MGT 341 test 3

Merit-based pay

Based on performance appraisal ratings. Allows employers to differentiate pay based on performance. Creates perceptions of relationships between performance and rewards. Limitations: Based on annual performance appraisal; merit pool fluctuations based on economic conditions; unions typically resist merit-based pay plans.

Evaluation of variable pay

Do variable-pay programs increase motivation and productivity? The answer is a qualified yes. Studies generally support the idea that organizations with profit-sharing plans have higher levels of profitability than those without them. Are there cultural differences? Maybe, but more research is needed.

Implications of self-efficacy theory

First, training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having people practice and build their skills. In fact, one reason training works is that it increases self-efficacy. Second, individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy also appear to reap more benefits from training programs and are more likely to use their training on the job. Intelligence and personality are absent from Bandura's list, but they can increase self-efficacy. People who are intelligent, conscientiousness, and emotionally stable are so much more likely to have high self-efficacy that some researchers argue self-efficacy is less important than prior research would suggest. They believe it is partially a by-product in a smart person with a confident personality. Although Bandura strongly disagrees with this conclusion, more research is needed.

For individuals and organizations

For individuals, it means to choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards. For organizations, it means managers should provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives. They need to make the work interesting, provide recognition, and support employee growth and development. Employees who feel what they do is within their control and a result of free choice are likely to be more motivated by their work and committed to their employers.

Does expectancy theory work?

It tends to be more valid in situations where effort-performance and performance-reward linkages are clearly perceived by the individual. If individuals were actually rewarded for performance rather than seniority, effort, skill level, and job difficulty, it might be much more valid.

Telecommuting advantages

Larger labor pool Higher productivity Less turnover Improved morale Reduced office-space costs

Criticisms of Herzberg's theory

Limited because it relies on self-reports. Reliability of methodology is questioned. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. Herzberg assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity, but the research methodology he used looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity. Regardless of criticisms, Herzberg's theory has been widely read, and few managers are unfamiliar with his recommendations.

Profit-sharing plans

Organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula centered around a company's profitability. Appear to have positive effects on employee attitudes at the organizational level. Employees have a feeling of psychological ownership.

Participative management

Participative management is the first of the options for employee involvement programs. Common to all participative management programs is joint decision making, wherein subordinates share a significant degree of decision making power with their immediate superiors. Participative management has, at times, been promoted as a panacea for poor morale and low productivity. But for it to work, employees must be engaged in issues relevant to their interests so they'll be motivated, they must have the competence and knowledge to make a useful contribution, and trust and confidence must exist among all parties. Studies of the participation-performance relationship have yielded mixed findings. Organizations that institute participative management do have higher stock returns, lower turnover rates, and higher estimated labor productivity, although these effects are typically not large. A careful review of research at the individual level shows participation typically has only a modest influence on employee productivity, motivation, and job satisfaction. Of course, this doesn't mean participative management can't be beneficial under the right conditions. But it is not a sure means for improving performance.

Relational job design

To make jobs more prosocially motivating: Connect employees with the beneficiaries of their work. -Relate stories from customers who have found the company's products or services to be helpful. Meet beneficiaries firsthand. -Employees see that their actions affect a real person, and that their jobs have tangible consequences. -Connections make customers or clients more accessible in memory and more emotionally vivid. -Leads employees to consider the effects of their actions more. Fosters higher levels of commitment.

Job sharing

Two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job. Declining in use. Can be difficult to find compatible pairs of employees who can successfully coordinate the intricacies of one job. Increases flexibility and can increase motivation and satisfaction when a 40-hour-a-week job is just not practical.

Reinforcement theory

While goal-setting is a cognitive approach proposing that an individual's purposes direct his or her action, reinforcement theory, by contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. The two theories are clearly at odds, philosophically. Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused, ignoring the inner state of the individual and concentrating solely on what happens when he or she takes some action. Because it does not concern itself with what initiates behavior, it is not, strictly speaking, a theory of motivation. But it does provide a powerful means of analyzing what controls behavior, and this is why we typically consider it in discussions of motivation.

Piece-rate pay

Workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. A pure piece-rate plan provides no base salary and pays the employee only for what he or she produces. Limitation: not a feasible approach for many jobs. Although incentives are motivating and relevant for some jobs, it is unrealistic to think they can constitute the only piece of employees' pay.

Employee involvement

a participative process that uses employees' input to increase their commitment to the organization's success. Examples of Employee Involvement Programs: -Participative management -Representative participation

Management by Objectives (MBO)

allows employees to participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable. An organization's overall objectives are translated into specific objectives for each succeeding level. Four ingredients common to MBO programs are: goal specificity; participation in decision making; explicit time period; and performance feedback. MBO programs are common in many business, healthcare, educational, government, and nonprofit organizations.

Theory X

assumptions are basically negative. Employees inherently dislike work and must be coerced into performing.

Organizational justice

draws a bigger picture; concerned with how employees feel they are treated by authorities and decisions-makers at work. For the most part, employees make their evaluations along four dimensions

Employee-oriented leader

emphasized interpersonal relationships by taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among them. Same as initiating structure

Production-oriented leader

emphasized the technical or task aspects of the job, focusing on accomplishing the group's tasks. Same as consideration

Flexible benefits

individualizes rewards Allow each employee to choose the compensation package that best satisfies his or her current needs and situation. Replaces the "one-benefit-plan-fits-all" programs designed for a male with a wife and two children at home that dominated organizations for more than 50 years.

Interpersonal justice

reflects whether employees are treated with dignity and respect.

Informational justice

reflects whether managers provide employees with explanations for key decisions and keep them informed of important organizational matters

Promotion focus

strive for advancement and accomplishment and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals.

Leadership

the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. Not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders. Nonsanctioned leadership is often as important or more important than formal influence.

When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make 6 choices:

1. Change their inputs. 2. Change their outcomes. 3. Distort perceptions of self. 4. Distort perceptions of others. 5. Choose a different referent. 6. Leave the field.

3 questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is to be maximized:

1. If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal? 2. If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards? 3. If I'm rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?

3 basic types of flexible benefits programs

1. Modular plans: pre-designed with each module put together to meet the needs of a specific group of employees. 2. Core-plus plans: a core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection of other benefit options. 3. Flexible spending plans: employees set aside pretax dollars up to the amount offered in the plan to pay for particular benefits, such as healthcare and dental premiums.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is the most well-known theory of motivation. Maslow hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs, 1. physiological needs -hunger -thirst -shelter -sex -other bodily needs. 2. safety needs that include security and protection from physical and emotional harm. 3. social needs that include affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. 4. esteem needs that include internal esteem factors -self-respect -autonomy -achievement external esteem factors -status -recognition -attention. 5. self-actualization needs; this is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming, and includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment. Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates.

Bonuses

An annual bonus is a significant component of total compensation for many jobs. Increasingly include lower-ranking employees. Many companies now routinely reward production employees with bonuses when profits improve. Downside: employees' pay is more vulnerable to cuts.

Defining the situation

Fiedler has identified three contingency or situational dimensions: 1. Leader-member relations—the degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader. 2. Task structure, the degree to which the job assignments are procedural. 3. Position power—the degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases. The next step is to evaluate the situation in terms of these three contingency variables. Leader-member relations are either good or poor. Task structure is either high or low. Position power is either strong or weak. Fiedler states the better the leader-member relations, the more highly structured the job, and the stronger the position power, the more control the leader has.

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Managers who eliminate job dissatisfaction factors may not necessarily bring about motivation. When hygiene factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied. Neither will they be satisfied. To motivate people, managers must emphasize intrinsically rewarding factors that are associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it.

McClelland's Theory of Needs

The theory focuses on three needs: 1. Need for achievement (nAch): drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. High achievers perform best when they perceive their probability of success as 50/50. They like to set goals that require stretching themselves a little. 2. Need for power (nPow): need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The need for power is the desire to have impact, to be influential, and to control others. Individuals high in nPow enjoy being "in charge." They strive for influence over others. They prefer to be placed into competitive and status-oriented situations. They also tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with effective performance. 3. Need for affiliation (nAfl): desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. In general, individuals with high affiliation strive for friendship and prefer cooperative situations over competitive ones. They typically desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual understanding.

Implications for managers explained by Maslow's framework

Theory X: lower-order needs dominate individuals . Theory Y: higher-order needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself believed that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. There is no evidence to suggest that either set of assumptions is valid.

Linking employee involvement programs and motivation theories

Theory Y is consistent with participative management. Theory X aligns with autocratic style. Two-factor theory aligns with employee involvement programs in providing intrinsic motivation. Extensive employee involvement programs clearly have the potential to increase employee intrinsic motivation in work tasks.

Behavioral theories of leadership

While trait research provides a basis for selecting the right people for leadership, behavioral theories of leadership imply that we can train people to be leaders. The most comprehensive theories resulted from the Ohio State Studies in the late 1940s, which sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior. Beginning with more than a thousand dimensions, the studies narrowed the list to two that substantially accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by employees: initiating structure and consideration.

Situational leadership theory (SLT)

a contingency theory that focuses on the followers. Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style, which is contingent on the level of the followers' readiness. SLT has intuitive appeal. Yet, research efforts to test and support the theory have generally been disappointing.

Theory Y

assumptions are basically positive. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.

Graen leader member exchange (LMX)

cadre: in group (small), leader will come talk to group hired hands: out group, do minimum for job but no extras

Trait theories of leadership

focus on personal qualities and characteristics. The search for personality, social, physical, or intellectual attributes that differentiate leaders from non-leaders goes back to the earliest stages of leadership research. Early research efforts to isolate leadership traits resulted in a number of dead ends. A review in the late 1960s of 20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits, but only 5 were common to 4 or more of the investigations. By the 1990s, after numerous studies and analyses, about the best we could say was that most leaders "are not like other people," but the particular traits that characterized them varied a great deal from review to review. A breakthrough came when researchers began organizing traits around the Big Five personality framework. Most of the dozens of traits in various leadership reviews fit under one of the Big Five, giving strong support to traits as predictors of leadership.

Job Characteristics Model

proposes that any job may be described by five core job dimensions: 1. Skill variety is the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities, so the worker can use a number of different skills and talent. 2. Task identity is the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. 3. Task significance is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. 4. Autonomy is the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. 5. Feedback is the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. The first three dimensions—skill variety, task identity, and task significance—combine to create meaningful work the incumbent will view as important, valuable, and worthwhile. From a motivational standpoint, the JCM proposes that individuals obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results) that they personally (experienced responsibility) have performed well on a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness). Individuals with a high growth need are more likely to experience the critical psychological states when their jobs are enriched—and respond to them more positively—than are their counterparts with low growth need.

Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP)

A company-established benefit plan in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their benefits. Increases employee satisfaction and innovation. Employees need to psychologically experience ownership. Can reduce unethical behavior.

Fiedler contingency model

A key factor in leadership success is the individual's leadership style.

What does self-determination theory suggest for providing awards?

A senior sales representative may be motivated by a commission. A computer programmer who values writing code because she likes to solve problems might react negatively to an external standard like having to write a certain number of lines of code every day.

Distributive justice

concerned with the fairness of the outcomes, such as pay and recognition that employees receive. Although employees care a lot about what outcomes are distributed (distributive justice), they also care a lot about how outcomes are distributed. While distributive justice looks at what outcomes are allocated, procedural justice examines how outcomes are allocated. Having direct influence over how decisions or made, or at the very least being able to present your opinion to decision makers, creates a sense of control and makes us feel empowered. Employees also perceive that procedures are fairer when decision makers follow several "rules." It turns out that procedural and distributive justice combine to influence people's perceptions of fairness. If outcomes are favorable and individuals get what they want, they care less about the process, so procedural justice doesn't matter as much when distributions are perceived to be fair.

Self-concordance

considers how strongly people's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. If individuals pursue goals because of an intrinsic interest, they are more likely to attain their goals and are happy even if they do not. The process of striving toward them is fun. In contrast, people who pursue goals for extrinsic reasons, like money or status, are less likely to attain their goals and less happy even when they do because the goals are less meaningful to them. OB research suggests that people who pursue work goals for intrinsic reasons are more satisfied with their jobs, feel they fit into their organizations better, and may perform better.

3 other factors influencing the goals-performance relationship

1. Goal commitment is most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned. 2. Goals themselves seem to affect performance more strongly when task characteristics are: simple rather than complex; well-learned rather than novel; and independent rather than interdependent. On interdependent tasks, group goals are preferable. 3. Setting specific, difficult individual goals may have different effects in different cultures. Goal-setting theory is culture bound and it is well adapted to North American cultures, where individual achievement and performance are most highly valued. Research has not shown that group-based goals are more effective in collectivists than in individualist cultures. In collectivist and high-power-distance cultures, achievable moderate goals can be more highly motivating than difficult ones. Finally, assigned goals appear to generate greater goal commitment in high than in low power-distance cultures. More research is needed to assess how goal constructs might differ across cultures.

3 key elements of motivation

1. Intensity: concerned with how hard a person tries. 2. Direction: the orientation that benefits the organization. 3. Persistence: a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

Flextime

Alternative work arrangements are also used to boost motivation. They include flextime. This allows employees some discretion over when they arrive at and leave work. Benefits include reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, reduced overtime expense, reduced hostility toward management, and increased autonomy and responsibility for employees. A major drawback is that it's not applicable to all jobs or all workers.

Skill-based pay

Bases pay levels on how many skills employees have or how many jobs they can do. Increases the flexibility of the workforce. Facilitates communication across the organization because people gain a better understanding of each other's jobs. Limitations: -People can "top-out" and learn all the skills. -Don't address performance.

What to pay: establishing a pay structure

Complex process that entails balancing internal equity and external equity. Some organizations prefer to pay leaders by paying above market. Paying more may net better-qualified and more highly motivated employees who may stay with the firm longer.

Telecommuting

Employees who do their work at home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to their office. Virtual office Well-known organizations actively encourage telecommuting

Telecommuting disadvantages

Employer -Less direct supervision of employees. -Difficult to coordinate teamwork. -Difficult to evaluate non-quantitative performance. Employee -May not be noticed for his or her efforts.

Are highly engaged employees getting "too much of a good thing?"

One of the critiques of engagement is that the construct is partially redundant with job attitudes like satisfaction or stress. However, engagement questionnaires usually assess motivation and absorption in a task, quite unlike job satisfaction questionnaires. Engagement may also predict important work outcomes better than traditional job attitudes. Others critics note there may be a "dark side" to engagement, as evidenced by positive relationships between engagement and work-family conflict. Individuals might grow so engaged in their work roles that family responsibilities become an unwelcomed intrusion. Further research exploring how engagement relates to these negative outcomes may help clarify whether some highly engaged employees might be getting "too much of a good thing."

Intrinsic rewards: employee recognition programs

Organizations are increasingly recognizing that important work rewards can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee recognition programs and extrinsic in the form of compensation systems. Employee recognition programs range from a spontaneous and private thank-you to widely publicized formal programs in which specific types of behavior are encouraged and the procedures for attaining recognition are clearly identified. Some research suggests financial incentives may be more motivating in the short term, but in the long run, it's nonfinancial incentives. A few years ago, research found that recognition, recognition, and more recognition was key to employee motivation.

5 stages of group development

First is the forming stage. It is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group's purpose, structure, and leadership. Members try to determine what types of behaviors are acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group. Second is the storming stage. This is a period of intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance to constraints on individuality. Conflict arises over who will control the group. When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group. Third is the norming stage. It is one in which close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. This stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior. Next is the performing stage. The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understanding each other to performing. For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their development. For temporary committees, teams, task forces, and similar groups that have a limited task to perform, there is an adjourning stage. In this stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. Attention is directed toward wrapping up activities. Responses of group members vary in this stage. Some are upbeat, basking in the group's accomplishments. Others may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and friendships.

Goal-setting theory

Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed. Evidence suggests: -Specific goals increase performance. -Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. -Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback. Self-generated feedback is more powerful a motivator than externally generated feedback

Why McClelland's theory has the best support

It has less practical effect than the others. Because McClelland argued that the three needs are subconscious—we may rank high on them but not know it—measuring them is not easy. The process is time consuming and expensive, and few organizations have been willing to invest in measuring McClelland's concept. The most common way of measuring the three needs involves having a trained expert present pictures to individuals, asking them to tell a story about each, and then scoring their responses in terms of the three needs. However, this process is time consuming and expensive, and few organizations have been willing to invest in measuring McClelland's concept.

How to pay: rewarding individual employees through variable-pay programs

Many organizations are moving away from paying solely on credentials or length of service. -Piece-rate plans -Merit-based pay -Bonuses -Profit sharing -Gain sharing -Employee stock ownership plans Earnings therefore fluctuate up and down.

Applicability of early theories of motivation

Maslow's need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. However, research does not generally validate the theory. Maslow provided no empirical substantiation, and several studies that sought to validate the theory found no support for it. Some researchers have attempted to revive components of the need hierarchy concept, using principles from evolutionary psychology. Time will tell whether these revisions to Maslow's hierarchy will be useful to managers.

What makes people more engaged in their job?

One key is the degree to which an employee believes it is meaningful to engage in work. This is partially determined by job characteristics and access to sufficient resources to work effectively. Another factor is a match between the individual's values and those of the organization. Leadership behaviors that inspire workers to a greater sense of mission also increase employee engagement.

Frederick Herzberg

Proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg when he investigated the question, "What do people want from their jobs?" the two-factor theory is sometimes also called motivation-hygiene theory. Herzberg asked people to describe situations in which they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. These responses were then tabulated and categorized. From the categorized responses, Herzberg concluded that intrinsic factors, such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement seem to be related to job satisfaction. Dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic factors, such as supervision, pay, company policies, and working conditions. Moreover, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Job satisfaction factors are separate and distinct from job dissatisfaction factors.

Self-determination theory

Proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions. Research on self-determination theory has focused on cognitive evaluation theory. -People paid for work feel less like they want to do it and more like they have to it. Proposes that in addition to being driven by a need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve competence and positive connections to others.

Job Rotation

Repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or motivation. Job Rotation Referred to as cross-training. Periodic shifting from one task to another. Strengths: reduces boredom, increases motivation, and helps employees better understand their work contributions. Weaknesses: creates disruptions, requires extra time for supervisors addressing questions and training time, and reduced efficiencies.

Representative participation

Representative participation is spreading. Almost every country in Western Europe has some type of legislation requiring it. It is the most widely legislated form of employee involvement around the world. The goal is to redistribute power within an organization, putting labor on a more equal footing with the interests of management and stockholders. The two most common forms include works councils that link employees with management. They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when management makes decisions involving personnel. Second is board representatives, who are employees who sit on a company's board of directors and represent the interests of the firm's employees. The overall influence of representative participation seems to be minimal. The evidence suggests that works councils are dominated by management and have little impact on employees or the organization. If one were interested in changing employee attitudes or in improving organizational performance, representative participation would be a poor choice.

Punctuated-equilibrium model

Temporary groups with deadlines don't seem to follow the usual five-stage model. Studies indicate they have their own unique sequencing of actions (or inaction). Their first meeting sets the group's direction. This first phase of group activity is one of inertia. A transition takes place at the end of this phase, which occurs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time. A transition initiates major changes. A second phase of inertia follows the transition, and the group's last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. The first meeting sets the group's direction. A framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions emerges. These lasting patterns can appear as early as the first few seconds of the group's life. Once set, the group's direction is solidified and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of its life. This is a period of inertia—the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions. Then a transition takes place when the group has used up half its allotted time. The midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members' awareness that their time is limited and that they need to "get moving." A transition initiates major changes. This ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a revised direction for Phase 2. Phase 2 is a new equilibrium or period of inertia. In this phase, the group executes plans created during the transition period. The group's last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity.

The way JCM motivates by changing the work environment

The core dimensions of the JCM can be combined into a single predictive index called the motivating potential score (MPS). To be high on motivating potential, jobs must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness, and high on both autonomy and feedback. If jobs score high on motivating potential, the model predicts that motivation, performance, and satisfaction will improve and absence and turnover will be reduced. Much evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a set of job characteristics—variety, identity, significance, autonomy, and feedback—does generate higher and more satisfying job performance. But apparently we can better calculate motivating potential by simply adding the characteristics rather than using the formula. A few studies have tested the job characteristics model in different cultures, but the results aren't very consistent. One study suggested that when employees are "other oriented" (i.e., concerned with the welfare of others at work), the relationship between intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction was weaker. The fact that the job characteristics model is relatively individualistic (i.e., considering the relationship between the employee and his or her work) suggests job enrichment strategies may not have the same effects in collectivistic cultures as in individualistic cultures (such as the United States). Another study suggested the degree to which jobs had intrinsic job characteristics predicted job satisfaction and job involvement equally well for American, Japanese, and Hungarian employees.

The social and physical context of work

The job characteristics model shows most employees are more motivated and satisfied when their intrinsic work tasks are engaging. Having the most interesting workplace characteristics in the world may not always lead to satisfaction if you feel isolated from your co-workers, and having good social relationships can make even the most boring and onerous tasks more fulfilling. Research demonstrates that social aspects and work context are as important as other job design features. Some social characteristics that improve job performance include interdependence, social support, and interactions with other people outside work. The work context is also likely to affect employee satisfaction. To assess why an employee is not performing to her best level, look at the work environment to see whether it's supportive.

Gainsharing

Uses improvements in group productivity from one period to the next to determine the total amount of money allocated. Common among large manufacturing companies and in some healthcare organizations. Ties rewards to productivity gains rather than profits. Employees can receive incentive awards even when the organization isn't profitable. Because the benefits accrue to groups of workers, high performers pressure weaker ones to work harder, improving performance for the group as a whole.

When extrinsic awards are used as payoffs

When extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for performance, employees feel they are doing a good job. -Eliminating extrinsic rewards can also shift an individual's perception of why he or she works on a task from an external to an internal explanation. Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. Ex. if you're reading a novel a week because your English literature instructor requires you to, you can attribute your reading behavior to an external source. However, if you find yourself continuing to read a novel each week after the course is over, your natural inclination is to say, "I must enjoy reading novels because I'm still reading one each week." Studies examining how extrinsic rewards increased motivation for some creative tasks suggest we might need to place cognitive evaluation theory's predictions in a broader context. Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation, for instance, when we provide rewards for achieving the goals. The original authors of self-determination theory acknowledge that extrinsic rewards, such as verbal praise and feedback about competence, can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. Deadlines and specific work standards do, too, if people believe they are in control of their behavior. This is consistent with the central theme of self-determination theory: rewards and deadlines diminish motivation if people see them as coercive.

Self-efficacy theory

also as social cognitive theory and social learning theory, is a new theory gaining much attention. Albert Bandura, the developer of self-efficacy theory, defined four characteristics: 1. enactive mastery: gaining relevant experience with the task or job 2. vicarious modeling: becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task 3. verbal persuasion: occurring when a person is more confident because someone convinces him that he has the skills 4. arousal: leads to an energized state, driving a person to complete the task.

Expectancy theory

argues that a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. An employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he or she believes that: -Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal. -A good appraisal will lead to rewards. -The rewards will satisfy his or her personal goals.

Equity theory

argues that individuals make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others and then respond to any inequities. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as fair. When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension.

Operant conditioning theory

argues that people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don't want. Unlike reflexive or unlearned behavior, operant behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by its consequences. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood it will be repeated. B. F. Skinner, one of the most prominent advocates of operant conditioning, argued that creating pleasing consequences to follow specific forms of behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior - a theory known as behaviorism. He demonstrated that people will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so, that rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response, and that behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.

Social-learning theory

argues that we can learn through both observation and direct experience. Models are central to the social-learning viewpoint. Four processes determine their influence on an individual: 1. Attentional processes: people learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. 2. Retention processes: a model's influence depends on how well the individual remembers the model's action after the model is no longer readily available. 3. Motor reproduction processes: after a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, watching must be converted to doing. 4. Reinforcement processes: individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided.

Least preferred co-worker questionnaire (LPC)

to measure whether a person is task or relationship oriented. The questionnaire contains 16 contrasting adjectives (such as pleasant-unpleasant, efficient-inefficient, open-guarded, supportive-hostile) and asks respondents to describe the one person they least enjoyed working with by rating him or her on a scale of one-to-eight for each of the 16 sets of contrasting adjectives. Fiedler believed that, based on the respondents' answers to this questionnaire, he could determine their basic leadership style.

Path-goal theory

developed by Robert House. It is a contingency model of leadership that extracts key elements from the Ohio State leadership research on initiating structure and consideration and the expectancy theory of motivation. The term "path-goal" is derived from the belief that effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their work goals. According to path-goal theory, whether a leader should be directive or supportive or should demonstrate some other behavior depends on complex analysis of the situation. The theory predicts the following: directive leadership yields greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when they are highly structured and well laid out, while supportive leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when employees are performing structured tasks. Directive leadership is likely to be perceived as redundant among employees with high ability or considerable experience.

Job enrichment

expands jobs by increasing the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work. The first guideline is combining tasks that puts fractionalized tasks back together to form a new and larger module of work. Second is forming natural work units that make an employee's tasks create an identifiable and meaningful whole. Third, establishing client relationships increases the direct relationships between workers and their clients. (Clients can be internal as well as outside the organization.) Fourth, expanding jobs vertically gives employees responsibilities and control formerly reserved for management. Finally, opening feedback channels lets employees know how well they are doing and whether their performance is improving, deteriorating, or remaining constant.

Prevention focus

strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals.

Rewards-personal goals relationship

the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

Performance-reward relationship

the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome

Initiating structure

the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his role and those of employees in the search for goal attainment.

Consideration

the extent to which a person's job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings.

Job engagement

the investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. Many studies attempt to measure this deeper level of commitment. Gallup organization: more engaged employees in successful organizations than in average organizations. Academic studies: job engagement is positively associated with performance and citizenship behaviors.

Effort-performance relationship

the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance

Motivation

the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. The level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times