello Malpighi, who used one of the first effective microscopes. He discovered tiny blood vessels that carry blood from the arteries to the veins. We call these vessels capillaries. Microscopes were a key technological development in the Renaissance that transformed medical knowledge.

How did Robert Koch build on Pasteur's ideas?

Koch developed a new method of growing bacteria using agar jelly in a Petri dish. He then used a dye to stain the bacteria so that it could be seen clearly under a microscope. Using this method, he was able to identify individual bacteria. In 1876, Koch found the bacteria that cause anthrax. Then, in 1882, he identified the bacteria that cause tuberculosis (TB). His discovery of the bacteria that cause cholera followed shortly after, in 1883. in 1884 he proved that it was spread in water supplies when he found it in the drinking water in India, where a cholera epidemic had broken out. This also provided proof for John Snow's theory Koch's research inspired other scientists. Their work led to the discovery of further bacteria that cause diseases, such as diphtheria, pneumonia and meningitis. Koch's work greatly improved medicine in Britain, as doctors now understood that it was bacteria that caused the symptoms of disease, so it was the bacteria that needed to be removed. Koch's research inspired other scientists. Over the next two decades, they went on to discover the microbes responsible for other diseases, such as diphtheria, pneumonia, meningitis, the plague, tetanus and various other infections. Koch received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1905. He is considered to be the father of bacteriology* and his methods are still used when seeking out the microbes responsible for disease today

How did Pasteur build on Jenner's work on vaccines?

Koch's identification of bacteria did not make an immediate difference to the prevention of disease. This only happened when Pasteur took Koch's work even further by developing other vaccines. Pasteur had read about Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine, which had been developed in the late 18th century. Now that the individual bacteria for specific diseases had been identified, Pasteur began work on developing further vaccines for animals and humans. He knew that to prevent each disease, a weakened dose of the disease was needed to build immunity. Pasteur began developing animal vaccines for the diseases anthrax and chicken cholera. Then in 1885, he tested a human vaccine for rabies that saved a boy's life after he had been bitten by a dog. This was the first successful vaccine since Jenner's smallpox vaccine.

Why did the 1875 Public Health Act get passed?

Louis Pasteur had proven that there was a link between dirt and disease with his germ theory. Once the scientific cause of disease and illness had been proven, people were more willing to pay taxes that would fund better living conditions. In 1867, working men were given the right to vote. Political parties needed their support if they were going to win elections, so addressing problems in the cities was important to attract supporters.

Lung cancer stats

Lung cancer is the second most common cancer in the UK. It mainly affects people over the age of 40, with diagnoses being highest among people aged 70-74 85% of cases are people who smoke, or have smoked. 18c 1% of all cancers they found at autopsy were caused by lung tumours. However, by 1918, that had increased to 10%, and by 1927 it was more than 14%. In 1950, the British Medical Research Council published a study that showed conclusively that the rise in lung cancer was linked to cigarette smoking peaked in 1973 when nearly 26,000 deaths occurred due to lung cancer. The death rate among women also continued to rise until the 1990s

Medical care: impact of the NHS Phase two: High-tech medical and surgical treatments in hospitals

Medical treatments Advanced x-rays Doctors can now also use x-rays to target and shrink tumours growing inside the body, using a treatment known as radiotherapy. Combined with chemotherapy, this is an effective treatment for many types of cancer. Smaller, cheaper machines Processes like dialysis, where the blood of patients with kidney failure is 'washed' by a machine, and heart bypasses, where a machine performs the functions of the heart, have become more widely available as machines have become smaller and more portable. Robotics Better prosthetic limbs are now produced. This is partly in response to the number of soldiers surviving bomb attacks in recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Surgical treatments Microsurgery The first successful kidney transplant was performed between identical twins in the USA in 1956. This paved the way for transplants of other organs, including lungs (from 1963), and livers and hearts (from 1967). These were made possible by improved surgical techniques, including the use of microsurgery to reattach tiny nerve endings and blood vessels. Laparoscopic (keyhole) surgery Using tiny cameras and narrow surgical instruments, surgeons can now operate inside the body through tiny incisions some distance away from the area to be operated on. This allows for quicker healing and less trauma to the body. Robotic surgery Surgeons can now use computers to control instruments inside the body, allowing for more precise surgery with smaller cuts. Operations can be performed on a tiny scale where precision is of vital importance - for example, in brain surgery.

What periods do we study in the medicine paper?

Medieval England, c.1250-c.1500 - this period is sometimes referred to as the 'Middle Ages'. Renaissance England, c.1500-c.1700 - this period is sometimes referred to as 'Early Modern'; the Reformation - when the monarch took power away from the Church - happened during this period. The Industrial Revolution, c.1700-c.1900 - the second half of this period is sometimes referred to as the 'Victorian' period, after Queen Victoria, who reigned from 1837 to 1901. Modern Britain, c.1900-present - the very early 1900s are sometimes referred to as the 'Edwardian' period.

What were physicians?

Medieval physicians trained at a university for at least seven years. A good physician was considered to be one who had read many books, rather than one who had treated a lot of patients. Having read the works of Hippocrates and Galen was proof that a physician was worth the money he was being paid. A physician would diagnose a patient's illness and recommend treatment after close observation. Physicians were expensive and only the rich could afford to see them. The poor were treated by female family members or women within their community. Physicians were expected to have a good background in the liberal arts, such as philosophy, before studying medicine. During the Middle Ages, a lack of scientific understanding meant that new knowledge was limited. Physicians and medical students tried to make new discoveries fit into the old theories, rather than experimenting to explain the discoveries.

What did people believe caused disease in the medieval period?

Miasma, God, Four Humours, astrology

What impact did Vesalius have on medical knowledge?

Most famous anatomist of this period studied medicine in Paris, centre for new humanist ideas about medicine 1533. In 1543, Vesalius published the details of his dissections in a book called On the Fabric of the Human Body. Vesalius' discoveries led to an improved understanding of the human body. His book was used to train physicians across Europe, including in England. Doctors were encouraged to carry out dissections themselves and carefully observe the human body rather than relying on old books. Galen dissected animals instead of people. In all, Vesalius found around 300 mistakes in Galen's original work on anatomy As well as correcting these mistakes, Vesalius encouraged other doctors to base their work on dissection rather than believing old books. He had been able to carry out a large number of dissections, thanks to a local magistrate who allowed him to use the bodies of executed criminals. New ideas were starting to gain more support, although it would be a long time before this had an impact on everyday medical treatment.

How did family help to treat disease in the medieval period?

Most people in medieval England were treated by female family members, such as their wife or mother. Traditions and treatments were passed down from one family member to the next. Sometimes individual women would be viewed as particularly knowledgeable about treatments and remedies. They were known as 'wise women'. evidence from medieval sources suggests that only women attended births, apothecaries had knowledge passed on

What and when was 'Germ Theory'?

Pasteur's findings significantly challenged the idea of spontaneous generation and he published his germ theory in 1861. Microscopes improved even more, substances could be magnified to much higher levels. Could observe unwanted microbes in wine and vinegar. Pasteur argued that bacteria were the cause of disease, but he was not able to identify the specific bacteria that caused individual diseases. Pasteur's germ theory proved that bacteria were the cause of disease. Proved spontaneous generation was wrong, decay didn't happen to sterilised matter that was left undisturbed. Pasteur also theorised that, as germs were causing decay, they might also be causing disease in the human body. observed one particular type of microorganism killing off France's silkworm population, he did not publish this germ theory of infection until 1878.

What was the 'black period of surgery'?

With pain relief now available during surgery, some surgeons carried out longer and more complex operations. However, this could have a negative impact. When procedures were longer and more complicated, infections could develop deeper within the body and there could be more blood loss. The number of deaths from surgery may have increased between the 1850s and 1870s. This is known as the 'black period' of surgery.

How did Nightingale impact British hospitals?

On her return to Britain, Nightingale continued to improve the care given in hospitals and the training of nurses: She wrote two books that influenced improvements across the world. These were Notes on Nursing (1859) and Notes on Hospitals (1863). She opened her first Nightingale School for Nurses in 1860. Nightingale had always believed that disease was caused by miasma. Therefore, she concentrated on keeping the wards and patients clean to remove the substances that would cause 'bad air'. She passed these ideas on to the nurses who trained in her schools. follow the pavilion plan. This meant they were built with improved ventilation, with more windows, larger rooms and separate isolation wards to stop diseases spreading

What was the name of Andreas Vesalius' book, and when was it published?

On the Fabric of the Human Body, 1543

What was surgery like in the early 19th century?

Operations were very dangerous in the early 19th century. Common surgeries included amputations and the removal of growths. Surgeons had to work quickly because these surgeries caused pain as there was no anaesthetic. Patients could die from shock and infections spread in the operating theatre.

What was the impact of 'Germ Theory' (1861)?

Pasteur's ideas were not accepted in Britain straight away and many people continued to believe in the idea of spontaneous generation until 1870s. Promoted by Dr Henry Bastian, powerful and well-respected. However, there were some scientists who continued to research the link between bacteria and disease. Joseph Lister, a surgeon, read Pasteur's ideas and began to make links between bacteria and infection in surgery. However, Lister faced challenges proving his ideas. Microscopes had become more advanced and it was possible to see bacteria using them. However, it was difficult to separate the bacteria that were causing infection from those already present. In the gut scientists saw hundreds of microbes, even in healthy ones. promoted the link between microbes and disease was John Tyndall. He had discovered that there were small organic* particles in the air. In January 1870, he gave a lecture, linking his discovery with Pasteur's germ theory and Lister's work on wound infection. Tyndall theorised that dust particles carried the germs that caused disease. Tyndall was physicist not doctor

What was prevention like in the Renaissance?

People still believed that there were many factors that could prevent disease, including superstitions and prayer... ...but people also started to believe that other things could help avoid disease, such as practising moderation and your condition at birth. Cleanliness was still very important... ...but bathing had become a lot less fashionable in England since the arrival of syphilis. People now kept clean by changing their clothes more often. People continued to practise regimen sanitatis... ...but, by the end of the 17th century, people also began to think that disease was also related to other factors (for example, the weather). Miasma was still believed in... ...but more steps were now taken to remove miasma from the air (for example, removing sewage and picking up rubbish from the streets).

What was the name of the Royal Society's journal, and when was it first published?

Philosophical Transactions, 1665

How did people try to prevent the Great Plague of 1665?

Prayer and repentance • Quarantine anybody who had the plague. • Carrying a pomander was a way to drive away miasma. A pomander was a ball containing perfumed substances. • Various diets were suggested, from eating almost nothing (fasting) to eating a diet heavy with garlic and sage fried in butter. • Plague doctors wore special costumes to avoid catching the plague from their patients. They had hooked, birdlike masks, with sweet-smelling herbs to ward off the miasma. Birds were meant to attract disease, so it was thought that the disease might be attracted to the bird shape and leave the patient. More practically, the physician's cloak would be treated with wax to make sure that none of the pus or blood from the patient soaked into it.

What were the causes of the Black Death?

RELIGIOUS AND SUPERNATURAL: - god deserting mankind, punishing sin - 1345 unusual positioning of planets mars, jupiter and saturn, sign of something great or terrible NATURAL: - miasma caused corruption to body's humours - poisonous fumes released by earthquake or volcano COMMON BELIEFS: - many conflicting beliefs - in europe many blamed jewish, had been expelled from england in 13c

How did technological developments enable medical progress in the medieval period?

Rapid developments in technology led to huge advances in the diagnosis and treatment of disease and illness after c.1900. Medicines such as magic bullets and antibiotics can now be mass produced to destroy disease and infection inside the human body. Machines became more commonly used in hospitals. For example, X-ray machines, CT scans and heart rate monitors enable quick and accurate diagnosis and monitoring of illness.

What does the term 'Renaissance' mean?

Renaissance is a French word that means 'rebirth'. Historians use this term to describe the new types of thinking that started to be explored across Europe in the 15th century and beyond. In England, the period from c.1500 to c.1700 is known as 'the medical Renaissance' because it was a period of new learning, ideas and approaches to medicine.

What were two features of the underground hospital at Arras?

Rooms were created off the tunnels and were fitted with running water, electricity supplies this created accommodations for soldiers to live and sleep in, and there was a hospital large enough for 700 beds and operating theatres.

How was the Black Death treated?

SUPERNATURAL: - confess sins, ask god for forgiveness through prayer, believed once caught it was god's will to die NATURAL: - tried correcting humoural imbalance, seemed to die quicker - strong smelling herbs (aloe, myrrh), theriaca -light fire and boiling vinegar to drive off bad air - lanced buboes, sometimes survived COMMON: - willing to try anything -strong christian beliefs, confession and pray - realised priests nor physicians could cure the disease

What were magic bullets?

Salvarsan 606 - the first magic bullet A magic bullet is a chemical treatment that kills specific bacteria inside the body without harming the body. Salvarsan 606 was able to kill the bacteria that cause syphilis and was created by Paul Ehrlich Prontosil Prontosil was used as a cure for puerperal fever at Queen Charlotte's maternity hospital in London. The death rate for puerperal fever dropped from 20% to 4.7%. Chemicals to work in same way of antibodies The fi rst big breakthrough Syphilis continued to be a problem throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, and treatment of it had not really improved since mercury treatments of the 16th century. There had been some success with arsenic compounds*. Hard to find form of arsenic that attacked the disease and not the body, as arsenic is poisonous.

What was the theory of 'Spontaneous Generation'?

Some people still believed in the harmful effects of miasma, or 'bad air', even in the 18th century. However, this theory was rapidly becoming less convincing. Instead, scientists developed the theory of spontaneous generation. Improved microscopes meant that scientists could see microbes. Scientists observed that microbes appeared on things that had started to rot and believed that they were the product of decay. The theory of spontaneous generation was that decaying matter, things that had started to rot, created microbes.

How were apothecaries used in the medieval period?

Sometimes, people in the community would visit an apothecary when they required a treatment for illness - though this cost money. Similarly to wise women, apothecaries mixed together the ingredients for herbal treatments as described above. They did this for physicians and they also mixed their own herbal treatments, which they sold to the sick. Apothecaries learned how to mix these treatments from other apothecaries or passed down by family. They had a good knowledge of the healing power of herbs and plants thanks to studying herbal manuals such as Materia Medica Not considered as skilled or knowledgeable

Why was Joseph Lister significant?

Surgeons sometimes still wore dirty clothes to the operating theatre. Handwashing before operating was not always done because it was not known that bacteria caused infections in operations. Great progress came when antiseptics were discovered in 1867 by a surgeon called Joseph Lister. Lister knew about Pasteur's germ theory and 1865, he operated on a patient with a broken leg and added a bandage soaked in carbolic acid. The wound healed cleanly. Lister recommended that: doctors and nurses should wash their hands in carbolic acid before an operation bandages and ligatures should be soaked in carbolic acid a carbolic spray should be used to clean the area of an operation Lister used these methods and the death rate in his operations fell from 46% to 15%.

What impact did Thomas Sydenham have on medical knowledge?

Sydenham believed that to diagnose a patient's illness, a doctor needed to closely observe the symptoms and treat the disease that was causing them. He refused to rely solely on medical books. Contrary to the theory of the four humours, Sydenham did not believe that a disease was different from person to person. He encouraged his students to: - observe a patient carefully - record a description of their symptoms - prescribe a remedy that would treat the disease Sydenham became known as the 'English Hippocrates' because of how important he believed it was for doctors to observe their patients. He believed that each disease was different and that doctors needed to identify the exact disease before recommending a cure. He was able to identify that scarlet fever and measles (both very dangerous diseases at the time) were different. Sydenham published his ideas about disease in a book called Observationes Medicae (Medical Observations) in 1676. His work led to a more scientific approach to medicine after the 18th century. Sydenham was not able to isolate and identify the various microorganisms that caused the diseases that he was observing. However, he was able to identify that measles and scarlet fever were separate diseases. Thomas Sydenham popularised the use of cinchona bark, from Peru, in treating malaria.

How did the Humanism movement help medical progress?

The Renaissance saw an increase in new learning and ways of thinking. The Church had less power to tell people what they should think. Humanism was a new way of thinking. It recognised the importance of the individual in discovering the truth around them. Humanist ideas represented a challenge to the old ideas and encouraged experimentation to find the truth. They rejected the religious idea that God controlled everything. Returned to the original texts of ancient scholars such as Galen and Hippocrates. New translations of the works of Hippocrates and Galen started to appear. During the 16th century, 590 editions of Galen's writings were published New ideas were starting to gain more support, although it would be a long time before this had an impact on everyday medical treatment.

How did the Royal Society help medical progress?

The Royal Society was founded in 1660 in London to support scientists in carrying out experiments, debating new ideas and sharing new discoveries, explain world in secular terms. The Royal Society was supported by Charles II royal charter 1662, which increased the popularity and credibility of the organisation. In 1665, the society began to issue its scientific journal (Philosophical Transactions). It was the world's first scientific journal, and it continues to be published today, celebrating its 350th anniversary in 2015.

What did the 1848 Public Health Act do?

The aim of the first Public Health Act was to improve the sanitary condition of towns in England and Wales by encouraging cities to set up boards of health and provide clean water supplies. However, it was not compulsory, so did not have much impact on the health of the people. It was not until 1875 that rules were put in place to improve sanitary conditions that were compulsory - they had to be followed.

What was the Theory of the Four Humours?

The belief that our body consisted of four substances: yellow bile, black bile, phlegm and blood - Illness occurred when one of the humours were in excess, reduced in amount, or entirely missing from the body. This was created by Hippocrates and build upon by Galen.

The development of antibiotics

The first true antibiotic was penicillin. Penicillin was different to Salvarsan 606 and Prontosil as it was created using microorganisms, not chemicals. Penicillin was isolated from a mould sample by Alexander Fleming in 1928 and developed into a usable treatment by Florey and Chain in 1940 Other scientists investigated moulds and fungi in the search for more antibiotics. Streptomycin was discovered by American scientist Selman Wakston in 1943. This antibiotic was so powerful that it was even effective against tuberculosis, which had previously been thought to be incurable. During the 1950s and 1960s, even more antibiotics were discovered. Some have developed resistance, some old antibiotics will become totally ineffective against diseases that we think we have beaten, such as septicaemia (blood poisoning). short term, antibiotics have been a miracle cure for a variety of diseases. However, their long-term impact has yet to be measured.

Preventing disease modern

The government now took responsibility for providing clean water and removing waste. laissez-faire attitude gone. The public understood the importance of these factors, due to the development of Germ Theory. Increased understanding of cause • Compulsory vaccinations: inspired by the positive impact of the smallpox vaccination, other campaigns were launched in the 20th century. • Passing laws to provide a healthy environment: these include the Clean Air Acts (see page 114) and adding the chemical fluoride to the water supply to help prevent tooth decay. • Communicating health risks: lifestyle campaigns help people to identify and tackle health risks. During times of global epidemics, such as during the 2014- 15 outbreak of ebola in West Africa, the government tracked travellers from affected regions and put quarantine measures in place to stop the spread of disease. Communicating risks to the population has become key in preventing disease.

How did people use miasma theory to prevent disease in the medieval period?

The miasma theory indicated that unclean air could make people unwell. People tried to prevent disease and illness by cleaning the streets to make sure the air was clean. People would also try to prevent breathing in bad air by: carrying posies - bunches of sweet-smelling herbs and flowers lighting fires to drive away any bad air and sometimes burning herbs or substances to 'clean' the air ringing bells or allowing birds to fly around the house to keep the air moving Medieval towns, especially in late medieval England, worked hard to keep their streets clean. They did this by: employing rakers to keep the streets clean punishing people if they threw waste onto the streets - waste was not just everyday rubbish, as it could include human excrement as well making butchers dispose of their waste outside the city walls building public latrines

How were herbal treatments used in the medieval period?

The most common treatments were made from herbs, minerals, plants and animal parts (e.g. aloe vera, mint, camomile) popular herbal manual was the Circa Instans. Published in the 12th century, contained instructions on how to mix the ingredients and specified prayers to be said at the same time. There were successful herbal treatments for infection that included honey, which we still use today. Linseed was used as a laxative and is also still used today for this purpose. Mostly apothecaries

National vaccine campaigns

The national vaccination campaign against diphtheria was launched in 1942 - the first of its kind. Before this, local governments were responsible for vaccination campaigns that were not funded by the central government, which meant they were not widespread. Around 3,000 children died each year of diphtheria. During the Second World War, the government put a national campaign in place to immunise all children against diphtheria. There were fears that the cramped conditions of air-raid shelters during the war might lead to an epidemic. Because of this, infection rates plummeted. By the middle of the century, diphtheria was eradicated 1950s 8k cases polio every year Britain. 1956 vaccination introduced Britain by American Salk. More effective vaccinations 1962. Numbers drop quickly. last case in UK was 1984 MMR for pregnant. HPV can lead to other diseases

What were hospitals like in the medieval period?

The number of hospitals increased during the medieval period (1100 by 1500). Most of the hospitals in England were owned and run by the Church - for example, they were often linked to monasteries or convents. Some were paid for by wealthy people (endowment) when they died - often in exchange for a promise that their soul would go the heaven. This indicates the importance of religious belief. Hospitals did not always treat the sick but cared for them through prayer and by providing an environment where they could rest and recover. The patients were cared for by monks and nuns. Hospitals also offered a place to stay for travellers and those on pilgrimage. Hospitals were kept clean, and the monks and nuns were tasked with ensuring that the bedding was changed and washed regularly. The patients were allowed to take part in church services from their beds. One of the most famous medieval hospitals was St Bartholomew's in London, which is still taking care of patients today. By 1500, there were an estimated 1,100 hospitals, ranging in size from just a few beds to hundreds

How did the government build on Jenner's work?

The wide use of the smallpox vaccine led to a fall in deaths. In 1852, the government made the vaccine compulsory. After 1872, this was strictly enforced. People were fined for not having their children vaccinated. The result of government involvement was a rapid fall in deaths from smallpox. In 1980 the World Health Organisation announced that smallpox had been completely wiped out.

How did the printing press (1440) help medical progress?

The world's first printing press was invented in 1440, Johannes Gutenberg. As a result, books could be printed, rather than written out by hand. As it was now easier to create books, more of them appeared, and more people could access them. This meant that new ideas could be spread more easily. The invention of the printing press also meant that the Church no longer had control over what was written in books. Therefore, it could not control medical education. Physicians and scientists were now able to publish ideas that challenged people like Galen. by 1500, 1000 printing presses were in operation throughout Western Europe and had produced 8 million books

Why was the opposition to Jenner's work?

There was a lot of opposition to the smallpox vaccine: Some doctors opposed it because they were making a lot of money from inoculation and didn't want to lose that income. The Church did not like the idea of using a disease from cows in human medicine. The Royal Society refused to publish Jenner's ideas because of this opposition.

Which beliefs stayed the same in the Renaissance period?

There was much continuity during these centuries regarding popular beliefs about the causes of disease and illness. For most people, the methods of diagnosis, the prevention of disease and treatments for those who were sick remained very similar. Many people still believed that disease and illness were caused by: an imbalance of the four humours - the theory of the four humours had been discredited by c.1700, but most people still believed in the idea bad air, or miasma. were more curious about world, new ideas about disease cause

What was treatment like in the Renaissance?

There was very little change in the ways illness was treated during the Renaissance: Bloodletting and purging were still common treatments used to balance the four humours. Herbal remedies were still used. An increase in travel brought new ingredients to England, such as rhubarb and tobacco, that were used to treat the sick. Superstition and religious beliefs remained. A new popular theory in this period was the idea of transference - which meant that an illness or a disease could be transferred to something else. For example, people believed that if you rubbed an object on an ailment (such as a boil), the disease would transfer from you to the object. New remedies that started to appear included sarsaparilla from the New World, used to treat the Great Pox, and ipecacuanha from Brazil, later known just as ipecac, which was effective as a cure for dysentery The growth of alchemy, foundations for the modern science of chemistry. look for chemical cures for diseases instead of relying on herbs and bloodletting. This new science was known as iatrochemistry, or medical chemistry, and it was extremely popular in the 17th century. Inspired by Paracelsus, experimented with chemical treatments, medical chemists experimented with metals as cures for common ailments. The Pharmacopoeia Londinensis, published by the College of Physicians in 1618 as a manual of remedies, included a chapter on salts, metals and minerals. Among its 2,140 remedies were 122 different chemical preparations, including mercury and antimony.

Smallpox in 18th-century Britain

There were nationwide epidemics in 1722, 1723 and 1740-42. The problem was particularly bad in London, where there were 11 epidemics in the 18th century. The worst of these occurred in 1796, when 3,548 people died. By this time, the population of the city was approaching one million, so the disease spread quickly and easily from person to person. Some attempt innoculation

How did the government enable progress in the Industrial Period?

Throughout most of the 18th and 19th centuries, the government adopted a laissez-faire approach to medicine. This means people thought it was not the government's role to interfere in everyday life. However, by the late 19th century this began to change. People began to accept that it was part of the government's role to look after the health of its people. From this point on, the national government began to pass legislation to force local authorities to improve living conditions and prevent the spread of disease and illness.

How did the government enable medical progress in the modern period?

Throughout the 20th century, the role of the government in medicine changed. By c.1900, the British government no longer had a laissez-faire approach to health. Throughout the 20th century, the government increased its involvement. It is now widely accepted that the government's role is to fund medical research and treatment, pass legislation to help prevent disease and illness, and educate people about dangers to their health. This can be seen in the government's response to the increase in deaths from lung cancer over the past 50 years. Scotland was the first of the four UK nations to ban smoking in public places, through legislation passed in 2006. England, Northern Ireland and Wales followed in 2007. Across the UK, the administrations have supported advertising campaigns to educate the British people about the dangers of smoking.

How did people try to treat the Great Plague in 1665?

Treatments for the plague were also very similar to those used during the Black Death. These included: prayers for the sick wearing of magical or religious charms herbal remedies such as posies (bunches of sweet-smelling flowers and herbs) bloodletting and purging transference - trapping a live chicken to a bubo, or lancing it with a feather plucked from a live chicken

What were three common illnesses caused by the trench environment?

Trench foot (caused by wet conditions) Trench fever (caused by lice) Shell shock (caused by shelling and stress of war)

How did an understanding of lifestyle factors enable medical progress in the modern period?

Understanding that our lifestyle has an impact on our health is not new. Doctors in medieval England advised rest, exercise and a good diet to remain healthy. However, since c.1900 there has been a greater understanding of how our lifestyle choices affect our health. Research has shown how specific aspects of our lifestyle cause health problems and illnesses. The following aspects of our lifestyle can lead to some forms of cancer, heart disease and mental health problems: - poor diet - lack of -exercise - smoking - drinking - alcohol - stress

The impact of science and technology on advances in medicines modern

developed medicines that pinpoint and treat specific diseases. even if some can't treat only manage illness. o identify the causes of disease in most cases, because they know what they are looking for - for example, a microbe, a tumour or an unusual gene. change from 19c Better testing and trialling of treatments, before mistakes were made e.g. drug thalidomide in the 1960s to treat pregnant women suffering from morning sickness. The drug caused birth defects. Now takes several years. • Mass production of pills has made the distribution of drugs much easier. • The development of capsules, which dissolve in the stomach to release the drug, means taking drugs to treat disease is easier. • Hypodermic needles allow the precise dose to be introduced directly into the bloodstream. • Insulin pumps for young people suffering from diabetes deliver insulin without the need for injections.

Uses of penicilin

effective in treating diseases caused by a certain family of bacteria, also prevent infection, particularly with patients who have had teeth extracted some bacteria are now resistant to penicillin. Bacteria can mutate to resist attack from penicillin mould. The first penicillin-resistant strain of bacteria appeared in 1942. Pharmaceutical companies continue to work hard to develop new forms of penicillin and other antibiotics that will kill off the bacteria.

Long term impact smallpox vaccine

end of the 19th century, vaccination against smallpox had become normal number ppl saved showed method worked fell dramatically from 1872, when the government started to enforce compulsory vaccinations work inspired other scientists, like Pasteur and Koch, to search for vaccinations for other diseases. However, there were no other vaccinations discovered that worked in the same way scientists were unable to develop other vaccines based on Jenner's method

Why was John Snow significant?

gave Queen Victoria chloroform during the birth of Prince Leopold in 1853 When a cholera epidemic broke out in 1854, John Snow decided to investigate. His surgery was near Broad Street in central London, and hundreds of people around the area had died from cholera within ten days. Snow plotted each death on a map and proved that the people who had died all lived close to a specific water pump. He knew people used the water from the pump for drinking, washing and cooking. The handle was removed from the water pump so that it could not be used. As a result, there were no new cases of cholera or deaths from it in the area. Snow later discovered that a cesspit close to the pump had been leaking waste into the pump's water supply By carrying out this experiment, Snow was able to prove that dirty water was causing the spread of cholera. However, many people continued to believe that disease was spread by bad air. This did not change until Louis Pasteur discovered bacteria. Snow had been correct, but he had not known that it was bacteria in the water that was spreading cholera. 1848-49. He wrote up his theories in On the Mode of Communication of Cholera new sewer system took 20 years to be completed (and was not a direct response to Snow's findings).

Medical care: impact of the NHS Phase one: Improved access to care

launched 1948 by govt aim was to provide medical care to whole population workers earning under a certain amount were already entitled to medical care through the 1911 National Insurance Act. However, this did not extend to women who were at home raising their families. After 1948, women were able to get treatment for painful conditions like varicose veins, which might previously have been left untreated. Similarly, children could be treated for minor problems before there was any lasting damage. The government was now responsible for 1,143 voluntary hospitals and 1,545 city hospitals, which was a huge undertaking. Many of the hospitals had been built in the 19th century and desperately needed updating. There were also more hospitals in London and the South East than there were across the rest of the country. 1966, a GP's charter was introduced, which encouraged GPs to work in group practices and gave them incentives to keep up with medical developments