Medieval Europe and the Renaissance
Il Gesu (including Triumph of the Name of Jesus Fresco)
Artist: Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 16th c Patron: Original Location: Material: Brick, marble, stucco, fresco Technique/Style: Subject: Historical Context/Analysis:
Palazzo Rucellai
Artist: Alberti Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1450 Patron: Rucellai family Original Location: Florence, Italy Material: Stone Technique/Style: Stone masonry, post lintel, cross-hatched Subject: Living space Historical Context/Analysis: In 1446, Alberti, whose texts On Painting and On Architecture established the guidelines for the creation of paintings and buildings that would be followed for centuries, designed the first quintessentially Renaissance building: the Palazzo Rucellai. Alberti constructed the façade of the Palazzo over a period of five years for the Rucellais, a wealthy merchant family. Like traditional Florentine palazzi, the façade is divided into three tiers. But Alberti divided these with the horizontal entablatures, the horizontal space above columns, that run across the facade. The first tier grounds the building, giving it a sense of strength. This is achieved by the use of cross-hatched stone that runs across the bottom of the building, as well as large stone blocks, square windows, and portals of post and lintel construction in place of arches. The horizontality of this façade is called "trabeated" architecture, which Alberti thought was most fitting for the homes of nobility. Each tier also decreases in height from the bottom to top. On each tier, Alberti used pilasters, or flattened engaged columns, to visually support the entablature. On the first tier, they are of the Tuscan order, on the second tier they are of the Ionic order, and on the third they are Corinthian. The building is also wrapped by benches that served to provide rest for weary visitors to Florence. The Palazzo Rucellai actually had four floors: the first was where the family conducted their business; the second floor was where they received guests; the third floor contained the family's private apartments; and a hidden fourth floor was where the servants lived. In addition to the façade, Alberti may have also designed an adjacent loggia, a covered colonnaded space, where festivities were held. It may have been specifically built for an extravagant wedding that joined the Rucellai and Medici families. It repeats the motif of the pilasters and arches found on the top two tiers of the palazzo.
Adam and Eve
Artist: Albrecht Dürer Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1504 Patron: N/A Original Location: Germany Material: Technique/Style: Engraving Subject: Adam and Eve Historical Context/Analysis: In this image, Adam and Eve stand together in a dense, dark forest. This forest is distinctly German with the dark woods of the devils. Foreign and unexpected motifs intrude into this German wood. Despite the chill of the forest, the two human figures appear nude. Their bodies are frontal, and they stand in a classical contrapposto. Despite this apparent naturalism, their heads are turned to the side as they gaze at one another. This twisting configuration of head and body is distinctly artificial. The naturalizing contrapposto clashing with the artificiality of the rest of the pose establishes a pattern of contradictions that run throughout the picture. A seemingly astutely observed tree becomes distinctly odd, as we recognize that Eve is plucking an apple from a tree with fig leaves. A parrot, a tropical bird, perches on a branch to the viewer's left. Colorful, tropical parrots were collectors items in Germany. The call of the parrot was believed to sound like Ave Maria, the name of a prayer in honor of Mary. Six other animals that also bear symbolic meanings are depicted. The elk, ox, rabbit, and cat exemplify the four humors or human personality types, all of which correlate with specific fluids in the body. Additionally, the small sign hanging from the branch identifies the artist as German, but does so in Latin, the language of the Mediterranean. The picture tells us primarily about the Renaissance, about Germany, and about the artist himself rather than the text of Genesis. The poses of the two human figures are contrived to show off this German artist's knowledge of classical proportions.
Birth of Venus
Artist: Botticelli Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1484-1486 Patron: Medici Family Original Location: Italy Material: Tempera on canvas Technique/Style: Realism, stylized Subject: Venus, Zephyrs Historical Context/Analysis: While artists in the 15th century started to bring back the heroic male nude (in a Biblical context), this image is not only female, but pagan. It depicts Venus, the goddess of love, which references ancient Greece and Rome. Nudity in Christian art was often an expression of something traumatic. This painting is one of the first almost life size depictions of the female nude that is fully mythological in subject matter. She covers her body in a similar way to Eve after being expelled from the Garden of Eden. However, Venus is still considered to be modest because she floats on a seashell, indicating that she was just born from the sea. She is blown by the Zephyrs, or winds. All of the figures show anatomical accuracy and realism. However, because other aspects of the painting, such as the ocean, are highly stylized, the canvas feels flat. Additionally, the figures appear weightless, which is not realistic.
Hunters in the Snow
Artist: Bruegel the Elder Period/Style: Northern Renaissance Date: 1565 Patron: Wealthy banker Original Location: Material: Oil on wood Technique/Style: Subject: Peasants Historical Context/Analysis: This painting, usually interpreted as a genre scene (an image of daily life), features a snow-covered landscape that recedes to a row of jagged mountains in the distance, all under a blue-grey sky. In the lower left corner a trio of hunters and their pack of dogs return from a hunt. Beside them is an inn, and its rust-colored bricks and the yellow fire in front of it contrast the whites, grays, and blues that dominate the painting. There are three large trees in the foreground and a few crows keep watch over the scene. The extensive middleground and background, rendered in detail, depicts the natural and manmade world: a person carrying a load of sticks over a bridge, figures ice skating on a frozen pond, the snow-covered roofs of houses, and tiny bare trees. Yet this is not at all an image from reality: there is no such landscape in the Netherlands, which is mostly flat. Rather, Bruegel combined images from his surroundings, the inns and farmhouses and frozen ponds of Northern Europe, with a chain of jagged mountains reminiscent of the Alps. The painting is a carefully constructed scene. Bruegel focus on creating an idealized peasant scene to make the patron feel better.
Pazzi Chapel Basilica di Santa Croce
Artist: Brunelleschi Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1429-1461 Patron: N/A Original Location: Florence, Italy Material: Terracotta Technique/Style: Masonry Subject: Basilica Historical Context/Analysis: The Pazzi Chapel contains a room that was originally used as a chapter house, or meeting room for the monks of Santa Croce. Rectangles, squares, circles, and semicircles all play an important role in the Chapel and demonstrate the belief of beauty and perfection in geometry at the time. Brunelleschi borrows this idea, amongst others, from the ancient Greek and Romans. This basilica includes fluted pilasters, long walls, and a hemispherical dome with an oculus in the center, allowing light to enter. There are barrel vaults on either side of the dome.
Pazzi Chapel. Basilica di Santa Croce
Artist: Brunelleschi Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1429-1461 Patron: N/A Original Location: Florence, Italy Material: Terracotta Technique/Style: Masonry Subject: Basilica Historical Context/Analysis: The Pazzi Chapel contains a room that was originally used as a chapter house, or meeting room for the monks of Santa Croce. Rectangles, squares, circles, and semicircles all play an important role in the Chapel and demonstrate the belief of beauty and perfection in geometry at the time. Brunelleschi borrows this idea, amongst others, from the ancient Greek and Romans. This basilica includes fluted pilasters, long walls, and a hemispherical dome with an oculus in the center, allowing light to enter. There are barrel vaults on either side of the dome.
David
Artist: Donatello Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1440-1460 Patron: N/A Original Location: Italy Material: Bronze Technique/Style: Contrapposto, bronze casting, free standing Subject: David Historical Context/Analysis: The David statue references the story of David and Goliath from the Bible, when David defeats the giant Goliath with God's help. Many sculptors in Florence wanted to create David statues because the city, like David, was the underdog. Florence withstood repeated attacks from Milan and, thanks to God's favor, was victorious. This David statue was placed in the courtyard of the Medici Palace in Florence, a very private and intimate setting. This intimacy is a result of both the nudity and the emotional experience Donatello renders through the face and the stance of the body. He thoughtful, quiet, and has a contemplative face. He holds the sword that he used to cut off Goliath's head, which is seen below, resting on a victory wreath. The gruesome head contradicts the sensuality and beauty of the young David. Donatello revived both the classical knowledge of contrapposto, as well as large-scale bronze casting. Donatello, after a thousand years, reclaims the ancient Greek and Roman interest in the nude human body. Donatello's figure of David is almost too sensuous for the subject being represented and in some ways isn't really a Biblical representation at all. The feather from Goliath's helmet goes all the way up David's leg, leading the viewer's eyes to his pubic region.
Madonna and Child with Two Angels
Artist: Fra Filippo Lippi Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1465 Patron: N/A Original Location: Italy Material: Tempera on wood Technique/Style: Humanistic Subject: Mary, Jesus, angels Historical Context/Analysis: This portrayal of Mary and Jesus is very realistic and humanistic. Both Jesus and the angels look like real children, as opposed to Medieval art. The angel in the foregound supports Jesus and looks to the viewer with a playful smile. Mary and Jesus' haloes are just simple circles that can barely be seen. The obvious symbols of divinity and holiness begin to disappear as artists sought to create images of Mary and Christ that felt earthly and real. The frame of the window becomes the frame of the canvas, as if to suggest that the viewer looks out the same window as Mary and Jesus. Additionally, the landscape behind her is rendered with atmospheric perspective and looks very real.
Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel
Artist: Giotto Period/Style: Late Medieval/Proto-Renaissance Date: 1300 Patron: Enrico Scrovegni Original Location: Italy Material: Fresco Technique/Style: Subject: Mary, Jesus, Scrovegni, others Historical Context/Analysis: Giotto is the first artist to take a big step away from the Medieval style of spiritual representation in painting in the early 14th century. The chapel was commissioned by a wealthy man named Enrico Scrovegni, the son of a well-known banker, and was a banker himself. According to the Church, usury (charging interest for a loan) was a sin, so Enrico may have been motivated to build the chapel to atone for this sin. The chapel is known as the Arena Chapel since it is on the site of an ancient Roman arena. Commissioning works of art for churches was a common way of doing "good works" that could help you earn your way into Heaven. Enrico himself is in the fresco of the Last Judgment on the west wall of the Arena Chapel; he is shown on the side of the blessed (those whom Christ has chosen to go to Heaven). He is depicted kneeling, presenting the chapel to the Virgin Mary. there are numerous separate images in the chapel. The frescoes tell the story of the lives of Mary (beginning with her parents) and Christ on the long walls. By the altar, Giotto painted the Annunciation, and at the other end, on the entrance wall, the Last Judgment. Giotto tells the story of Christ and his parents through pictures. Most of the population of Europe was illiterate at this time and so couldn't read the bible for themselves, and even then Bibles were rare and expensive. People learned the stories of the Bible, stories that would help them get to heaven, by hearing the words of the priest in the church, and by looking at paintings and sculptures, such as these.
Entombment of Christ
Artist: Jacopo da Pontorma Period/Style: Early mannerist Date: 1525-1528 Patron: Original Location: Material: Oil on wood Technique/Style: Subject: Historical Context/Analysis:
Arnolfini Portrait
Artist: Jan van Eyck Period/Style: Northern Renaissance Date: 1434 Patron: Arnolfini Original Location: Northern Europe Material: Oil on wood Technique/Style: Subject: Arnolfini and wife Historical Context/Analysis: Although the actual purpose of this double portrait is unknown, many speculate that it is a wedding portrait. The man was an Italian merchant and the painting largely depicts his wealth. The couple has removed their shoes, which is often a reference to a sacred event taking place. The single candle in the chandelier is a symbol of the presence of god. There are two people in the doorway, which can only be seen in the mirror on the back wall. Above this mirror, the artist signed his name, showing the increasing importance of the artist in the Renaissance. The frame of the mirror is decorated with scenes from the Passion of Christ. The dog is a symbol of fidelity and loyalty, so he stands between the couple. The oranges on the window sill purely indicate the couple's wealth, as oranges were still a rare fruit in northern Europe at the time. The carpet on the floor is also a symbol of taste and wealth. Their clothing, the fur, lace, and other materials, is quite lavish and also shows their wealth. The artist pays great attention to the light from the window and creates a kind of luminous quality. The lack of interest in human anatomy and the rational, prospectively correct space indicates that this piece was part of the northern Renaissance.
Last Supper
Artist: Leonardo da Vinci Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1494-1498 Patron: Wealthy Family Original Location: Italy Material: Fresco Technique/Style: Linear perspective, one point perspective, orthogonals, realism Subject: Jesus and the apostles Historical Context/Analysis: In Italy in the 16th century, Rome became the center for art. Beauty was based on math, balance, and symmetry. The Last Supper was created for a monastic community. The three windows behind him symbolize the holy trinity. The subject is Christ's final meal, a Passover Seder, with his apostles before Judas identifies Christ to the authorities who arrest him. Christ says to his apostles "One of you will betray me," and the apostles react, each according to his own personality. Christ and Judas simultaneously reach toward a plate that lies between them, even as Judas defensively backs away. Leonardo also depicts Christ blessing the bread, the founding moment of the sacrament of the Eucharist. The painting is dense with symbolic references. For example, Judas Iscariot is recognized because he clutches a purse containing his reward for identifying Christ to the authorities the following day. Peter, who sits beside Judas, holds a knife in his right hand, foreshadowing that Peter will sever the ear of a soldier as he attempts to protect Christ from arrest. The balanced composition is anchored by an equilateral triangle formed by Christ's body. He sits below an arching pediment that if completed, traces a circle. These ideal geometric forms refer to the renaissance interest in Neo-Platonism, an element of the humanist revival that combines aspects of Greek philosophy with Christian theology. Plato emphasized the imperfection of the earthly realm. Leonardo uses geometry to celebrate Christ as the embodiment of heaven on earth. The landscape beyond the windows is often interpreted as paradise, and it has been suggested that this heavenly sanctuary can only be reached through Christ. The twelve apostles are arranged as four groups of three and there are also three windows. The number three is often a reference to the Holy Trinity in Catholic art. In contrast, the number four is important in the classical tradition. Additionally, Jesus is the focal point and he and the apostles are are all at the same level, except for Judas, who is below them.
Allegory of Law and Grace
Artist: Lucas Cranach the Elder Period/Style: Northern Renaissance Date: 1530 Patron: Original Location: Northern Europe Material: Oil on wood Technique/Style: Woodcut and letterpress Subject: Historical Context/Analysis: A major difference between Catholics and followers of Luther was the question of how to get to heaven, and what role, if any, religious art could play. The Catholic Church insisted that believers could take action to ensure their salvation by doing good deeds, including making financial donations and paying for elaborate art to decorate Christian churches. Luther, however, insisted that salvation was in God's hands, and all the believer had to do was to open up and have faith. As people became disillusioned with Catholic teaching, they grew angry about the ways the Catholic Church became rich in money, art, and power. When reform became impossible and rebellion the only course of action, frustrated believers directed their anger at works of art, an easy and powerful target. Luther believed that some religious art was acceptable provided it taught the right lessons. This painting explains Luther's ideas in visual form, most basically the notion that heaven is reached through faith and God's grace. Luther despised and rejected the Catholic idea that good deeds could play any role in salvation. Two nude male figures appear on either side of a tree that is green and living on the "Gospel" side to the viewer's right, but barren and dying on the "law" side to the viewer's left. Six columns of Bible citations appear at the bottom of the panel. On the the right side, John the Baptist directs a naked man to both Christ on the cross in front of the tomb and to the risen Christ who appears on top of the tomb. The risen Christ stands triumphant above the empty tomb, acting out the miracle of the Resurrection. This nude figure is stripped down to his soul, submitting to God's mercy. In the left foreground a skeleton and a demon force a frightened naked man into hell, as a group of prophets, including Moses, point to the tablets of the law. The motifs on the left side of the composition are meant to exemplify the idea that law alone, without gospel, can never get you to heaven. Christ sits in Judgment as Adam and Eve (in the background) eat the fruit and fall from grace. Moses beholds these events from his vantage point toward the center of the picture, his white tablets standing out against the saturated orange robe and the deep green tree behind him, literally highlighting the association of law, death, and damnation. Taken together, these motifs demonstrate that law leads inescapably to hell when mistaken for a path to salvation. The Law and the Gospel is concerned with two roles that God plays, to judge and to show mercy. On the one hand, God judges and condemns human sin; but on the other hand, God also shows mercy and forgiveness, granting unearned salvation to sinful believers.
Isenheim altarpiece
Artist: Matthias Grünewald Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1512-1516 Patron: Original Location: Germany Material: Oil on wood Technique/Style: Symmetrical, mathematical, gilded, carved Subject: Historical Context/Analysis: This enormous moveable altarpiece, essentially a box of statues covered by folding wings, was created to serve as the central object of devotion in a hospital built by the Brothers of St. Anthony. St. Anthony was a patron saint of those suffering from skin diseases. The pig who usually accompanies St. Anthony in art is a reference to the use of pork fat to heal skin infections. At the hospital, monks devoted themselves to the care of sick and dying peasants. Sculpted wooden altars were popular in Germany at the time. At the heart of the altarpiece, there is a carved and gilded group of three saints: St. Anthony flanked by standing figures of St. Jerome and St. Augustine. Below, a carved Christ stands at the center of seated apostles, six to each side, grouped in separate groups of three. The interior is symmetrical, rational, and mathematical. The painted panels show visions of hell on earth, in which the physical and psychological torments that afflicted Christ and a host of saints are rendered as visions wrought in chaotic psychedelic color, and played out by distorted figures in eerie other-worldly landscapes. The painted panels fold out to reveal three distinct ensembles. In its common, closed position the central panels close to depict a horrific, night-time Crucifixion. The macabre and distorted Christ is splayed on the cross, his hands writhing in agony. All three scenes are highly personal visions of Biblical scenes.
Sistine Chapel (ceiling; altar; wall frescoes)
Artist: Michelangelo Period/Style: Date: 1536-1541 Patron: Pope Julius Original Location: Vatican City, Italy Material: Fresco, paint Technique/Style: Frescoes Subject: Historical Context/Analysis: Michelangelo created these frescoes for Pope Julius II and proposed to paint the Old Testament scenes now found on the vault, divided by the fictive architecture that he uses to organize the composition. The narrative begins at the altar and is divided into three sections. In the first three paintings, Michelangelo tells the story of The Creation of the Heavens and Earth; this is followed by The Creation of Adam and Eve and the Expulsion from the Garden of Eden; finally is the story of Noah and the Great Flood. Ignudi, or nude youths, sit in fictive architecture around these frescoes, and they are accompanied by prophets and sibyls (ancient seers who, according to tradition, foretold the coming of Christ) in the spandrels. In the four corners of the room, in the pendentives, one finds scenes depicting the Salvation of Israel. The Libyan Sibyl is in a contorted position that would be nearly impossible for an actual person to hold, but Michelangelo executes her with a deceptive ease.
Lindisfarne Gospels
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Early Medieval Europe Date: 700 Patron: Monastic community Original Location: British Isles Material: Ink, pigments, and gold on vellum Technique/Style: Illuminated manuscript Subject: Evangelists Historical Context/Analysis: The book is an example of Hiberno-Saxon art, works produced in the British Isles between the 6th and 10th centuries, a time of devastating invasions and political upheavals. Monks read from it during rituals at their Lindisfarne Priory on Holy Island, a Christian community. The book includes over 250 written and recorded leaves with portraits of each evangelist, ornamental cross-carpet pages, and the Gospels themselves. In 635 C.E., Christian monks built a monastery in Lindisfarne. More than a hundred and fifty years later, Vikings from the north attacked and pillaged it, but survivors managed to transport the Gospels safely. Matthew's cross-carpet page is composed of a series of repetitive knots and spirals and is dominated by a centrally-located cross. There are stacked wine-glass shapes horizontally and vertically against his intricate weave of knots. These knots also appear similar to snake-like creatures. Luke's page is filled with animal life, spiraled forms, and swirling vortexes. The characteristic knots also reveal themselves as snakes that move stealthily along the confines of a letter's boundaries. There are also many birds, including a blue heron's chest shaped like a large comma. Luke's incipit page contrasts his straightforward portrait page. Eadfrith seats him, curly-haired and bearded, on a red-cushioned stool against a plain background. Luke holds a quill in his right hand, write on the scroll in his lap. His feet hover above a stool. He wears a purple robe striped with red. The gold halo behind Luke's head indicates his divinity. Above his halo flies a blue-winged calf, its two eyes turned toward the viewer with its body in profile. It holds a green parallelogram, a reference to the Gospel. The calf itself symbolizes Christ's sacrifice on the cross.
Merovingian Fibulae
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Early Medieval Europe Date: Mid 6th century Patron: N/A Original Location: Material: Silver gilt worked in filigree with stone inlay Technique/Style: Pierced openwork, cloisonné Subject: Brooch Historical Context/Analysis: Fibulae are brooches that were made popular by Roman military campaigns. They consist of a body, a pin, and a catch. Ornate fibulae were popular in the early middle ages and are one of the most commonly found objects in grave sites. The diverse ethnic groups were constantly borrowing from one another, while putting their own spin on things. This style is called a "crossbow" fibula because of its resemblance to the weapon. The detailed incising on the body is called pierced openwork, and bears a Christian cross amongst a circular leaf motif. Although precious and intricate, it is a relatively simple design, indicative of the Byzantine/Roman fibulae style. This pair of Frankish fibulae is an example of cloisonné, a technique that was popular in barbarian art and is characterized by inlaid semi-precious stones. This example also shows a popular motif in barbarian art of the middle ages, the eagle, which become an emblem to St. John. The end of these fibulae are in the shape of Eagle heads, and little fish are shown on the main body of the brooches. These pieces demonstrate the proficiency of barbarian metal workers during the middle ages.
Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France from the Bibles Moralisées
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Gothic Europe Date: 1225-1245 Patron: Blanche Original Location: France Material: Illuminated manuscript (ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum) Technique/Style: Stylized, registers Subject: Blanch and Louis Historical Context/Analysis: When King Louis died, he left his queen, Blanche of Castile, to rule his kingdom until their son came of age. Rebels rallied troops against her, defamed her character, and accused her of adultery and murder. However, she fought these enemies before her son, Louis IX, inherited the kingdom. This illuminated manuscript shows Blanche and her son Louis, a beardless youth crowned king. A cleric and a scribe are depicted underneath them, and each figure is set against a background of gold, referencing Byzantine art. The stylized, colorful buildings above them suggest a sophisticated, urban setting, possibly Paris. This was the last page of a moralized bible, which were made for the French royal house, and included lavishly illustrated passages from the Old and New Testaments. Explanatory texts alluding to historical events accompanied visual readings. Queen Blanche of Castile would have financed its production, and Louis IX's job was to take its lessons to heart along with those from the other biblical and ancient texts that his tutors read with him. In the upper register, they wear the traditional medieval crown topped with fleur-de-lys, a stylized iris or lily symbolizing a French monarch's religious, political, and dynastic right to rule. The queen is veiled in a white widow's wimple. She deliberately gestures across the page, raising her left hand in his direction. Her pose and animated facial expression suggest that she is dedicating this manuscript to him. Louis IX holds a scepter, indicating his kingly status. The illumination's bottom register depicts wearing a sleeveless cloak appropriate for divine services and emphasizes his role as a scholar. On the right, the artist is seated on cushioned bench.
Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere Window from Chartres Cathedral
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Gothic Europe Date: 12th century Patron: Blanche of Castile Original Location: Chartres, France Material: Glass Technique/Style: Stained glass Subject: Mary, Jesus Historical Context/Analysis: One of the primary goals of the Gothic architect was to open up the walls to the stained glass. This glass helps make the interior a space that calls upon the divine and creates a sense of heaven on earth; light itself was an expression of the divine. The glass is largely blue, but also red and gold. In this particular window, Mary is the throne of wisdom with Jesus on her lap, showing that this is a divine image. There is a large rose window on top of five lancets. Blanche of Castile paid for this and there are fleur-de-lis throughout the window, a reference to the French monarchy. In the center, Mary is holding Jesus and is surrounded by doves and angels, as well as prophets and kings. Below this are five lancets. In the middle is St. Anne, Mary's mother, holding an infant Mary, and on either side are pairings of virtuous and villainous kings.
Great Portal of West Façade (from Chartres Cathedral)
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Gothic Europe Date: 12th century Patron: N/A Original Location: Chartres, France Material: Limestone Technique/Style: Archivolts, lintel, engaged columns, jamb figures, hieratic scale, abstracted Subject: Jesus, angels, prophets, Mary Historical Context/Analysis: At the top, there are sculptures within the archivolts, and the archway framed by the archivolts is the tympanum. Below each tympanum is a lintel supported by engaged columns. Attached to those are figures known as jamb figures representing prophets, kings, and queens. These abstracted figures are angled inward, inviting us into the church. The tympanum on the left shows Christ before he takes on physical form, before the incarnation, and before god has even made flesh. Below, we see four angels, and below them are the prophets trying to see god's plan for mankind. The one on the right shows scenes relating to Mary. It shows the archangel Gabriel telling Mary that she is going to have Christ. It also shows the Visitation, when Mary's cousin, pregnant with John the Baptist, goes to visit her. The center shows Mary in the manger, having just given birth to Jesus, and the three shepherds look on in admiration. The register above this shows when Mary and Joseph brought Jesus to the temple, and the register above this shows Mary enthroned on the throne of wisdom, flanked by angels. Mary is both the throne and the church itself. The one in the middle shows the second coming of Christ, when the dad rise from their grives, and all of humankind is judged. The tympanum on the left shows the period before time, the one on the right shows Jesus during his existence, and the one in the middle shows the end of time. Christ is surrounded by the four evangelists and his significance is indicated by his size (hieratic scale). He is surrounded by a mandorla. Below him are the twelve apostles.
Rottgen Pieta
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Late Medieval Europe Date: 1300 Patron: N/A Original Location: Germany Material: Painted wood Technique/Style: Carved Subject: Jesus and Mary Historical Context/Analysis: Earlier medieval representations of Christ focused on his divinity. In these works of art, Christ is on the cross, but never suffers. Late medieval devotional writing leaned toward mysticism and focused on Christ's suffering. The effects of this new devotional style, which emphasized the humanity of Christ, quickly spread throughout western Europe. It appeals to the idea that God understands the pain and difficulty of being human. In this piece, Christ clearly died from the horrific ordeal of crucifixion, but his skin is taut around his ribs, showing that he also led a life of hunger and suffering. Mary is youthful and draped in heavy robes. She appears to be angry and confused. While some believed Mary knew her son would resurrect, Mary here does not seem to have this knowledge. She shows strong negative emotions that emphasize her humanity, just as the representation of Christ emphasizes his. Pietàs were devotional images and were intended as a focal point for contemplation and prayer. Even though the statues are horrific, the intent was to show that God and Mary, divine figures, were sympathetic to human suffering experienced by medieval viewers. Looking at this piece, medieval viewers may have felt a closer personal connection to God by seeing this representation of death and pain.
Golden Haggadah (The Plagues of Egypt; Scenes of Liberation; and Preparation for Passover)
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Late Medieval Spain Date: 1320 Patron: Wealthy Jewish family Original Location: Spain Material: Illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf of vellum) Technique/Style: Subject: Moses and the Pharaoh Historical Context/Analysis: Despite periods of persecution, the Jews of Spain, known as Sephardic Jews, developed a rich culture of Judaism on the Iberian Peninsula. This manuscript tells the story of Passover, when the last and most terrible in a series of plagues that ultimately convinced the Egyptian Pharaoh to free the Jews was the death of the first born sons of Egypt. Moses commanded the Jews to paint a red mark on their doors, so the Angel of Death passed over these homes and the children survived. The story of Passover is one that is recounted annually by many Jews at a seder, the ritual meal that marks the beginning of the holiday. A haggadah is a book used to tell the story of Passover. The Golden Haggadah is one of the most luxurious examples of these books ever created. They usually include the prayers and readings said during the meal and some images that help convey the story. Each miniature is decorated with a gold-leaf background. This manuscript would have been expensive to produce and was owned by a wealthy Jewish family. The fine condition of this particular haggadah means that it might have served a ceremonial purpose. It looks very similar to Christian Gothic manuscripts, and for example, the Pharaoh doesn't look like an Egyptian pharaoh but more like a French king. The long flowing body, small architectural details, and patterned background reveal that this manuscript was created during the Gothic period. This cross-cultural borrowing of artistic styles happened throughout Europe, but was especially strong in medieval Spain, where Jews, Christians and Muslims lived together for many centuries.
Reliquary of Sainte-Foy (from the Church of Sainte-Foy)
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Romanesque Europe Date: 1050-1130 Patron: N/A Original Location: Conques, France Material: Gold, silver, gemstones, over wood Technique/Style: Spolia, stylized Subject: Sainte-Foy Historical Context/Analysis: This reliquary, or container holding the remains of a saint or holy person, was one of the most famous in all of Europe. So famous that it was originally located in a monastery in Agen but the monks at Conques plotted to steal it in order to attract more wealth and visitors. The reliquary at Conques held the remains of Saint Foy, a young Christian convert living in Roman-occupied France during the second century. At the age of twelve, she was condemned to die for her refusal to sacrifice to pagan gods, and is therefore revered as a martyr. Saint Foy was a very popular saint in Southern France and her relic was extremely important to the church, bringing pilgrims and wealth to the small, isolated town of Conques. Travelers paid homage to Saint Foy by donating gemstones for the reliquary so that her dress is covered with rubies, emeralds, pearls, and more. Her face, which stares boldly at the viewer, is thought to have originally been the head of a Roman statue of a child. Using spolia was not only practical but it made the object more important by associating it with the past riches of the Roman Empire. The Church of Saint Foy at Conques provides an excellent example of Romanesque art and architecture. Although the monastery no longer survives, the church and treasury stand as a reminder of the rituals of medieval faith, especially for pilgrims. Every October, a great celebration and procession is held for Saint Foy, continuing a medieval tradition into present day devotion.
Tympanum of Sainte-Foy
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Romanesque Europe Date: 1050-1130 Patron: N/A Original Location: Conques, France Material: Stone Technique/Style: Subject: Christ, God, Saint Foy, angels, demons Historical Context/Analysis: The Last Judgment is depicted on the tympanum, the central semi-circular relief carving above the central portal. In the center sits Christ as Judge, enthroned with his right hand pointing upwards to the saved while his left hand gestures down to the damned. This scene would have served as a reminder to those entering the Church of Saint-Foy about the joys of heaven and torments of hell. Immediately on Christ's right are Mary, Peter and possibly the founder of the monastery as well as an entourage of other saints. Below these saints, a small arcade is covered by a pediment, meant to represent the House of Paradise. These are the blessed who have been saved by Christ and will go to heaven. At the center, we find Abraham and above him notice the outstretched hand of God, who beckons a kneeling Saint Faith. On the other side of the pediment, a row of angels opens the graves of the dead. As the dead rise from their tombs, their souls will be weighed and they will be admitted to heaven or hell. There is a clear division between the large doorway leading to heaven and the terrifying mouth that leads the way to hell. Hell is represented by a chaotic, disorderly scene, where the Devil reigns over his terrifying kingdom. The devil, like Christ, is also an enthroned judge, determining the punishments that await the damned according to the severity of their sins. In particular, to the devil's left is a hanged man. This man is a reference to Judas, who hanged himself after betraying Christ. Just beyond Judas, a knight is tossed into the fires of Hell and above him, a gluttonous man is hung by his legs for his sins. Each of these sinners represents a type of sin to avoid, from adultery, to arrogance, even to the misuse of church offices. Indeed, this portal was not only a warning for pilgrims, but for the clergy who lived in Conques as well.
Bayeux Tapestry
Artist: N/A Period/Style: Romanesque Europe (English or Norman) Date: 1066-1080 Patron: N/A Original Location: Material: Embroidery on linen Technique/Style: Narrative, compositionally divided into thirds Subject: Narrative of battle Historical Context/Analysis: Measuring twenty inches high and almost 230 feet in length, the Bayeux Tapestry commemorates a struggle for the throne of England. In 1066, William invaded and successfully conquered England, becoming the first Norman King of England. The tapestry consists of seventy-five scenes with Latin inscriptions (tituli) depicting the events leading up to the Norman conquest and culminating in the Battle of Hastings. The textile's end is now missing, but it most probably showed the coronation of William as King of England. It is not a true tapestry, however, because the imagery and inscriptions are embroidered using wool yarn sewed onto linen cloth. It favorably depicts the Normans in the events leading up to the battle of Hastings, thus presenting a Norman point of view. The high quality of the needlework suggests that Anglo-Saxon embroiderers produced the tapestry. At the time, Anglo-Saxon needlework was prized throughout Europe. Many of the scenes are believed to have been adapted from images in manuscripts illuminated at Canterbury. The artists organized the composition of the tapestry to lead the viewer's eye from one scene to the next and divided the space into three horizontal zones. The main events of the story are contained within the larger middle zone. The upper and lower zones contain images of animals and people, scenes from Aesop's Fables, and scenes of husbandry and hunting. The episodes present a continuous narrative of the events leading up to the Battle of Hastings and the battle itself, presenting multiple scenes of a narrative within a single frame and draws from manuscript traditions such as the scroll form. In one scene of the Normans' first meal after reaching the shores of England, there are dining practices, as well as examples of armor used in the period, and battle preparations. Military tactics are shown in the Cavalry scene. It operates as art, chronicle, and political propaganda.
School of Athens
Artist: Raphael Period/Style: Date: 1509-1511 Patron: Pope Julian Original Location: Italy Material: Fresco Technique/Style: Subject: Plato, Aristotle, Raphael, etc. Historical Context/Analysis: Pope Julius asked for four frescoes to put in his libraries: one for philosophy, theology, poetry, and justice. The School of Athens represents all the greatest mathematicians, philosophers and scientists from classical antiquity gathered together sharing their ideas and learning from each other. These figures all lived at different times, but here they are gathered together under one roof. The two thinkers in the very center, Aristotle (right) and Plato (left) are extremely important to Western thinking and their different philosophies were incorporated into Christianity. The vanishing point is right between the two. Plato points up because in his philosophy the changing world that we see around us is just a shadow of a higher, truer reality that is eternal and unchanging. For Plato, this otherworldly reality is the ultimate reality, and the seat of all truth, beauty, justice, and wisdom. Plato holds his book. Aristotle holds his hand down, because in his philosophy, the only reality is the one that we can see and experience by sight and touch (exactly the reality dismissed by Plato). He also holds his own book. Pythagoras (lower left) believed that the world operated according to mathematical laws. These mathematical laws were related to ideas of musical and cosmic harmony, and thus to God, according to Christians. Ptolemy holds a sphere of the earth, because he tried to mathematically explain the movements of the planets. Raphael included a self-portrait of himself, standing next to Ptolemy. He looks right out at us. The statues in the background are Apollo and Athena.
Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)
Artist: Workshop of Robert Campin Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1427-1432 Patron: N/A Original Location: Northern Europe Material: Oil on wood Technique/Style: Realism, naturalism Subject: Mary, Gabriel, Joseph, Patrons Historical Context/Analysis: Campin was a successful painter in northern Europe. He had assistants, apprentices, and a large workshop. He was part of the Burgundian Netherlands, a wealthy place where luxury goods were being produced. With newfound prosperity in northern Europe, many people became interested in commissioning paintings as aids in prayer for people to use in their homes. This piece is only about two feet tall and could be folded up. The annunciation scene, the image in the middle, looks as if it takes place in someone's living room. It depicts the archangel Gabriel and the virgin Mary in a modern context. It takes place in a household to make the figures involved feel closer and to make prayer more profound. The sharp folds of Gabriel and Mary's garments are characteristic of northern Renaissance art. The room is filled with many objects, including a vase, a bench, a towel, etc., all of which would have had spiritual meanings. The pot that reflects light from the windows is a symbol of the virgin Mary and of her purity. The little figure holding a cross coming in through the window is the holy spirit heading for Mary. The image on the left shows the patron and his wife. They are kneeling and set within a walled garden, which often refers to Mary's virginity. The detail, which can only be done with oil paint, indicate this piece as Renaissance; there is great attention to texture and light. Even in the background, there is attention to detail and a Flemish city beyond the door. The artist pays attention to everything equally. The level of detail may have been to keep the viewer interested, as this painting would have been seen many times by the same person or people. The panel on the right shows Joseph as a carpenter making mouse traps. This is a reference to Christianity being the devil's mouse trap. Additionally, the wood and the axe on the floor reference the cross that Christ died on. While the middle references the coming of Christ, the right references Christ's death.
Venus of Urbino
Title: Venus of Urbino Artist: Titian Period/Style: Renaissance Date: 1538 Patron: Original Location: Material: Oil on canvas Technique/Style: Chiaroscuro Subject: Venus Historical Context/Analysis: The genre of female nudes really begins in the Renaissance. This painting is focused on the sensuality and beauty of the subject. She is a nude woman, laying in a private space, looking directly at the viewer. In previous images of female nudity, the subject's absence of clothing had to be justified and she was often modest. This woman, however, is seducing the viewer. Her long, silky hair frames her breasts and she holds the flowers near her skin. Titian experimented with glazing (applying thin layers of oil paint on top of one another), which allowed him to create an incredible sense of softness in the painting, as well as a richness of color. This technique makes the figure appear as if she is glowing, which adds to the sensuality of the piece, and makes her flesh appear even more lifelike. However, is body was not created with complete anatomical accuracy. Additionally, Titian sets the standard for the reclining nude. As curtains are usually a sign of something sacred, the curtain behind her makes her seem highly important or special. The figures in the background are handmaids.
