MGMT 4180

Culpability

*responsibility you cannot delegate away

OSH Act Coverage

--*High loss rates with loose toilet seats because people stand on them to get more toilet paper and they get spinal chord injuries* --*Which takes precedence, federal or state? IT DEPENDS; if the state has laws more protective of employers, like California, state law trumps* --*Texas has a federal OSHA; but no state (i think)* --If an organization has even one employee, it is considered an employer and must comply with applicable sections of the act --Employers with 10 or fewer employees are exempted from OSHA inspections and the requirement to maintain injury and illness records --Employers not covered by the OSH Act: persons who are self-employed, family farms that employ only immediate members of the family, federal agencies covered by other federal statutes (in cases where these other federal statutes do not cover working conditions in a specific area or areas, OSHA standards apply), state and local governments, coal mines (regulated by mining-specific laws) --OSHA evaluates the safety and health programs of federal agencies; however, OSHA cannot assess fines or monetary damages against other federal agencies as it can against private sector employees --OSHA covers: fire protection; electricity; sanitations; air quality; machine use, maintenance, and repair; posting of notices and warnings; reporting of accidents and illnesses; maintaining written compliance programs; employee training

Heinrich's Domino Theory of Accident Causation

--*There is no such thing as one cause of a loss; always multiple causes to an accident --According the Heinrich, there are 5 factors leading up to an accident: ----Ancestry and social environment: negative character traits that may lead people to behave in an unsafe manner can be inherited (ancestry) or acquired as a result of the social environment ----Fault of person: negative character traits, whether inherited or acquired, are why people behave in an unsafe manner and why hazardous conditions exist ----Unsafe act/mechanical or physical hazard: unsafe acts committed by people and mechanical or physical hazards are the direct causes of accidents ----Accident: typically, accidents that result in injury are caused by falling or being hit by moving objects ----Injury: typical injuries resulting from accidents include lacerations and fractures --Theory has 2 central points: injuries are caused by the action of preceding factors and removal of the central factor (unsafe act/hazardous condition) negates the action of the preceding factors and, in so doing, prevents accidents and injuries

OSHA Standards

--*Trenching is huge in Texas; lots of people die of suffocation from dirt falling on you* --*Standards which are industry specific are called vertical standards while general standards applying to all industries are called horizontal standards* --OSHA develops its standards based on its perception of need and at the request of other federal agencies, state and local governments, other standards-setting agencies, labor organizations, or even individual private citizens; standing committees are the National Advisory Committee on Occupational Safety and Health (NACOSH) and the Advisory Committee on Construction Safety and Health; NIOSH does research that is often used to assist OSHA in developing standards --Standards vs. Regulations: OSHA standards address specific hazards such as working in confined spaces, handling hazardous waste, or working with dangerous chemicals; regulations are more generic in some cases than standards and more specific in others; regulations do not apply to specific hazards; regulations do not require the rigorous review process that standards go through --How standards are adopted, amended, or revoked: before OSHA can adopt, amend, or revoke it must publish its intentions in the Federal Register in either a notice of proposed rule making or an advance notice of proposed rule making; the notice of proposed rule making must explain the terms of the new rule, delineate proposed changes to existing rules, or list rules that are to be revoked; the advance notice may be used instead of the regular notice when it is necessary to solicit input before drafting a rule; after publishing notice, OSHA must conduct a public hearing if one is requested; must publish the new standard in the Federal Register (the federal newspaper; short-term or about what's happening); any thing discussed in TX legislature will be printed in the TX state register --OSHA standards are part of the CFR (Code of Federal Regulations; tells you all the rules, things you should do in an accident), published by the Office of the Federal Register; the regulations of all federal-government agencies are published in the CFR; Title 29 contains all the standards assigned to OSHA --Appeals process: a standards may be appealed by any person who is opposed to it --Temporary emergency standards: OSHA is empowered to pass temporary emergency standards on an emergency basis without undergoing normal adoption procedures; such standards remain in effect only until permanent standards can be developed; to justify passing temporary standards on an emergency basis, OSHA must determine that workers are in imminent danger from exposure to a hazard not covered by existing standards

Development of Accident Prevention Programs

--*Widely used accident prevention techniques include failure minimization, fail-safe designs, isolation, lockouts, screening, personal protective equipment, redundancy, timed replacements, and many others; these techniques are individual components of broader safety programs* --Between WWI and WWII industry discovered the connection between quality and safety; began to realize that improved engineering could prevent accidents, employees were willing to learn and accept safety rules, safety rules could be established and enforced, and financial savings from safety improvement could be reaped by savings in compensation and medical bills --*Early safety programs were based on the three E's of safety:* ----Engineering: involve making design improvements to both product and process ----*Education*: ensures employees know how to work safely, why it is important to do so, and that safety is expected by management; education is most important ----Enforcement: involves making sure that employees abide by safety policies, rules, regulations, practices, and procedures

Milestones in the Safety Movement

---the safety movement traces its roots to England --during the industrial revolution, child labor in factories was common --after an outbreak of fever among children working in their cotton mills, the people of Manchester, England demanded better factory working conditions; public pressure led to the passage of the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act; *this marked the beginning of governmental involvement in workplace safety* --employer liability was established in workplace accidents through the Employer's Liability Law; the first recorded safety program was established in Joliet, Illinois after a flywheel exploded at a steel plant; liability is something that goes along with awareness --Frederick Taylor drew a connection between lost personnel time and management policies and procedures --workers compensation: (*began in Germany*); state run, but there is a national worker's comp; the common thread among the various early approaches to workers comp was that they all provided some amount of compensation for on the job injuries regardless of who was at fault; state run, however, there is a national workers comp.; today all 50 states have some form of workers comp.; *employers covered by workers comp are subscribers; those not covered are unsubscribers* --Cooperative Safety Congress (CSC): due to the Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers; national conference on safety that planted the seeds for the NSC --National Council of Industrial Safety (NCIS): changed its name to the National Security Council (NSC) which is now the premier safety organization in the U.S. --industry in the U.S. arrived at 2 critical conclusions: ----there is a definite connection between quality and safety ----off the job accidents have negative impact on productivity --an issue in the mid 20th century was that the state generally legislated safety requirements only in specific industries --Occupational Health and Safety Act (OSH Act) and the Federal Mine Safety Act were passed and represented the most significant legislation to date in the history of the safety movement, especially the OSH Act --the concept of Total Safety Management (TSM) was introduced to help safety professionals in organizations using Total Quality Management (TQM) philosophy; people who enjoy their jobs are less likely to have an incident with loss --Workplace terrorism became an issue in the early 2000s and special safety needs for the elderly became an issue

Citations and Penalties

--A citation informs the employer of OSHA violations; penalties are typically fines assessed as the result of citations --Other-than serious violation: a violation that has a direct relationship to job safety and health, but probably would not cause death or serious physical harm; proposed penalties may be adjusted downward depending on the employer's good faith, history of previous violations, and size of business --Serious violation: a violation in which there is a high probability that death or serious physical injury may result and that the employer knew or should have known of the hazard; mandatory penalties may be adjusted downward depending on the employer's good faith, history of prior violations, and the gravity of the alleged violation --Willful violation: a violation that the employer intentionally and knowingly commits; the employer either knows that what he/she is doing constitutes a violation or is aware that a hazardous condition exists and has made no reasonable effort to eliminate it; proposed penalties may be adjusted downward, depending on the size of the business and its history of previous violations --Repeat violations: failure to abate prior violation (failure to correct a prior violation may bring a civil penalty for each day that the violation continues beyond the prescribed abatement date); de minimis violation (violations of standards that have no direct bearing on safety and health; documented like any other citation, but they are not included in citations) --Employers may be penalized by additional fines and/or prison if convicted of any of the following: falsifying records or any other informations given to OSHA personnel; failing to comply with posting requirements; and interfering in any way with OSHA compliance officers in the performance of their duties --Examples of OSHA Citations and Fines: failure to properly use machine guards; selected through OSHA's site-specific targeting program; failure to train employees in the application of proper safety procedures; failure to abate previous hazards

Certification of Safety and Health Professionals (Certified Occupational Health Nurse)

--Academic requirements: must be registered nurses holding an associate degree or higher degree or their international equivalents --Experience requirements: 4,000 or more hours of work experience in occupational health and 50 or more contract hours of continuing education completed during the past 5 years

Occupational Health Nurse

--Application of nursing principles in conserving the health of workers in all occupations --Involves prevention, recognition, and treatment of illness and injury, and requires special skills and knowledge in the areas of health and education and counseling, environmental health, rehabilitation, and human relations

OSHA's Maritime Standards and OSHA's Construction Standards

--Apply to shipbuilding, ship-repairing, and ship breaking operations not already covered by U.S. Coast Guard regulations --Apply to employees involved in construction, alteration, or repair activities

Occupational Physician

--Appraisal, maintenance, restoration, and improvement of the workers' health through application of the principles of preventative medicine, emergency medical care, rehabilitation, and environmental medicine -Promotion of a productive and fulfilling interaction of the worker and the job, via application of principles of human behavior --Active appreciation of the social, economic, and administrative needs and responsibilities of both the worker and work community --Team approach to safety and health, involving cooperation of the physician with occupational or industrial hygienists, occupational health nurses, safety personnel, and other specialties --There should be a written medical program available to all management and employees; the OP should understand the workplace and the chemicals used and produced; Periodic tours of all facilities are necessary for an understanding of possible work-related injuries, and also to aid in job accommodation; the OP should be familiar with OSHA and NIOSH health mandates; the OP should be the leader of other medical personnel; and the OP should understand what the company expects and what the OP expects from the company

Helpful Agencies and Organizations

--Certification boards: professional certification is an excellent way to establish one's status in the field of safety and health; to qualify to take a certification examination, safety and health managers must have the required education and experience and submit letters of recommendation as specified by the certification board --Professional societies: typically formed to promote professionalism, adding to the body of knowledge, and forming networks among colleagues in a given field --Scientific standards and testing organizations: conduct research, run tests, and establish standards that identify the acceptance levels for materials, substances, conditions, and mechanisms to which people might be exposed in the modern workplace --Government agencies: concerned with various aspects of workplace-related safety and health --Trade associations: the purpose of a trade association is to promote the trade that it represents

Certification of Safety and Health Professionals (Certified Industrial Hygienist)

--Certification process: need for technical knowledge; Professional Reference Questionnaire (PRQ); examinations are prepared in minute detail --Certification maintenance: the board requires that all CIEs demonstrate that they are active in the field and have continued to improve their knowledge

Safety and Health Manager

--Companies that are committed to providing a safe and healthy workplace employ a safety and health manager --The manager's position within the company's hierarchy is an indication of the company's commitment and priorities; this sets the tone for a company's safety and health program --Have to take tests every 3 years --Employee vs. associate: employee is liable for workers comp, SS, etc. --OSH Act and OSHA have encouraged a greater commitment to safety and health --Role in the company hierarchy: does the safety and health manager have line or staff authority? ----Line authority: means that the safety and health manager has authority over and supervises certain employees (i.e. other safety and health personnel); basic survival function are line people; if you are a line person you will still have a job if the staff gets laid off (cause staff goes first in downsizing) -----Staff authority: means that the safety and health manager is the staff person responsible for a certain function, but he or she has no line authority over others involved with that function; HR and Safety & Health are typically seen as staff people --Formal authority: comes from the top down; resides in the position not the person --Informal authority: from the bottom up --Responsibility can be formal or informal --Agency means extension; managers are an agent of the employer

Competitiveness Defined

--Competing in the global marketplace has been described as the equivalent of running in a race that has no finish line --"The ability to consistently succeed and prosper in the marketplace whether it is local, regional, national, or global" --The most competitive companies are those that do the following: consistently outperform their competitors in the key areas of quality, productivity response time, service, cost, and corporate image; continually improve all these areas --The key concepts associated with competitiveness are peak performance and continual improvement --Of the various factors influencing a company's competitiveness, the two most important are productivity and quality; the other factors are, to a large extent, functions of these two

Summary of Chapter 5

--Competitiveness is the ability to succeed and prosper in the local, regional, national, and global marketplace; the most competitive companies are those that consistently outperform their competitors in the key areas of quality, productivity, response time, service, cost, and image --Productivity is a measure of output in goods and services compared to input of resources needed to produce of deliver them; part of productivity is the concept of value added, which is measured as the difference between what it costs a company to produce a product and the competitive market price of that product --Quality is a measure of the extent to which a product meets or exceeds customer expectations; it goes hand-in-hand with productivity; quality without productivity results in costs that are too high to be competitive; productivity without quality results in an unacceptable product --Safety and health contribute to competitiveness in the following ways: by helping companies attract and keep the best people; by allowing employees to focus on peak performance without being distracted by concerns for their safety and health; by freeing money that can be reinvested in technology updates; and by protecting the corporate image

Health Physicist

--Concerned primarily with radiation in the workplace --Primary duties include: monitoring radiation inside and outside the facility, measuring the radioactivity levels of biological samples, developing the radiation components of the company's emergency action plan, and supervising the decontamination of workers and the workplace when necessary

Accident/Incident Theory of Accident Causation

--Extension of the human factors theory --Developed by Peterson, who introduced such new elements as ergonomic traps, the decision to err, and system failures (policy, responsibility, training, inspection, correction, standards), while retaining much of the human factors theory --A variety of pressures such as deadlines, peer pressure, and budget factors can lead to unsafe behavior; so can the "it won't happen to me" syndrome --The systems failure component is an important contribution of Peterson's theory; it shows the potential for a causal relationship between management decisions or management behavior and safety; also, it establishes management's role in accident prevention as well as the broader concepts of safety and health in the workplace --Examples of system failure: management does not establish a comprehensive safety policy; responsibility and authority with regard to safety are not clearly defined; safety procedures such as measurement, inspection, correction, and investigation are ignored or given insufficient attention

OSHA Standards Continued (Confined Space and Hazardous Waste Standards)

--Confined Space Standard: the standard applies to a broad cross section of industries that have employees working in spaces with the following characteristics: limited openings for entry or exit, poor natural ventilation, and a design not intended to accommodate continuous human occupancy; examples- manholes, storage tanks, pipelines, etc; the key component in the standard is the permit requirement (employers are required to develop an in-house program under which employees must have a permit to enter confined spaces); employers must identify spaces that can be entered only by permit; restrict access to identified spaces to ensure that only authorized personnel may enter; controls hazards in the identified spaces through engineering, revised work practices, and other methods, and continually monitor the identified spaces to ensure that any known hazards remain under control; this standard applies to 60% of workers in the U.S.; excluded from coverage are federal, state, and local government employees, agricultural workers, maritime and construction workers, and employees of companies with 10 or fewer workers --Hazardous Waste Standard: addresses the safety of workers who deal with hazardous waste: hazardous waste workers in all situations, including treatment, storage, handling, and disposal, firefighters, police officers, ambulance personnel and hazardous materials response team personnel

Services Available through OSHA

--Consultation Services: include assistance in identifying hazardous conditions, correcting identified hazards, and developing and implementing programs to prevent injuries and illnesses --Voluntary Protection Programs: serve 3 basic purposes--> to recognize companies that have incorporated safety and health programs into their overall management system; to motivate companies to incorporate health and safety programs into their overall management system; and to promote positive, cooperative relationships among employers, employees, and OSHA; companies participating in VPPs are exempt from regular programmed OSHA inspections ----Star Program: recognizes companies that have incorporated safety and health into their regular management system so successfully that their injury rates are below the national average for their industry; OSHA's most strenuous program; to be part of this program, a company must demonstrate management commitment, employee participation, an excellent work-site analysis program, a hazard prevention and control program, a comprehensive safety and health training program ----Merit Program: less strenuous than the Star Program; it is seen as a steppingstone to recognize companies that have made a good start toward Star Program recognition ----Demonstration Program: for companies that provide star-quality worker protection in industries were certain Star requirements can be changed to include these companies as Star participants --Training and Education Services: take on several forms

Estimating the Cost of Accidents

--Cost-Estimation Method: Insured costs: simply a matter of examining accounting records; Uninsured costs: can be calculated by pulling the records of all accidents that occurred during a specified period and by sorting the records according to class; Simonds recommends that accidents be divided into 4 classes: ----Class 1: lost workdays, permanent partial disabilities, and temporary total disabilities ----Class 2: treatment by a physician outside the company's facility ----Class 3: locally provided first aid, property damage of less than $100, or the loss of less than eight hours of work time ----Class 4: Injuries that are so minor hat they do not require the attention of a physician, result in property damage of $100 or more, or cause eight or more work hours to be lost --Other Cost-Estimation Methods: lost work hours, medical costs, insurance premiums and administration, property damage, fire losses, and indirect costs --Estimating Hidden Costs: iceberg analogy (accident costs are like a iceberg in that their greatest portion is hidden from view)

Other Causes of Accidents

--Drugs --Depression: ----Warning signs: persistent dreary moods; signs of too little sleep; sleeping on the job or persistent drowsiness; sudden weight loss or gain; general loss of interest especially in areas of previous interest; restlessness, inability to concentrate, or irritability; chronic physical problems; forgetfulness or an inability to make simple decisions; persistent feelings of guilt; feelings of low self-worth; focus on death or talk of suicide --Obesity: extremely obese people are more likely to to injure themselves than normal-weight people

Appeals Process

--Employee Appeals: employees may appeal the amount of time (abatement period) given an employer to correct a hazardous condition that has been cited and an employer's request for an extension of an abatement period; such appeals must be filed within 10 working days of a posting --Employer Appeals: may appeal a citation, an abatement period, or the amount of a proposed penalty; employer appeals are common; two types of formal appeals: ----Petition for Modification of Abatement: available to employers who intend to correct the situation for which a citation was issued, but who need more time; the petition must contain descriptions of steps taken so far to comply, length of additional time needed for compliance and why, descriptions of the steps being taken to protect employees during the interim, and verification that the PMA has been posted for employee information and that the employee representative has been given a copy ----Notice of Contest: an employer who does not wish to comply may contest a citation, an abatement period, and/or a penalty; notify OSHA's area director in writing; must be done within 15 federal working days of receipt of a citation or penalty notice; must clearly describe the basis for the employer's challenge and contain all of the information about what is being challenged

Employee Rights and Responsibilities

--Employee Rights: protect against punishment for employees who exercise their right to pursue any of the following actions: complain to an employee, union, OSHA, or any other government agency about job file safety and health hazards; file safety or health grievances; participate in a workplace safety and health committee or in union activities concerning job safety and health; participate in OSHA inspections, conferences, hearings, or other OSHA-related activities --Employee Responsibilities: employees must read the OSHA poster at the job sire and be familiar with its contents, comply with all applicable OSHA standards, follow safety and health rules and regulations prescribed by the employer and promptly use personal protective equipment while engaged in work, report hazardous conditions to the supervisor, report any job-related injury or illness to the employer and seek treatment promptly, cooperate with the OSHA compliance officer conducting an inspection, exercise their rights under the OSH Act in a responsible manner

Employer Rights and Responsibilities

--Employer Rights: seek advice and consultation as needed by contracting or visiting the nearest OSHA office; request proper identification of the OSHA compliance officer prior to an inspection; be advised by the compliance officer of the reason for an inspection; have an opening and closing conference with the compliance officer in conjunction with an inspection; accompany the compliance officer on the inspection; file a notice of contest with the OSHA area director within 15 working days of receipt of a notice of citation and proposed penalty; apply for a temporary variance from a standard if unable to comply b/c the materials, equipment, or personnel needed to make necessary changes within the required time are not available; apply for a permanent variance from a standard if able to furnish proof that the facilities or methods of operation provide employee protection at least as effective as that required by the standard, take an active role in developing safety and health standards through participation in OSHA Standards Advisory Committees, through nationally recognized standards-setting organizations, and through evidence and views presented in writing or at hearings; be assured of the confidentiality of any trade secrets observed by an OSHA compliance officer during an inspection; ask NIOSH for information concerning whether any substance in the workplace has potentially toxic effects --Employer Responsibilities: employers must meet the general duty responsibility to provide a workplace free from hazards that are causing or likely to cause death or serious physical harm to employees and to comply with standards, rules, and regulations issued under the OSH Act; be knowledgeable of mandatory standards and make copies available to employees for review upon request; keep employees informed about OSHA; continually examine workplace conditions to ensure that they confirm to standards; minimize or reduce hazards; make sure employees have and use safe tools and equipment (including appropriate personal protective equipment) that is properly maintained; use color codes, posters, labels, or signs as appropriate to warn employees of potential hazards; establish or update operating procedures and communicate them so that employees follow safety and health requirements; provide medical examinations when required by OSHA standards; provide the training required by OSHA standards; report to the nearest OSHA office within 8 hours any fatal accident or one that results in the hospitalization of 3 or more employees; keep OSHA-required records of injuries and illnesses and post a copy of OSHA Form 300 from February 1 through April 30 each year (this applies to employers with 11 or more employees); at a prominent location within the workplace, post OSHA Poster 2203 informing employees of their rights and responsibilities; provide employees, former employees, and their representatives access to the Log of the Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses (OSHA Form 300) at a reasonable time and in a reasonable manner; give employees access to medical and exposure records; give the OSHA compliance officer the names of authorized employee representatives who may be asked to accompany the compliance officer during an inspection; not discriminate against employees who properly exercise their rights under the act; post OSHA citations at or near the work site involved (each citation or copy must remain posted until the violation has been abated or for three working days, whichever is longer); and abate child violations within the prescribed period

OSHA's General Industry Standards

--Found in CFR; most widely applicable OSHA standards --General Safety and Health Provisions: employers that are required to keep medical and exposure records must do the following--> maintain the records for the duration of employment plus 30 years and give employees access to their individual personal records --Walking-Working Surfaces: contains the standards for all surfaces on which employees walk or work --Means of Egress: requires employers to ensure that employees have a safe, accessible, and efficient means of escaping a building under emergency circumstances --Powered Platforms: applies to powered platforms, mechanical lifts, and vehicle-mounted work platforms --Health and Environmental Controls: most widely and applicable standard in this part is occupational noise exposure; other standards in this subpart pertain to situations where ionizing and/or nonionizing radiation are present --Hazardous Materials: covers the use, handling, and storage of flammable and combustible liquids; applies to indoor spray painting processes and processes in which paint (powder coating) is applied in powder form; applies to the management of processes involving specifically named chemicals and flammable liquids and gases; contains requirements relating to emergency response operations and hazardous waste --Personal Protective Equipment: general requirements, eye and face protection, and respiratory protection --General Environment Controls: pertain to general housekeeping requirements; permit-required confined spaces (large enough and so configured that a person can enter it and perform assigned work tasks therein; continuous employee occupancy is not intended); also contains the lockout/tagout standard --Medical and First Aid: if employees are exposed to injurious corrosive materials, equipment must be provided for quickly flushing the eyes and showering the body; requires medical personnel to be readily available --Electrical: contains standards divided into the following two categories: design of electrical systems and safety-related work practices --Commercial Driving Operations: divided into 6 categories: general, personnel requirements, general operations and procedures, specific operations and procedures, equipment procedures and requirements, and record keeping --Toxic and Hazardous Substances: contains the standards that establish permissible exposure limits (PELs: the amount of a given airborne substance to which employees can be exposed during a specified period of time) for selected toxic and hazardous substances (those for which PELs have been established)

Tragedies that Have Changed the Safety Movement

--Hawk's Nest Tragedy: public begins to take notice of the health problems suffered by employees who worked in dusty environments; unemployed miners and foundry workers began to experience problems finding new jobs when physical examinations revealed that they had lung damage from breathing silica (silicosis); "king of occupational diseases"; marked the beginning of industry-wide interest; these people were refused employment and some were even sued; led to the Air Hygiene Foundation; U.S. Department of Labor made silicosis a compensable disease under workers compensation; today, companies take many preventative measures to prevent exposure to silica but the problem still exists --Asbestos Menace: asbestos was once considered a "miracle" fiber until a scientist linked it to lung cancer and respiratory diseases; at the time of these findings, asbestos was one of the most widely used materials in the U.S.; friable (airborne; asbestos is not a carcinogen until it is broken down and becomes airborne); solid asbestos that does not move is not toxic --Bhopal Tragedy: 40 tons of methyl isocyanate and other lethal gases leaked into the norther end of Bhopal, India killing more that 3,000 people; this corporation was accused of criminal negligence, corporate prejudice (choosing a poor place for the hazardous plant), avoidance (put the plant in a place to avoid safety restrictions)

Industrial Hygienist

--Industrial hygiene: science and are devoted to the recognition, evaluation, and control of those environmental factors or stresses, arising in a from the workplace, which may cause sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant discomfort and inefficiency among workers or among citizens of the community; --Industrial hygienist: ability to recognize environmental factors and to understand their effect on humans and their well-being; ability to evaluate, on the basis of experience and with the aid of quantitative measurement techniques, the magnitude of these stresses in terms of ability to impair human health and well-being; and the ability to prescribe methods to eliminate, control, or reduce such stresses when necessary to alleviate their effects

Heinrich's Axioms of Industrial Safety (Domino Theory)

--Injuries result from a completed series of factors, one of which is the accident itself --An accident can occur only as the result of an unsafe act by a person and/or a physical or mechanical hazard --Most accidents are the result of unsafe behavior by people --An unsafe act by a person or an unsafe condition does not always immediately result in an accident/injury --The reasons why people commit unsafe acts can serve as helpful guides in selecting corrective actions --The severity of an accident is largely fortuitous, and the accident that caused it is largely preventable --The best accident prevention techniques are analogous with the best quality and productivity techniques --Management should assume responsibility for safety because it is in the best position to get results --The supervisor is the key person in the prevention of industrial accidents --In addition to the direct costs of an accident (for example, compensation, liability claims, medical costs, and hospital expenses), there are also hidden or indirect costs

Problems Safety and Health Managers Make

--Lack of commitment: for instance, top management may go along with having a company-wide safety and health program because they see it as a necessary evil; or some may even see safety and health as a collection of government regulations that interfere with profits --Production vs. safety: at times, a health or safety measure will be viewed by some as interfering with productivity; today's industrial firm must continually improve its productivity, quality, cost, image, response time, and service; (this is random, but a test ?; ergonomics or man-machine engineering, is a vertical standard dealing with safety and health) --Company-wide commitment to safety and health: in many cases, safety and health managers have been their own worst enemy when it comes to gaining a company-wide commitment --Lack of resources: safety and health managers are like other managers in an organization in that they must compete for the resources needed to do the job; today's safety and health manager must understand the bottom-line concerns of management, supervisors, and employees and be able to use these concerns to gain a commitment to safety and health; competitiveness comes from continually improving a company's productivity, quality, cost, image, service, and response time --Productivity, quality, cost, and response time: these 4 factors are the key to productivity in the age of high technology and global competitiveness; the most productive company is the one that generates the most output with the least input; quality is a measure of reliability and customer satisfaction; cost is the amount of money required to purchase the item (customers are likely to go with the lowest price); response time is the amount of time that elapses between an order being placed and the product being delivered; to compete in the global marketplace, industrial companies must continually improve these 4 factors --Image and service: a company's image, internal and external, can be a deciding factor in its ability to succeed; gaining a full a real commitment to safety and health in the workplace is one of the most important roles of the safety and health manager

Role of Specific Health Problems

--Lung disease in coal miners was a major problem in the 1800s; frequent contact with coal dust led to an outbreak of anthrocosis; "coal-miner's pneumoconiosis"; Coal Mine Health and Safety Act --Mercury poisoning became an issue in the U.S. after a study was done on a certain hat-making industry which linked the symptoms of workers with the use of mercury nitrate --Asbestos was another important problem that led the the health and safety movement; as asbestos breaks down is releases dangerous microscopic fibers in the air --Concern over bloodborne pathogens came about with the spread of HIV; hepatitis kills more people than HIV and causes liver problems

Certification of Safety and Health Professionals (Certified Professional Ergonomist)

--To take the exam, individuals must meet academic requirements (master's degree in a relative field of ergonomics), work experience (four years of ergonomic work experience), and work product (one work sample must be submitted with the application)

Role of Organized Labor

--Many of the earliest developments in the safety movement were the result of battles fought by organized labor --Unions are nationally recognized; there are affiliated and unaffiliated unions --*Test question (labor has helped to pass OSHA) --Among the most important contributions of organized labor to the safety movement was their work to overturn antilabor laws relating to safety in the workplace --Fellow servant rule: held that employers were not liable for workplace injuries that that resulted from the negligence of other employees --Contributory negligence: if actions of employees contributed to their own injuries, the employer was absolved of any liability --Assumption of Risk: based on the theory that people who accept a job assume the risks that go with it --Public awareness and, in some cases, outrage eventually led to these employer-biased laws being overturned in all states except one (in New Hampshire, the fellow servant rule still applies)

Accidental Deaths in The U.S.

--Motor vehicle accidents: leading cause of accidental deaths deaths in the U.S --Falls: all deaths from falls except those associated with transport vehicles; for example, a person killed as the result of falling while boarding a bus or train would not be included in this category --Poisoning: split into two categories (poisoning by solids and liquids and poisoning by gases and vapors --Drowning: excludes those associated with floods or other natural disasters; *2 year old boys are at most risk for drowning --Fire-related injuries (most die from smoke inhalation; in the potential for fire, wear cotton so your clothes can't melt to your skin) --Suffocation (ingested object) --Firearms: includes deaths that result from recreational activities involving firearms or household accidents involving firearms --Medical complications: arising out of mistakes made by health care professionals --Air transport accidents --Interactions with machinery (any job involving moving equipment is going to be high risk --Mechanical suffocation --Impact of falling objects

Laws and Liability (Fundamental Legal Principles)

--Negligence: means failure to take reasonable care of failure to perform duties in ways that prevent harm to humans or damage to property; gross negligence means failure to exercise even slight care of intentional failure to perform duties properly, regardless of the potential consequences; contributory negligence means that an injured party contributed in some way to his/her own injury; comparative negligence distributes the negligence assigned to each party involved in litigation according to the findings in court --Liability: a duty to compensate as a result of being held responsible for an act or omission; strict liability means that a company is liable for damages caused by a product that it produces, regardless or negligence or fault --Care: reasonable care is the amount that would be taken by a prudent person in exercising his/her legal obligations toward others; great care means the amount of care that would have been taken by an extraordinarily prudent person in exercising his/her legal obligations toward others; slight care represents the other extreme; exercise of due care means that all people have a legal obligation to exercise the amount of care necessary to avoid, to the extent possible, bringing harm to others or damage to their property --Ability to Pay: applies when there are a number of defendants in a case, but not all have the ability to pay financial damages; it allows the court to assess all damages against the defendant or defendants who have the ability to pay; sometimes referred to as the "deep pockets" principle --Damages: financial awards assigned to injured parties in a lawsuit; compensatory damages are awarded to compensate for injuries suffered and for those that will be suffered; punitive damages are awarded to ensure that a guilty party will be disinclined to engage in negligent behavior in the future --Proximate Cause: the cause of an injury or damage to a property; the action or lack of action that ties one person's injuries to another's lack of reasonable care --Willful/Reckless Conduct: involves intentionally neglecting one's responsibility to exercise reasonable care --Tort: an action involving a failure to exercise reasonable care that as a result may lead to civil litigation --Forseeability: holds that a person can be held liable for actions that result in damages or injury only when risks could have been reasonably foreseen; health and safety professionals can serve their companies best by making sure that a policy and corresponding rules and regulations are in place, keeping employees informed about rules and regulations, encouraging proper enforcement practices, and ensuring that employees get the education and training they need to perform their jobs safely

OSHRC, Mine Safety and Health Administration, & Federal Railroad Administration

--Not a government agency; independent board whose members are appointed by the president and given quasi-judicial authority to handle contested OSHA citations; when a citation, proposed penalty, or abatement period issued by an OSHA area director is contested by an employer, OSHRC hears the case --The mining industry is exempt from OSHA regulations; mining is regulated by the Metal and Nonmetallic Mine Safety Act; Mine Safety and Health Act established MSHA --Railroads fall under the jurisdiction of OSHA; exercises limited jurisdiction over railroads in situations involving working conditions; beyond this, railroads must adhere to the General Industry Standards in CFR

Integrated Approach to Safety and Health/ Safety and Health Movement Today

--OSHA enforces the integrated approach by requiring companies to have a plan for doing at least the following: providing appropriate medical treatment for injured or ill workers, regularly examining workers who are exposed to toxic substances, and having a qualified first-aid person available during working hours --Proponent of the integrated approach, H. G. Dyktor, advocated: learn more by sharing knowledge about workplace health problems, particularly those caused by toxic substances; provide a greater level of expertise in evaluating health and safety problems; provide a broad database that can be used to compare health and safety problems experienced by different companies in the same industry; encourage accident prevention; make employee health and safety a high priority --The health and safety staff in a modern industrial company may include the following positions: ----Industrial hygiene chemist/ engineer: test the work environment and the people who work in it --Radiation control specialist: typically electrical engineers or physicists; monitor the radiation levels to which workers may be exposed, test workers for levels of exposure, respond to radiation accidents, develop company-wide plans for handling radiation accidents, and implement decontamination procedure when necessary --Industrial safety engineers or managers: safety and health generalists with specialized education and training; responsible for developing and carrying out the company's overall safety and health program, including accident prevention, accident investigation, and education and training

Workplace Inspections and Enforcement

--OSHA personnel may conduct workplace inspections unannounced, and except under special circumstances, giving an employer prior notice is a crime punishable by fine, imprisonment, or both --Officials must present their credentials to the person in charge; they are authorized to conduct inspections of the workplace; may question any employee or other person formally associated with the company --Under special circumstances, employers may be given up to a max of 24 hours notice of an inspection when imminent danger conditions exist, when special preparation on the part of the employer is required, when inspection must take place at times other than during regular business hours, when it is necessary to ensure that the employer, employee representative, and other pertinent personnel will be present, and when the local area director for OSHA advises that advance notice will result in more effective inspection --Employers may require that OSHA have a judicially authorized warrant before conducting an inspection --Volume of inspections dictates that OSHA establish priorities for conducting inspections; these priorities are as follows: imminent danger situations, catastrophic fatal accidents, employee complaints, planned high-hazard inspections, and follow-up inspections

OSHA's Record Keeping and Reporting

--One of the breakthroughs of the OSH Act was the centralization and systematization of record keeping --OSHA's goals for the new record-keeping and reporting system: simplify all aspects of the process, improve the quality of records, meet the needs of a broad base of stakeholders, improve access for employees, minimize the regulatory burden, reduce vagueness and give clear guidance, and promote the use of data from the new system in local safety and health programs --Reporting requirements: occupational illnesses and injuries must be reported if the result in death of one or more workers, one or more days away from work, restricted motion or restrictions to the work that an employee can do, loss of consciousness of one or more workers, transfer of an employee to another job, medical treatment beyond in-house first aid (if it is not on the first-aid list, it is considered medical treatment), and any other condition listed in Appendix B of the rule --Record keeping requirements: ----OSHA's Form 300: used to record information about every work-related death and every work-related injury or illness that involves loss of consciousness, restricted work activity, job transfer, days away from work, or medical treatment beyond first-aid (defined as using nonprescription medicine, administering tetanus immunizations, cleaning flushing, or soaking wounds on the surface of the skin, using wound coverings such as bandages, gauze pads, and so on, using hot or cold therapy, using totally nonrigid means of support, using temporary immobilization devices, drilling a fingernail or toenail to relieve pressure, or draining fluid from blisters, using eye patches, using irrigation, tweezers, cotton swab, or other simple means to remove splinters or foreign material from areas other than the eye, using finger guards, and drinking fluids to relieve heat stress); injuries that require no more than these first-aid procedures do not have to be recorded; also used to record significant work-related injuries and illnesses that are diagnosed by a physician or licensed health care professional ----OSHA's Form 300A: all organizations covered by 29 CFR must complete this form, even if there have been no work-related injuries or illnesses during the year in question; this form is used to summarize all injuries and illnesses that appear on Form 300 ----OSHA's Form 301: used for every incidence of a recordable injury or illness; this form must be completed within 7 calendar days of learning that a recordable injury or illness has occurred --Record keeping and reporting exceptions: employers with 10 or fewer employees; employers in real estate, finance, retail trade, or insurance; most industries that fall into Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes are exempt from all record-keeping and reporting requirements except in the case of a fatality or an incident in which five or more employees are hospitalized --*Accidents and incidents rates must be kept for 5 years; if it is an illness, rates must be kept for 30 years*

Keeping Employees Informed

--One of the most important requirements of the OSH Act is communication; employees are required to keep employees informed about safety and health issues that concern them --Employers are required to display the following information: OSHA Poster (explains employee rights and responsibilities as prescribed by the OSH Act), summaries of variance requests of all types, copies of all OSHA citations received for failure to meet standards and must be posted near the site of the violation and must remain until the violation is corrected, and OSHA Form 300A (summary of workplace injuries and illnesses) --Employers must provide employees who request them with copies of OSH Act and any OSHA rules that may concern them --Employees must be given access to records of exposure to hazardous materials and medical surveillance that has been conducted

OSHA's Enhanced Enforcement Policy

--Organizations that receive OSHA citations for high-gravity violations are subject to enhanced enforcement measures --Follow-up inspections: high-gravity violations include high-gravity willful violations, multiple high-gravity serious violations, repeat violations at the originating establishment, failure-to-abate notices, and serious or willful violations related to a workplace fatality; companies who commit these types of violations will receive on-site follow-up inspections --Programmed inspections: OSHA's site-specific targeting process uses objective selection criteria to schedule programmed inspections; OSHA records the name of the overall corporate entity during inspections and prioritizes within its site-specific targeting list all brand and affiliated facilities under the entity's broad corporate umbrella that have received high-gravity violations --Public awareness: when an organization receives a high-gravity violation, OSHA makes the public aware of the violation and all applicable enforcement actions taken by issuing press releases; OSHA also notifies the company's corporate headquarters --Settlements

Human Factors Theory of Accident Causation

--Overload: amounts to the imbalance between a person's capacity at any give time and the load that person is carrying in a given state; a person's capacity is the product of such factors as his or her natural ability, training, state of mind, fatigue, stress, and physical condition; the load that a person is carrying consists of tasks for which he or she is responsible and added burdens resulting from environmental factors, internal factors, and situational factors --Inappropriate Response and Incompatibility: how a person responds in a given situation can cause or prevent an accident; if a person detects a hazardous condition but does nothing to correct it, he or she has responded inappropriately; in addition to inappropriate responses, this component includes workstation incompatibility (the incompatibility of a person's workstation with regard to size, force, reach, feel, and similar factors can lead to accidents and injuries --Inappropriate Activities: example is a person who undertakes a task that he or she doesn't know how to do; another is a person who misjudges the degree of risk involved in a given task and proceeds based on that misjudgement

NIOSH

--Part of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) --2 broad functions: research and education --The main focus of research is on toxicity levels and human tolerance levels of hazardous substances --Every year, it NIOSH publishes updated lists of toxic materials and recommended tolerance levels --Part of the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) --Has the authority to conduct research in the workplace and to respond to requests for assistance from employers and employees --Developed a list of the 10 leading work-related diseases and injuries: occupational lung diseases, musculoskeletal injuries, occupational cancers, occupational cardiovascular disease, severe occupational traumatic injuries, disorders of reproduction, neurotoxic disorders, noise-induced hearing loss, dermatological conditions, and psychological disorders --Division of Biomedical and Behavioral Science (DBBS): conducts research in the areas of toxicology, behavioral science, ergonomics, and the health consequences of various physical agents; investigates problems caused by new technologies and develops biological monitoring and diagnostic aids; conducts laboratory and work-site research into the psychological, behavioral, physiological, and motivational factors relating to job stress as well as those induced by chemical and physical agents; assesses physical work capacity and tolerance for environmental conditions as influenced by age, gender, body type, and physical fitness; conducts research on hazards from physical agents such as noise, vibration, and non-ionizing energy sources --Division of Respiratory Disease Studies (DRDS): focal point for the clinical and epidemiological research that NIOSH conducts on occupational respiratory diseases; provides legislatively mandated medical and autopsy services and conducts medical research to fulfill NIOSH's responsibilities under the Federal Mine Safety and Health Amendments Act; conducts field studies of occupational respiratory diseases in addition to designing and interpreting cross-sectional and prospective morbidity and mortality studies relating to occupational respiratory diseases --Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies (DHEFS): conducts surveillance of the nation's workforce and workplaces to assess the magnitude and extent of job-related illnesses, exposures, and hazardous agents; conducts legislatively mandated health hazard evaluations and industry-wide epidemiological research programs, including longitudinal studies of records and clinical and environmental field studies and surveys --Division of Training and Manpower Development (DTMD): implements the OSH Act, which sets forth training and education requirements; develops programs to increase the numbers and competence of safety and health professionals; provides short-term technical training courses

Productivity and Competitiveness

--Productivity: the concept of comparing output of goods or services to the input of resources needed to produce or deliver them; typically expressed as the ratio of output to input (output/input= productivity) --Value added: the difference between what it costs to produce a product and what it costs to purchase it; the difference represents the value that has been added to the product by the production process; value added is increased when productivity is increased; converting raw materials into usable products adds value to the materials --Productivity is declining when (1) output declines, and input is constant; or (2) output is constant, but input increases --Productivity is improving when (1) output is constant, but input decreases; or (2) output increases, and input is constant --When productivity is improved, quality must also improve or at least remain constant --The U.S. has historically been the most productive country; however, other countries have also upped their productivity, like Japan

Quality and Competitiveness

--Quality: a measure of the extent to which a product or service meets or exceeds customer expectations; it is important to define quality in terms of customer expectations --Quality without productivity results in costs that are too high to be competitive --Productivity without quality results in a shabby product that quickly tarnishes the corporate image --The most important consumer product in the global marketplace is the automobile; it is often used as a measuring stick for making quality comparisons; the basis of comparison is assembly defects --Quality management: improvement strategies

Repetitive Strain/ Soft Tissue Injuries

--Repetitive strain injury (RSI): broad and generic term that encompasses a variety of injuries resulting from cumulative trauma to the soft tissues of the body, including tendons, tendon sheaths, muscles, ligaments, joints, and nerves; typically associate with the soft tissues of the hands, arms, neck, and shoulders --Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS): most widely known RSI; the carpal tunnel is the area inside the wrist through which the median nerve passes; CTS is typically caused by repeated and cumulative stress on the median nerve; symptoms include numbness, a tingling sensation, and pain in the fingers, hand, and/or wrist; if you've got this you want to file a claim under workers comp because it will be 100% covered by the employer --A common misconception is that carpal tunnel is synonymous with RSI but it is not; some other types of RSI include muscle and tendon disorders, DeQuervain's Disease, tunnel syndromes, ulnar nerve disorders, nerve and circulation disorders, and other associated disorders --Syndrome is short term and disease is long-term; acute injuries are serious, but only last for a short period

OSHA Standards Continued (Requesting a Variance)

--Requesting a variance: in the event an employer is unable to to comply with a new standard by the effective date of enforcement, the employer may petition OSHA at the state or federal level for a variance ----Temporary variance: OSHA may grant a temporary variance may grant such a variance for up to a maximum of one year; to be granted this, employers must demonstrate they are making a concerted effort to comply and taking the steps necessary to protect employees while working toward compliance); application requirements (identification of the parts of the standard that cannot be complied with; explanation of the reasons why compliance is not possible; detailed explanations of the steps that have been taken so far to comply with the standard; and explanation of the steps that will be taken to comply fully; the maximum period of each extension is 6 ----Permanent variance: employers who feel they already provide a workplace that exceeds the requirements of a new standard may request a permanent variance; if a permanent variance is awarded, it comes with a detailed explanation of the employer's ongoing responsibilities regarding the variance; the variance can be revoked if the company does not meet these requirements ----Other variances: experimental variance may be awarded to companies that participate in OSHA-sponsored experiments to test the effectiveness of new health and safety procedures; variances also may be awarded in cases where the secretary of labor determines that a variance is in the best interest of the country's national defense

Risk Manager

--Risk management: consists of the various activities and strategies that an organization can use to protect itself from situations, circumstances, or events that may undermine its security; risk manager= loss control, reduction of risk, and transferring risk --Example: you manage the risk associated with driving using two broad strategies (reduction and transference); the risk associated with driving can be reduced by wearing a seat belt, driving defensively, and obeying traffic laws; the remaining risk is managed by transferring it to an insurance company by purchasing a policy that covers both collision and liability

Summary of Chapter 1

--Safety and health awareness has a long history; Egyptians had early attempts at workers comp; there is evidence of concern for safety and health during the time of the Romans --Organized labor has played a crucial role in the development of the safety movement in the U.S.; particularly important was the work of unions to overturn anti-union labor laws inhibiting safety in the workplace --Specific health problems associated with the workplace have contributed to the development of the modern safety and health movement; these problems include lung diseases in miners, mercury poisoning, and lung cancer tied to asbestos --Tragedies have changed the face of the safety movement (Hawk's Nest Tragedy; Bhopal Tragedy, Asbestos Menace) --Widely used accident prevention techniques include failure minimization, fail-safe designs, isolation, lockouts, screening, personal protective equipment, redundancy, and timed replacements --Development of the safety movement has been helped by the development of safety organizations; National Safety Council; National Safety Management Society; American Society of Safety Engineers; American Industrial Hygiene Association --The safety movement today is characterized by professionalization and integration; new materials and processes are introducing new safety and health problems, making the integrated approach a practical necessity and promoting growth in the profession

Types of Engineers

--Safety engineer: often a misnomer in the modern workplace; typically the title is given to the person who has overall responsibility for the company's safety program (the safety manager) or to a member of the company's safety team; not always a degreed individual with training --Industrial engineers: most likely candidates from among the various engineering disciplines to work as safety engineers --Environmental engineers --Chemical engineers: aka process engineers

Standards and Codes

--Standard: operational principle, criterion, or requirement, or a combination of these --Code: set of standards, rules, or regulations relating to a specific area --Numerous organizations develop standards and codes for different industries; these organizations include the government, professional organizations, and technical/trade associations --Make standards and codes in the following areas: dust hazards, electricity, emergency electricity systems, fire protection, first aid, hazardous chemicals, instrumentation, insulation, lighting, lubrication, materials, noise/vibration, paint, power, wiring, pressure relief, product storage and handling, piping materials, piping systems, radiation exposure, safety equipment, shutdown systems, and ventilation

How Safety and Health Can Improve Competitiveness

--Talented people working in a safe and healthy environment will be more competitive than equally talented people who are constantly distracted by concerns for their safety and health --The illiteracy problem, coupled with rapid and continual technological change, have serious implications for the global competitiveness of U.S. companies; the aging workforce also has serious implications for the global competitiveness of U.S. companies --Productivity and cost: in a safe an healthy workplace, employees will be able to focus their skills more intently on being productive rather than worrying about accidents or health problems; on the cost side, companies with a record of safe and healthy practices will be better able to reinvest in equipment upgrades than those who must divert funds into things like medical claims --Quality: essential to competitiveness; practices that enhance quality also tend to enhance safety and health; quality requires strict adherence to established production practices, attention to detail, and a commitment to doing things the right way --Response time: like productivity in that it is a function of people, technology, and management strategies; a characteristic of today's most competitive companies is to produce their products while carrying little or no inventory --Service: with industrial companies, service typically means in-field or after-delivery service; service is important because it can have significant impact on customer satisfaction, and, in turn, on corporate image; not associated with safety and health, therefore, it is not a component to be used when trying to gain a commitment to safety and health --Image: a poor image can undermine a company's competitiveness

Design Process

--The design process is a plan of action for reaching a goal; the plan, sometimes labeled problem-solving strategy, is used by engineers, designers, drafters, scientists, technologists, and a multitude of professionals --The design process proceeds in 5 sequential steps: ----Problem identification: is it short-term or long-term?; this is the hardest step in the scientific method ----Synthesis: engineers combine or synthesize systematic, scientific procedures with creative techniques to develop initial solutions to the problem identified in step 1 ----Analysis and evaluation ----Document and communicate: engineering drawings, detailed calculations, and written specifications are prepared; these document the design and communicate its various components to interested parties ----Produce and deliver: the product is produced and delivered

Summary of Chapter 3

--The domino theory posits that injuries result from from a series of factors, one of which is an accident; operationalized in 10 statements called the Axioms of Industrial Safety; according to this theory, there are 5 factors in the sequence of events leading to an accident (ancestry and social environment; fault of person; unsafe act/mechanical or physical hazard; accident; and injury) --The human factors theory of accident causation attributes accidents to a chain of events ultimately caused by human error; consists of three broad factors that lead to human error (overload; inappropriate response; and inappropriate activities) --The accident/incident theory of accident causation is an extension of the human factors theory; it introduces such new elements as ergonomic traps, the decision to err, and systems failure --The epidemiological theory of accident causation holds that the models used for studying and determining the relationships between the environmental factors and disease can be used to study causal relationships between environmental factors and accidents --The systems theory views any situation in which an accident may occur as a system with three components (person/host; machine/agency; and environment) --The combination theory posits that no one model or theory can explain all accidents; factors from two or more models may be part of the cause --there are 7 principles of behavior-based safety (intervention; identification of internal factors; motivation to behave in the desired manner; focus on the positive consequences of appropriate behavior; application of the scientific method integration of information; and planned interventions --Drugs and alcohol are the root contributing cause of many workplace accidents every year --Clinical depression is an invisible problem in the workplace, however, it can be a major cause of accidents --Management failures are another leading cause of accidents on the job; if management is serious about workplace safety and health, it must establish expectations, provide training, evaluate employee performance with safety in mind, and reinforce safe and healthy behavior --There is a strong correlation between obesity and injuries

Engineers and Safety

--The engineer has more potential to affect safety in the workplace that any other person does --The engineer's opportunity for both good and bad comes during the design process --Not all engineers are design engineers; however, engineers involved in design are usually in the aerospace, electrical, mechanical, and nuclear fields

Summary of Chapter 4

--The modern safety and health team is headed by a safety and health manager; depending on the size of the company and the commitment of its management, the team may include people in the following additional positions: safety engineer, industrial hygienist, environmental engineer, health physicist, occupational physician, and occupational health nurse --The job of the safety and health manager is complex and diverse, focusing on analysis, prevention, planning, evaluation, promotion, and compliance --Engineers can have a significant impact on safety in the workplace and the marketplace by designing safety into products; the engineering disciplines geared most closely to design are aerospace, electrical, nuclear, and mechanical --Industrial hygienists are concerned with recognizing the impact of environmental factors on people, evaluating the potential hazards of environmental stressors, and prescribing methods to eliminate stressors --Health physicists are concerned primarily with radiation in the workplace; their duties include monitoring radiation in the air, measuring radioactivity levels in biological samples, developing the radiation components of a company's emergency action plan, and supervising decontamination activities --Occupational physicians are medical doctors who specialize in workplace-related health problems and injuries; in the past, OPs treated injuries and illnesses as the occurred; today, they focus more attention on anticipating and preventing problems --Occupational health nurses are concerned with conserving the health of workers through prevention, recognition, and treatment; focus more attention on anticipation and prevention than they did in the past --Risk management involves the application of risk reduction strategies and transferring remaining risk to insurance companies --Professional certification is an excellent way to establish credentials in the safety, health, and environmental management profession

Costs of Accidents

--The view used to be that accident prevention was too costly, but now the view is that accidents are too costly so accident prevention is reasonable and moral --Accidents are the 4th leading cause of death in the U.S. after heart disease, cancer, and strokes; however, it is the leading cause of death among people age 37 or younger (prime working years) --Accidents represent a serious detriment to productivity, quality, and competitiveness in today's workplace; yet accidents are the one cause of death and injury that companies can most easily control --Overall cost of accidents in the U.S. is $150 billion; these costs include lost wages, medical expenses, insurance administration, fire-related losses, motor vehicle property damage, and indirect costs --Motor vehicle accidents cost the most per year, followed by workplace accidents, home accidents, public accidents

Workplace Accidents

--Work accident rates in this century are evidence of the success of the safety movement in the U.S.; many believe the major cost of accidents and injuries on the job results from damage to morale; lost time due to work injuries (according to the NSC, approximately 35 million hours are lost in a typical year as a result of accidents; this is actual time lost from injuries and does not include additional time lost for medical checkups after the employee returns to work); deaths in the workplace have declined but there are still roughly 10,000 per year --Work injuries by type of accident: Overexertion (leading cause of work injuries); impact accidents (involve a worker being struck by or against an object); falls (next most prominent cause); bodily reaction (to chemicals); compression; motor vehicle accidents; exposure to radiation or caustics; rubbing or abrasions; exposure to extreme temperatures --Death rates by industry (highest to lowest): Mining/quarrying; Agriculture; Construction; Transportation/ public utilities; Government; Manufacturing; Services; Trade --Parts of the body injured on the job (from most frequent to least): Back; Legs and fingers; Arms and multiple parts of the body; Trunk; Hands; Eyes, head, and feet; neck, toes, and body systems --Time lost due to work injuries: *every year at Denton State School from June to August, someone was "sick" and would take care of all the kids

Systems Theory of Accident Causation

--a system is a group of regularly interacting and interrelated components that together form a unified whole; this definition is the basis of this theory --this theory views a situation in which an accident may occur as a system comprised of the following components: person (host); machine (agency); and environment ----the likelihood of an accident occurring is determined by how the components interact --example: an experienced employee who operated numerically controlled five-axis machining center takes a 2 week vacation; her temporary replacement might be less experienced and this change in one component of the system (person/host) increases the probability of an accident --Stressors: can cloud the judgement of those collecting information, weighing risks, and making the decision; 5 factors should be considered before beginning this process (job requirements; the workers' abilities and limitations; the gain if the task is successfully accomplished; the loss if the task is attempted but fails; the loss if the task is not attempted); it is important to consider these factors when stressors such as noise, time constraints, or pressure from a supervisor may tend to cloud one's judegement

Summary of Chapter 2

--accidents cost roughly $150 billion annually in the U.S.; this includes direct and indirect costs of accidents that occur on and off the job --the leading causes of accidental deaths in the U.S. are motor vehicle accidents, falls, poisoning, drowning, fire-related injuries, suffocation, firearms, medical complications, air transport accidents, machinery-relation injuries, mechanical suffocation, and the impact of falling objects --the leading causes of death in the U.S. are heart disease, cancer, and stroke; however, among people age 37 and younger, accidents are the leading cause of death --between 1912 and 1998, the number of accidental work deaths per 100,000 population declined by 81 percent, from 21 to 4 --Roughly 35 million work hours are lost annually as a result of accidents; this is actual time lost from disabling injuries and does not include additional time lost to medical checkups after the injured employee returns to work --the leading causes of death in work accidents are motor vehicle-related, falls, electric current, drowning, fire-related, air transport related, poisoning, and water transport related --the leading causes of work injuries are overexertion, impact accidents, falls, bodily reaction, compression, motor vehicle accidents, exposure to radiation or caustics, rubbing or abrasions, and exposure to extreme temperatures --highest death rate to lowest by industry: mining/quarrying, agriculture, construction, transportation/public utilities, government, manufacturing, services, and trade --most frequently involved body parts to least: back; legs and fingers; arms and multiple parts of body; trunk; hands; eyes, head, and feet; and neck, toes, and body systems --the chemicals most frequently involved in chemical burn injuries include acids and alkalies; soaps, detergents, and cleaning compounds; solvents and degreasers; calcium hydroxide; potassium hydroxide; and sulfuric acid --the most frequent causes of heat burn injuries are flame, molten metal, petroleum, asphalt, steam, and water --carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is an injury to the median nerve in the wrist that typically results from repeated stress placed on the nerve; symptoms of CTS include numbness, a tingling sensation, and pain in the hand and/or wrist --repetitive strain injury (RSI) is a broad and generic term that encompasses a variety or injuries resulting from cumulative trauma to the soft tissues of the body, including tendons, tendon sheaths, muscles, ligaments, joints, and nerves; such injuries are typically associated with the hands, arms, neck, and shoulders --accident rates are especially high in developing countries because these countries are responding to the pressures of global competition without first putting a safety and health infrastructure in place (for example, regulations, training, and record keeping

Behavioral Theory of Accident Causation

--aka behavior-based safety (BBS) --application of behavioral theories from the field of psychology to the field of occupational safety --7 basic principles of BBS: ----intervention that is focused on employee behavior ----identification of external factors that will help understand and improve employee behavior (from the perspective of safety in the workplace) ----direct behavior with activators or events antecedent to the desired behavior, and motivation of the employee to behave as desired with incentives and rewards that will follow the desired behavior ----focus on the positive consequences that will result from the desired behavior as a way to motivate employees ----application of the scientific method to improve attempts at behavioral interventions ----use of theory to integrate information rather than to limit possibilities ----planned interventions with the feelings and attitudes of the individual employee in mind

Heat Burn Injuries

--almost 40% of all such injuries occur in manufacturing --the most frequent causes are: flame (this includes smoke inhalation injuries); molten metal; petroleum asphalts; steam; and water --the most common activities associate with heat burn are welding, cutting with a torch, and handling tar or asphalt

The Safety Movement

--has grown steadily since 1900s --industrial accidents were commonplace at this time --legislation, precedent, and public opinion favored management; there were few protections for workers' safety --today, working conditions for industrial employees have improved significantly; chance of worker death in an industrial accident is less than half of what it was 60 years ago; today the rate is about 4 per 100,000 --*National Security Council was created; it is the oldest safety council in the U.S. --Horizontal standards apply to everyone; vertical standards were specifically passed for miners because of the high death rate

Combination Theory of Accident Causation

--often the cause of an accident cannot be adequately explained by just one model or theory --this theory says the actual cause may combine parts of several different models

Management Failures and Accident Causation

--one of the leading causes of accidents in the workplace is the failure of management to do its part to ensure a safe and healthy work environment --supervisors play a critical role in making sure that employees work in a safe and healthy environment --Typical management failures that cause accidents: if management is serious about providing a safe and healthy work environment for employees it must (show employees that safe and health work practices are expected; provide training in how to work safely; include safe and healthy work practices as criteria in the periodic performance appraisals of employees; reinforce safe and healthy work practices by rewarding and recognizing employees who use them --the most problematic management failures is when there is pressure to meet deadlines so supervisors overlook safety to increase speed --*Common examples of management failures include the following: ----Poor housekeeping or improper use of tools, equipment, or facilities ----Pressure to meet deadlines

Safety Fact: Pregnancy at Work

--shift work and workstations that require awkward postures can put them at risk --the 3rd trimester is the most risk-intensive time during pregnancy --strenuous labor can lead to miscarriages; the types of work to be avoided by pregnant employees include the following: ----Standing for more that three hours per day ----Operating machinery that vibrates ----Lifting heavy loads ----Working in extremes of hot or cold

Development of Safety Organizations

--the grandfather of all these safety organizations is the NSC; the largest organization in the U.S. devoted solely to safety and health practices and procedures; its purpose is to prevent the losses, both direct and indirect, arising out of accidents or from exposure to unhealthy environments; nongovernmental, not-for-profit, public service organization --Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA): the government's administrative arm for the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act); sets and revokes safety and health standards, conducts inspections, investigates problems, issues citations, assesses penalties, petitions the courts to take appropriate action against unsafe employers, provides safety training, provides injury prevention consultation, and maintains a database of health and safety statistics; OSHA does not cover miners (they are covered under Miners Safety and Health Act); TX was the last state to have an EEO agency, we don't have a OSHA, and TX is very employer oriented/favored --National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); required to publish annually a comprehensive list of all known toxic substances; will also provide on-site tests of potentially toxic substances; falls under Health and Human Services but OSHA is under Department of Labor; anything that has to do with work is under the Department of Labor

Chemical Burn Injuries

--the greatest incidence of these injuries occurs in manufacturing; other high incidence industries are services, trade, and construction --the chemicals that most frequently cause burns are acids and alkalies; soaps, detergents, and cleaning compounds; solvents and degreasers; calcium hydroxide (a chemical used in cement and plaster); potassium hydroxide (an ingredient in drain cleaners and other cleaning solutions); and sulfuric acid (battery acid) --almost 46% of all chemical burn injuries occur while workers are cleaning equipment, tools, and vehicles -- a high percentage of chemical burn injuries occur in spite of the use of personal protective equipment, the provision of safety instruction, and the availability of treatment facilities

Development Before the Industrial Revolution

--the health movement has been a long continuum beginning with the Babylonians --circa 2000 BC, their ruler Hammurabi, developed his Code of Hammurabi (contained clauses dealing with injuries, allowable fees for physicians, and monetary damages assessed against those who injured others) --Egyptians were an industrious people who used slaves as their workers, but they were not treated well --Romans were vitally concerned with health and safety; they had aqueducts, sewerage systems, public baths, latrines, and well-ventilated houses --Bernardino Ramazzini related occupational diseases to the handling of harmful materials and to irregular or unnatural movements of the body --the changes in production brought about by the industrial revolution can be summarized as follows (all of these made the workplace more dangerous) : ----inanimate power (i.e. steam power) was introduced to replace people and animal power (increases the potential for life-threatening injuries) ----substitution of machines for people (increases the potential for life-threatening injuries) ----introduction of new methods for converting raw materials (danger from injuries or diseases) ----organization and specialization of work (dangerous because it can cause boredom and inattentiveness)

Epidemiological Theory of Accident Causation

--traditionally, safety theories and programs have focused on accidents and the resulting injuries; however, the current trend is toward a broader perspective that also encompasses the issue of industrial hygiene --Industrial hygiene: concerns environmental factors that can lead to sickness, disease, or other forms of impaired health --Epidemiology is the study of causal relationships between environmental factors and disease --Epidemiological theory: holds that the models used for studying and determining these relationships can also be used to study causal relationships between environmental factors and accidents or diseases --Key components: predispositional characteristics and situational characteristics

Certification of Safety and Health Professionals (Certified Safety Professional)

-Academic requirements: bachelor's degree in safety from a program accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering Technology; minimum educational requirements (either an associate degree in safety and health or a bachelor's degree in any field) --Experience requirement: four years of professional safety experience in addition to any experience used to meet the academic requirement --Examination requirements: have to pass 2 exams; Safety Fundamentals Examination and Comprehensive Practice Examination