mgmt310 exam 2
What are the methods by which employees learn in organizations? (conditioning, observing) What are the different types of reinforcement that can occur?
Observation - social learning theory - people have the ability to observe others and learn from their behaviors Social learning may be a primary way of gaining info about what one is supposed to do on the job. Reinforcement: people exhibit specific behavior if they are rewarded for doing so. Repeat behaviors associated with good outcomes. Positive reinforcement - positive consequence followed desired behavior Performing task well and earning praise Negative reinforcement - unwanted consequences removed after desired behavior Extinctions - removal of a consequence following unwanted behaviors Removing attention from childish behavior at work
What are SMART goals?
Acronym summarizes many beneficial goal characteristics, standing for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Result-based, and Time sensitive.
How does cognitive ability affect job performance and organizational commitment? What is the potential downside of using cognitive ability in OB for selection, promotion, etc.? How does socioeconomic status play a role?
Cognitive ability has a strong positive effect on job performance People with high cognitive ability are better at learning and decision making, able to gain more knowledge at a faster rate Interestingly, doesn't have strong correlation with organizational commitment. Cognitive ability has a weak correlation with organizational commitment Important across all jobs: related the most to job performance
How does conscientiousness affect job performance and organizational commitment?
Conscientiousness has a moderate positive effect on job performance Conscientiousness has a moderate positive correlation with organizational commitment More important for predicting job performance Neuroticism is the second most important test Conscientiousness - citizenship behaviors Personality makes them more willing to go the extra mile Experience higher job satisfaction: positive feelings make them more inclined to help out
Relatedly, what are the different schedules of reinforcement? What are examples of how they might be applied to pay in organizations. Which has the best results?
Continuous - every desired behavior, high but difficult to maintain (Praise) Fixed interval - fixed time periods, average (paycheck) Variable interval - variable time periods, moderately high, (supervisor walk-by) Fixed ratio - fixed number of desired behaviors, high, (piece-rate pay) Variable ratio - variable number of desired behaviors, very high, (commission pay) Highest level of performance, best results, because you get paid for what you work for. Work hard to sell as much as possible.
In what three sources can trust be rooted? (disposition, affect, cognitive)
Disposition based - your personality traits include general propensity to trust others. Everything to do with you and not the person - general tendency to trust people. Faith in human nature. Degree in which you trust people - more in nature and nurture. How you grew up and your surroundings influence this trait. Nothing about trustor all about you Cognition based - its rooted in a rational assessment of the authority's trustworthiness. How the person has treated you previously, rational decision, think about how they have treated you and make a rational decision If to trust them or not. Ability - skills, competencies, expertise Benevolence - belief that authority wants to do something good for you Integrity - perception that authority adheres to a set of values/principles that person deems acceptable. All data driven, thinking about prior interactions. Affect based - it depends on feelings toward the authority that go beyond any rational assessment. More emotional Can be a neurological reaction, feelings of trust increase willingness to accept vulnerability. More emotional than rational: trust because we have feelings for the person.
What is expectancy theory, and what are the three beliefs (expectancy, instrumentality, valence) that help determine how work effort is directed?
Expectancy theory - the cognitive process that employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses. Employee behavior is directed toward pleasure and away from pain, and more towards certain outcomes and away from others.
What types of knowledge can employees gain as they learn and build expertise? What makes these types of knowledge distinct from each other?
Expertise - the knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people. Explicit knowledge - information you think about when you picture someone sitting down at a desk to learn. Its information that's relatively easily to communicate and a large part of what companies teach during training sessions. Easily transferred through written or verbal communication Readily available to most, can be learned through books, always conscious and accessible information. Tacit knowledge - what employees can learn through experience. Not easily communicated but very well be the most important aspect of what we learn. 90% of knowledge contained in organizations occurs in tacit form. Intuition, skills, insight, belief, mental models, practical intelligence. Highly personal in nature, based on experience, very difficult to articulate to others Explicit knowledge is what everyone can find and use, but tacit knowledge is what separates experts from common people.
What are heuristics, availability bias, and recency effects?
Heuristics: quick, simple rules we can use to make judgements Rules of thumb Generally, may not be bad, but can lead to inaccurate decisions when they are overused. Availability Bias: decision-making bias where people base their judgements on information that is easy to recall. Recency effects: emanate from the availability bias - pay more attention to recent events because they are more available in memory
What is "radical candor?" What do managers need to do to achieve it?
How to get what you want by saying what you mean There are things you can do that will put you in a better position if you do them Truthfulness and honesty: challenge people directly when they have performance problems Take an interest in them, what motivates them, what's important to them Care personally and challenge directly = radical candor Ask for criticism from your employees Best way to show that you are aware that you're often wrong and that you want to know about it You'll learn a lot Need to know how criticism will be received in order to give good criticism
How can we use the 'Big Five' to tap into a person's integrity? Relatedly, what is the different between veiled and clear purpose integrity tests.
Integrity tests: high conscientiousness, low neuroticism, high agreeableness Integrity tests: predict job performance and counterproductive work behavior well, with clear purpose being better than veiled purpose.
How does learning affect job performance and organizational commitment?
Learning has a moderate positive effect on job performance Learning as a weak positive effect on organizational commitment
What are the different dimensions of corporate social responsibility?
Legal component - follows society's laws since they signify what is viewed as 'right' or 'wrong' Speaks to integrity of the organization Ethical component - organizations have an obligation to do what is right, just, and fair and to avoid harm Speaks to benevolence and integrity of the organization Moral awareness and they refrain from unethical behavior Citizenship component: organizations should contribute resources to improve the quality of life in the communities they work in Environmental sustainability Charitable work and volunteering
What factors influence individuals' perceptions of disposition-based trust? • What three characteristics of a trustee does a trustor judge, when the trustor is assessing the trustworthiness from a cognitive perspective?
Limited evidence about a person, you would need to notice their justice value - how they are acting towards other people. Determines if you trust someone. Ability - Skills, competencies, in areas of expertise that enable an authority to be successful in some specific area. Benevolence - the belief that the authority wants to do good for the trustor, apart from any selfish or profit center motives. Integrity - the perception that the authority adheres to a set of values and principles that the trustor finds acceptable. when authorities have integrity, they are of sound character and they have good intentions and strong moral discipline.
What role does moral identity and an ethical culture play in ethical behavior?
Moral identity - the degree to which a person self-identifies as a moral person. 'good apple' People with string moral identities define themselves as compassionate, generous, and hardworking. Managers that emphasize specific ethics principles are less likely to engage in unethical behaviors. Ethical culture - culture of an organization endorses doing unethical things. 'bad barrels' When the authorities are morally aware, when they have sophisticated moral judgment, and when they possess strong moral intent, chances are their actions will tend to be ethical.
What is motivation? What is motivation's relationship with engagement? o Related, what are the three components of motivation (e.g., intensity, persistence, direction) and how do they fit into the four main theories of motivation?
Motivation - is defined as the set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an employee, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence. Engagement - summarizes motivation levels. Employees who are engaged completely invest themselves and their energies into their jobs. Motivation increases engagement High levels of intensity and persistence Intensity - How hard are you going to work on it? Persistence - How long are you going to work on it? Direction - What are you working on in that moment
How does motivation relate to job performance and organizational commitment?
Motivation has a strong positive correlation on job performance. People who experience higher levels of motivation tend to have higher levels of task performance. Motivation has a moderate positively correlated to organizational commitment. People who experience higher levels of equity tend to feel higher levels of affective commitment and higher levels of normative commitment. The motivating force with the strongest performance effect is self-efficacy/competence, because people who feel a sense of internal self-confidence tend to outperform those who doubt their capabilities difficult goals are the second most powerful motivating force perceptions of equity have a weaker effect on task performance
What is equity theory?
Motivation is maximized when an employee's ratio of outcomes to inputs matches those of some comparison other Depends on how you evaluate other employees' outcomes A theory that suggests that employees create a mental ledger of the outcomes they receive on their job inputs, relative to some comparative other. Motivation doesn't just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people. o What do we mean by inputs and outputs for equity theory? Argues that you compare your ratio of outcomes and inputs to the ratio of outcomes and inputs to the ratio of some comparison other - some person who seems to provide an intuitive frame of reference for judging equity.
What makes an outcome have high valence? What role do needs play in expectancy theory? What kind of needs do people have, and which are most important?
Needs - defined as cognitive groupings or clusters of outcomes that are viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences. People have different 'need hierarchies' that they use to evaluate potential outcomes. Needs - Existence, relatedness, control, esteem, and meaning.
What steps can organizations take to increase employee motivation at the individual-, unit-, and organization-level? Specifically, how do different forms of compensation and recognition affect motivation?
Organizations Use compensation practices to increase motivation. Those practices may include individual focused elements (piece-rate, merit pay, lump-sum bonuses, recognition awards) unit focused elements (gainsharing) or organization focused elements (profit sharing) All recognition is also a reward and all rewards are forms of recognition Non-tangible rewards work well with high return on investment Can be provided at no monetary cost Praise and recognition have transformative psychological and even physiological effects Recognition can be a very powerful motivator
What types of tests can organizations use to assess cognitive ability?
People can perform poorly on cognitive ability tests due to factors outside of actual general mental ability Test anxiety Socioeconomic status
Chapter 9: Personality and Cultural Values What is personality? What is it comprised of? What are traits and cultural values? What shapes personality - is it nature, nurture, or both?
Personality - the structures and propensities inside a person that explain his or her characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior. Captures what people are like Traits: recurring regularities/trends in people's responses to their surroundings (caring, easygoing, adventurous) Cultural values: shared belief about desirable states or modes of conduct Shared with other people from your same culture Nature: comes from your biology and genetics Nurture: comes from your environment.
For interpersonal and interactional justice, what rules guide fair treatment (interpersonal) and fair communication (informational)?
Procedural justice - giving employees a chance to express their opinions and views during the course of decision making. a related rule is correct ability which provides employees with the chance to request an appeal when the procedure seems to have worked ineffectively.
What two methods can employees use to make decisions? (programmed, nonprogrammed)
Programmed decisions - decisions that are somewhat automatic responses, people's knowledge/experience allow them to quickly identify the solution; intuition or a gut feeling. Nonprogrammed decision - rational decision-making model. Organizations are complex, dynamic, and changing environments In uncertain situations, employees have to use rational decision making to guide appropriate outcomes Step-by-step way to come up with an appropriate solution
Chapter 8: Learning and Decision Making What is learning, and how does it affect decision making?
Reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or skill that result from experience Decision making - refers to the process if generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem. The more knowledge and skills employees possess, the more likely they are to make accurate and sound decisions. Not always rational
What role does self-efficacy play in expectancy theory? What influences self-efficacy?
Self-efficacy is self-confidence or a task-specific version of self-esteem. Employees feel more efficacious for a particular task will tend to perceive higher levels of expectancy and more likely to choose to exert high levels of effort
What are the dimensions of Hofstede's cultural values?
Shared values, beliefs, motives, resulting from common experiences of members of society across generations What we're like, or where we're from Shared beliefs about desirable end states Individualism-collectivism: self vs group oriented Power distance: egalitarian vs hierarchical Uncertainty avoidance: being OK with ambiguity vs preferring formal rules Provides researchers with a quantitative tool to summarize and compare/contrast cultures of different societies.
What is locus of control?
Strongly correlated with neuroticism Reflects the distinction between believing that events are driven by luck, chance, or fate, versus peoples own behaviors Internal LOC: believe your own behavior dictates events External LOC: events occur because of luck, chance, fate
Chapter 10: Ability What is ability? How does it differ from personality?
The relatively stable capabilities people have to perform a particular range of different but related activities In contrast to skills, which are more trainable and improvable In contrast to skills, which are more trainable and improvable Level of ability generally limits how much a person is able to improve, regardless of amount of training, practice, time, etc. As with personality, about half of the variation in ability levels is due to genetics Multiple abilities combine to reflect what people can do Contrasts with personality
How do perceptions of trust in relationships evolve over time—which is likely to develop first, second, and last?
Trust propensity may be one of the first personality traits to develop because infants must immediately learn to trust their parents to meet their needs. Disposition based trust occurs first because you don't know anything about them (New relationships) As you collect more data and find more about them you go into cognitive based trust (Most relationships) As you know them more and feel connection with them you reach a level of affective based trust. (Few more known relationships)
What is goal setting theory? (most supported theory)
Views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort Motivation is fostered when employees are given specific and difficult goals Rather than no goals, easy goals, or 'do your best' goals Assigning employees specific and difficult goals will result in higher levels of performance than assigning no goals, easy goals, or do-your-best goals,
Are personality tests a useful tool for organizational hiring? What about integrity tests?
Yes, its useful for organization in hiring people, there are some potential issues, people can fake some answers, you can structure the test to make faking less likely.
What does it mean to "satisfice"?
You're maximizing, highest value personally. Going with the first option minimally acceptable.
How do the three beliefs work together?
-Expectancy Theory - represents the belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in the successful performance of some task. Describes the cognitive processes employees go through when making choices among different voluntary responses --Behavior is directed by seeking pleasure, avoiding pain --Motivation is fostered when the employee believes three things. >Effort will result in performance "expectancy" >Performance will result in outcomes "instrumentality" >Outcomes will be valuable "valence" subjective probability ranging from 0(no shot) to 1(def going to happen), that a specific amount of effort will result in a specific level of performance. >High level of effort will lead to a successful performance -Self - Efficacy - the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for task success. It's the self-confidence or task-specific version of self-esteem. Can be influenced by past accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and emotional cues. --Employees feel more efficacious for a particular task will tend to perceive higher levels of expectancy and more likely to choose to exert high levels of effort. --Past accomplishments - the degree to which they have succeeded or failed in similar sorts of tasks in the past. --Self-efficacy is also directed by verbal persuasion because friends, coworkers, and leaders can persuade employees that they can get the job done. >Dictated by emotional cues, that feelings of fear of anxiety can create doubts about task accomplishment, whereas pride and enthusiasm can bolster confidence levels. -Instrumentality - the belief that successful performance will result in some outcomes. It's a set of subjective probabilities, each ranging from 0 to 1 that successful performance will bring a set of outcomes. --Can be hindered by poor methods for measuring performance --Inadequate budget to provide outcomes, even w high performance --Time delays in doling out rewards -Valence - anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance. Valences can be positive or negative. --Outcomes are deemed more attractive when they help satisfy needs. --Can have a needs hierarchy --Existence, relatedness, control and esteem, meaning --Needs: cognitive groupings of outcomes that have critical psychological and physiological consequences.
What are the various types of cognitive ability?
Capabilities related to the acquisition and application of knowledge in problem solving Relevant to most jobs, given most jobs require that people make decisions and solve problems on a day to day basis Can be broken into five types of cognitive abilities Verbal ability: oral comprehension and expression Written comprehension/expression Understanding and communicating ideas verbally or through written word is critical Quantitative ability: number facility - ability to do simple math Mathematical reasoning - ability to choose/apply formulas to solve problems involving numbers Important in jobs involving statistics, math of any form Reasoning ability: problem sensitivity - ability to sense that there's a problem now, or that a problem is likely to occur in the near future Good for anesthesiologist Deductive reasoning - use of general rules to solve problems Opposite of inductive reasoning - ability to consider specific pieces of information and reach a general conclusion Good for detectives Originality: develop novel ways to solve problems Good for entrepreneurs, pioneers. Spatial ability: understanding of where one is relative to other objects in the environment Good for jobs requiring traveling to new places Visualization - ability to imagine how separate things will look when put together good for jobs requiring to rearranging displays (sketch artists, set designers) perceptual ability: speed and flexibility of closure - ability to pick out patterns of information quickly, even with distractors perceptual speed - being able to examine compare numbers quickly good for jobs in the CIA, high attention to detail five facets come together to form a composite of cognitive ability, known as one's level of general cognitive ability What are the various types of emotional ability/intelligence? Emotional intelligence: capabilities related to the management and use of emotions when interacting with others Enhances social functioning among employees Especially vital in jobs that require a lot of 'emotional labor' Has four main components: self-awareness, other awareness, emotion use, emotion regulation Can compensate for some deficits in cognitive intelligence Self-awareness: the ability of a person to understand the ypes of emotions they are experiencing, the willingness to acknowledge them, and the capability to express them accurately Important for leadership development Other awareness: the ability of an individual to recognize and understand the emotions that other individuals are feeling Emotion use: the ability of an individual to harness emotions and use them to improve their chances of being successful in a given area. Emotion regulation: the ability to quickly recover from emotional experiences and control one's feelings Similar to emotional labor (not showing one's true emotions if they aren't appropriate to the situation)
What are the 'Big Five'? What types of striving/goals are associated with each dimension of the Big Five? Are the Big Five stable over time? How does affect relate to certain dimensions of the Big Five?
Conscientiousness: has the biggest influence on performance out of any of the big 5. Prioritize accomplishment striving - strong desire to achieve task related goals Two aspects: industrious (working hard) and orderliness (being organized) Agreeableness: niceness factor Prioritize communion striving - strong desire to obtain acceptance in personal relationships Getting along is more important than getting ahead Usually good customer service workers Two aspects: compassion (caring for others) and politeness (being nice) Neuroticism: opposite to emotional stability/ emotional adjustment Second most important personality factor after conscientiousness Neuroticism negatively related to performance on most jobs Two aspects: withdrawal (depressed, anxious) and hostility(anger) Openness to experience: openness to experience: also called inquisitiveness, intellectualness, or high culture Two aspects: intellect (like complex problems) and openness (artistic, creative) Jobs that have changing job demands would be good for people with high on openness, as would jobs requiring creativity Extraversion: easiest to judge when first meeting someone Prioritize status striving: strong desire to obtain power and influence within social structures More likely to emerge as leaders during group tasks Able to engage in emotional labor more easily Two aspects: enthusiasm (excitable) and assertiveness (Take charge)
What is psychological empowerment? What are the four beliefs that help foster psychological empowerment?
Energy rooted in the belief that work tasks contribute to some larger purpose. A form of intrinsic motivation, in that merely performing the work tasks serves its own reward and supplies. Meaningfulness - captures the value of work goal or purpose, relative to a person's own ideals and passions. When a task is relevant to a meaningful purpose, it becomes easier to concentrate on the task and get excited about it. Value of work goal/purpose relative to one's own values Self-determination- A sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks. Employees with high levels of self-determination can choose what tasks to work on, how to structure those tasks, and how long to pursue those tasks. A strong driver of intrinsic motivation because it allows employees to pursue activities that they find meaningful and interesting. Choice/initiation to continue pursuing work tasks Competence - Capture the persons believe in his or her capabilities to perform work tasks successfully. Identical to the self-efficacy concept reviewed, employees with a strong sense of competence believe they can execute the particular behaviors needed to achieve success at work. Brings a sense of pride and mastery that is itself intrinsically motivating Belief in one's own ability to work hard, perform Impact - Reflects the sense that a person's actions make a difference that progress is being made towards fulfilling some important purpose. Phrases such as moving forward being on track and getting there convey a sense of impact. Belief that one's work is making a difference.
How does the enforcement of codes of conduct affect unethical behavior? • How does trust affect job performance and organizational commitment? Are the relationships the same for all three types of commitment? Relatedly, how can trust affect different types of exchange relationships that employees have with their supervisor?
Enforcement of codes of conduct is one of the strongest predictors of unethical behavior Low-conscientious participants actually engaged in more unethical behavior when codes were strongly enforced. Difficult problem to solve. Trust has a moderate positive effect on Job Performance. Employees who are willing to be vulnerable to authorities tend to have higher levels of task performance they are also more likely to engage in citizenship behavior and less likely to engage in counterproductive behavior. Trust has a strong positive effect on commitment employees who are willing to be vulnerable to authorities tend to have higher levels of effective commitment and higher levels of normative commitment. Trust has no effect on continuance commitment Trust can influence citizenship behaviors Employees who do not trust their employees have an economic exchange Employees who do trust their employers have a social exchange Mutual investment, willingness to be vulnerable, going above and beyond to repay organizations for fair treatment
What taxonomies can be used to describe personality, other than the big five? For the MBTI—what are the pros and cons of using this personality inventory? What taxonomies can be used to describe cultural values?
Extraversion vs. introversion Sensing vs intuition Thinking vs feeling Judging vs perceiving Although it is commonly used, it isn't the most psychometrically sound test to be using The dimensions that are listed as being on a continuum aren't really on a continuum. It may not be comprehensive in its assessment, leaves out important information. It has limited relationships with indicators of managerial effectiveness.
What do we know about intrinsic/extrinsic sources of motivation in organizations? How do they relate to different work-related outcomes?
Extrinsic motivation - motivation that is controlled by some contingency that depends on task performance. Pay, bonuses, promotions, benefits and perks, praise Longer run Intrinsic motivation - motivation that is felt when task performance serves as its own rewards. Enjoyment, interestingness, accomplishment, knowledge gain, skill development. Both of these motivations represent an employee's total motivation levels
Faulty perceptions, faulty attributions, limited information, escalation of commitment - what are the details of each of these decision-making problems?
Limited information Bounded rationality: decision makers do not have ability/resources to process all information or alternatives Satisficing Faulty perceptions - selective perception: see environment/how it affects them consistent with their expectations Project bias - project your thoughts, attitudes, into another person. Social identity: people identity themselves to groups they belong to; perceive judge others by their group membership. Stereotype - assumptions made about someone based upon their classification. Status - the level of respect, prominence, and esteem that an individual possesses in a dyad or group Selective perceptions - see environment/ how it affects them consistent with their expectations Heuristics, Recency events, and Availability Bias Faulty attributions: conclusions on why somethings have happened Centers on how we explain actions/events that occur around us Fundamental attribution error Bad outcome: likely to judge other behaviors Self-serving bias: attribute our own failures to external factors and our successes to internal factors. Escalation of commitment: the decision to continue to follow a failing course of action Throwing good money after bad People may feel an obligation to stick with the decisions they made, even if they are bad/failing Try to avoid looking incompetent Avoid admitting they made a mistake Tends to occur when people have invested lots of time, money, resources, etc. Functional Interpretation: individual is highly competent, likely to increase status Disruptive Interpretation: individual not contributing to work, likely to decrease function
Chapter 7: Trust, Justice, and Ethics What is trust, and how does it relate to justice and ethics?
Trust is defined as the willingness to be vulnerable to a trustee based on positive expectations about the trustee's actions and intentions. Trusting people that are the face of an organization Justice reflects the perceived fairness of an authority's decision making. When employees perceive high levels of justice, they believe that decision outcomes are fair and that decision-making processes are designed and implemented in a fair manner. Ethics - the degree to which the behaviors of an authority are in accordance with generally accepted moral norms. When employees have high levels of ethics, they believe that things are being the done way they should and ought to be.
What are three main categories of ethical behavior?
Unethical behavior: behavior that breaks workplace norms and provides benefit to the actor "Merely ethical" behavior: adheres to some minimally accepted standard of morality Obeying rules/laws "Especially ethical" behavior: exceed the minimum standard Charitable giving Whistleblowing: current or former employees expose illegal and/or immoral acts of the company
What are the stages of Kohlberg's moral development? How do they affect moral behavior and the justifications people provide for their moral behavior?
Cognitive moral development - argues that as people age and mature, they move through various stages of moral development - each more mature and sophisticated than the prior one. Influences moral judgement Preconventional stage - at this stage, right versus wrong is viewed in terms of the consequences of various actions for the individual. Right and wrong determined by potential consequences a person will incur Conventional stage - right versus wrong is referenced to the expectations of one's family and one's society. At first, people seek the approval of friends and family members, conforming to stereotypes about what's right. People come to emphasize laws, rules, and orders that govern society. Right and wrong determined by the expectations of society and a person's family Principled stage (post-conventional) - right versus wrong is referenced to a set of defined, established moral principles. Fewer than 20% of Americans reach this stage. Right and wrong determined by a set of established moral principles; 20% reach this stage.
What are the four types of justice? How are they distinct? How do they interact together (e.g., how do procedural/distributive justice combine to influence reactions to an authority figure)? o What are examples of each type of justice?
Distributive justice - reflects the perceived fairness of decision-making outcomes. Employees gauge distributive justice by asking whether decision outcomes such as pay, rewards, evaluations, promotions, and work assignments are allocated using proper norm. When the ratio of inputs (What you give) to outputs (what you get) are equal. Distributive injustice occurs when outputs are not given to those who put in the most inputs. Fairness of outcomes Procedural justice -perceived fairness of decision-making processes. Fostered when authorities adhere to riles of fair process. One of those rules is voice or giving employees a chance to express their opinions and views during the course of decision making. A stronger driver of reactions to authorities than distributive justice. Six components of fair procedures: voice, correctability, consistency, bias suppression, representatives, accuracy Procedural justice is more important when distributive justice is low (Vice-Versa). Fairness of procedures Interpersonal justice - The perceived fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities. fostered when authorities adhere to two particular rules, the respect rule pertains to other authorities treat employees in identified and sincere manner. The propriety rule reflects whether authorities refrain from making improper or offensive remarks. Fairness of interactions Two guiding rules for interpersonal justice: respect and propriety Respect: treating employees with sincerity, dignity Propriety - refraining from improper remarks towards employees Informational justice - Reflects the perceived fairness of the communications provided to employees from authorities. fostered when authorities adhered to two particular rules. the justification rule mandates that authorities explain decision making procedures and outcomes in a comprehensive and reasonable manner and that those communications be honest and candid two guiding rules for informational justice justification: authorities explain decision-making procedures and outcomes comprehensively truthfulness: communications are honest and candid
What are the three possible outcomes of when comparisons are made?
Equity - The ratio of outcomes to inputs is balanced between you and your comparison other. You feel a sense of equity, and you're likely to maintain the intensity and persistence of your effort. No action is needed: all is in balance, so you feel pretty good with the world. Under reward Equity - Your ratio of outcomes to inputs is less than your comparison others ratio. According to agree theory any imbalance in ratios triggers equity distress Equity distress is an internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios You feel anger: you can restore balance by Shrinking your inputs to align with your outcomes Increase your outcomes through CWBs Engage in cognitive distortion to make yourself feel better Over reward Equity - Your ratio of outcomes to inputs is greater than your comparison others ratio equity to stress again gets experienced and the tension likely creates negative emotions such as guilt or anxiety. You feel guilty: restore equity by Increasing inputs Giving back some of your outcomes Cognitive distortion Is short lived Is unlikely Is most common
What is the fundamental attribution error, and why is committing this error problematic (that is, what other errors does it lead to)?
Faulty attributions: conclusions on why somethings have happened Centers on how we explain actions/events that occur around us Fundamental attribution error Bad outcome: likely to judge other behaviors as being internal, but we view our own behaviors as stemming from outside sources Good outcome: more likely to judge others' behaviors as being external, but we view our own behaviors as being internal Consensus, distinctive, Self-serving bias: attribute our own failures to external factors and our successes to internal factors
What is the four-component model of ethical decision making (in order)? Related, what do we mean by "bad apples" and "bad barrels" in ethics? How about "good apples and good barrels?"
Four-component model - ethical decision making argues that ethical behaviors result from a multistage sequence beginning with moral awareness, continuing on to moral judgement, then to moral intent, and ultimately to ethical behavior. Unethical behavior can be triggered by characteristics of a person or the situation. One bad apple can spoil the barrel, ethical behavior can be driven by both good versus bad apples and good versus bad barrels. Moral Awareness - when an authority recognizes that a moral issue exists in a situation or that an ethical code or principle is relevant to the circumstance. Depends on moral attentiveness and moral intensity Moral intensity: how much harm can be caused; how many people can be affected by it. Moral intent: authority's degree of commitment to the moral course of action, can be influenced by 'bad barrels' or economic concerns Moral judgement - reflects the process people use to determine whether a particular course of action is unethical or ethical. Cognitive moral development can play a role, as can moral principles Moral intent - reflects an authority's degree of commitment to the moral course of action. The distinction between awareness or judgment on the one hand and intent on the other is important, because many unethical people know and understand that what they're doing is wrong - they just choose to do it anyway. Ethical behavior
What are the four steps involved in behavioral modeling? What are the different goal orientations that people can hold, and how do they relate to employee outcomes?
Goal orientation - people learn differently as a function of the goals/activities they prioritize Learning: building competence > demonstrating competence Failure is ok, as long as you learn from it and get better Performance prove - focus on demonstrating competence to have favorable evaluations Performance avoid - focus on demonstrating competence so others will not think negatively of them Failure is only negative Learning orientation: enjoy new, novel tasks, even is they fail while trying Gaining mastery outweighs the cost of failing Associated with self-confidence, feedback seeking behavior, learning performance Performance prove/avoid - more likely to work on tasks they are goof at, prove associated with 'mixed bag' outcomes, avoid associated with lower levels of learning and higher anxiety.
What are the two qualities that make goals strong predictors of task performance? Under what conditions do these effects occur (think the large, goal setting theory model reviewed in class)? For instance, how does goal commitment affect motivation? Feedback? Task complexity? How important is employee participation in goal setting?
When goals are easy, there's no reason to work your hardest or longest, so task effort is lower. As goals move from moderate to difficult, the intensity and persistence of effort become maximized. A difficult goal is one that stretches employees to perform at their maximum level while still staying within the boundaries of their ability. Self-set goals - the internalized goals that people use to monitor their own task progress Self-set goal becomes more difficult, the intensity of effort increases, and the persistence of effort gets extended. Task strategies - learning plans and problem-solving approaches used to achieve successful performance. Feedback - updates on employee progress toward goal attainment. Gives an employee information about his/her current performance Task complexity - reflects how complicated the information and actions involved in a task are, as well as how much the task changes. The effects of specific and difficult goals are almost 2x as strong on simple tasks as on complex tasks, though the effects of goals remain beneficial even in complex cases. Goal setting works better for tasks that are easier/ low on complexity Goal commitment - the degree to which a person accepts a goal and is determined to try and reach it. When goal commitment is high, assigning specific and difficult goals will have significant benefits for task performance When goal commitment is low, those effects become weaker.
