MGT chapter 13

predictions made by these theories

-Alderfer says people can be motivated by one need at a time, people are just as likely to move down the hierarchy as up -McClelland argues the degree to which a particular need motivates varies tremendously from person to person - needs are learned not innate

self-actualization needs management influence

-Challenges in the job -Provide advancement opportunities -Encourage high achievement

three other key things when motivating with reinforcement theory

-Don't reinforce the wrong behaviors. -correctly administer punishment at the appropriate time --A danger of using punishment is that it can produce a backlash against managers and companies. --To be effective, the punishment must be strong enough to stop the undesired behavior and must be administered objectively (same rules applied to everyone), impersonally (without emotion or anger), consistently and contingently (each time improper behavior occurs), and quickly (as soon as possible following the undesirable behavior). -choose the simplest and most effective schedule of reinforcement.

Make sure decision-making process are fair

-Equity theory focuses on Distributive justice -Procedural justice is just as important

rationalize or distort inputs or outcomes.

-Instead of decreasing inputs or increasing outcomes, employees restore equity by making mental or emotional adjustments in their O/I ratios or the O/I ratios of their referents. -Rationalizing or distorting outcomes may be used when other ways to restore equity aren't available.

Belongingness needs management influence

-Permit social interaction -Encourage cooperation

safety/security management influence

-Safe working conditions -Fringe benefits

How People react to perceived inequity

-affects satisfaction -At first a slight inequity might not cause action, however as inequity builds overtime,until a point of intolerance is reached and the person is energized to take action to restore equity by reducing inputs, increasing outcomes, rationalizing inputs or outcomes, changing the referent, or simply leaving - discuss this possible responses in terms of inequity associated with underreward - since its more common than overreward

systematically gather information to find out what employees want from their jobs

-companies need to survey their employees regularly to determine their wants, needs, and dissatisfactions -companies need to survey their employees regularly to determine their wants, needs, and dissatisfactions

methods of restoring equity

-decreasing of witholdings their inputs (that is effort) -increasing -rationalize or distort inputs or outcomes -Changing the referent

self esteem needs management influence

-recognize/ publicize good performance -Significant job activities -Responsibility

McClelland's Learned Need

-suggest that people are motivated by the need for affiliation, achievement and powerx -An individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experience.

What practical steps can managers take to use expectancy theory to motivate employees?

1. they can systematically gather information to find out what employees want from their jobs 2. take specific steps to link rewards to individual performance in a way that is clear and understandable to employees. 3. empower employees to make decisions if management really wants them to believe that their hard work and effort will lead to good performance

rules that specify which behaviors will be reinforced, which consequences will follow those behaviors, and the schedule by which those consequences will be delivered

A schedule of reinforcement

Valence Characteristics

Accordingly, when people are deciding how much effort to put forth, expectancy theory says that they will consider the valence of all possible rewards and outcomes that they can receive from their jobs. the same rewards have different valences (or attractiveness) for different people

Effort and performance

Basic model of work motivation and performance - it is impossible for managers to talk about one without mentioning the other

Basics of Motivation

Business/work units scoring in the top half on employee engagement nearly double their odds of success compared with those in the bottom half.

Physiological management

Comfortable working condition

start by looking for and correcting major inequities

Difficult for managers to create conditions that satisfy all employees, it's critical that they do their best to take care of major inequities

why a lot of workers aren't motivated and do only the minimum

Expectancy theory helps explain

all three variables—valence, expectancy, and instrumentality—must be high.

Expectancy theory holds that for people to be highly motivated

-challenging goals focus employees' attention (that is, direction of effort) on the critical aspects of their jobs and away from unimportant areas. -Goals also energize behavior -Goals also create tension between the goal, which is the desired future state of affairs, and where the employee or company is now, meaning the current state of affairs. -goals influence persistence

How does goal setting work?

Three questions employees need to answer if their motivation is to maximize

If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal? If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards? If I'm rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?

satisfy lower-order needs first

In practice, this means providing the equipment, training, and knowledge to create a safe workplace free of physical risks; paying employees well enough to provide financial security; and offering a benefits package that will protect employees and their families through good medical coverage and health and disability insurance.

Reduce employees inputs

Increasing outcomes is often the first and only strategy, however this is a viable strategy as well Commit to 40 hours work weeks

Underrward and Overreward

Inequity can take two forms

job performance equation

Job performance = Motivation X Ability X Situational Constraints

motivation equation

Motivation = Valence X Expectancy X Instrumentality

because workers perform a behavior to avoid a negative consequence.

Negative reinforcement is also called avoidance learning

take specific steps to link rewards to individual performance in a way that is clear and understandable to employees

One way to establish a clear connection between pay and performance is for manager to publicize the way in which pay decisions are made

make sure workers truly accept organizational goals

Participative goal setting, in which managers and employees generate goals together, can help increase trust and understanding and thus acceptance of goals.

by comparing their inputs and outpurs to others

People perceive they are being treated fairly (equity theory)

decreasing or withholding their inputs (that is, effort)

People who perceive that they have been underrewarded may try to restore equity by

because even when employees are unhappy with their outcomes (that is, low pay), they're much less likely to be unhappy with company management if they believe that the procedures used to allocate outcomes were fair.

Procedural justice matters

cause-and-effect relationships between the performance of specific behaviors and specific consequences

Reinforcement contingencies

reinforcement contingencies and schedules of reinforcement.

Reinforcement has two parts

reinforcement schedules effectiveness

Research shows, however, that except for interval-based systems, which usually produce weak results, the effectiveness of continuous reinforcement, fixed ratio, and variable ratio schedules differs very little.

goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and performance feedback

The basic components of goal-setting theory

Need for affiliation

The desire for friendly and close personal relationships

Need for power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved

Components of Expectancy Theory

The three factors that affect those choices are valence, expectancy, and instrumentality.

willingness to put forth effort (that is, the degree to which they are energized to take action), while expectancy transforms intended effort ("I'm really going to work hard in this job") into actual effort.

Valence and instrumentality combine to affect employees

different for every employee

What leads to effort

Need Satisfaction

What leads to effort? - determining employee needs is the first step to answering that question

1. asking people what their needs are 2. satisfy lower-order needs first 3. expect people's needs to change 4. as needs change and lower-order needs are satisfied, create opportunities for employees to satisfy higher-order needs

What practical steps can managers take to motivate employees to increase their effort?

-start by looking for and correcting major inequities -reduce employees inputs -make sure decision-making process are fair

What practical steps can managers take to use equity theory to motivate employees?

-Assigning specific, challenging goals -make sure workers truly accept organizational goals -provide frequent, specific, performance-related feedback

What practical steps can managers take to use goal-setting theory to motivate employees?

identify, measure, analyze, intervene, and evaluate critical performance-related behaviors.

What practical steps can managers take to use reinforcement theory to motivate employees?

employees believe their hard work and efforts will result in a good performance, so they work harder

When expectancies are strong

employees believe that improved performance will lead to better and more rewards

When instrumentality is strong,

they conclude they are being treated equally, if not, they couldn't they are being treated inequitably or unfairly

When peoples O/I ratio is equal to the referents

Underreward

a form of inequity in which you are getting fewer outcomes relative to inputs than your referent is getting -leads to anger or frustration

Overreward

a form of inequity in which you are getting more outcomes relative to inputs than your referent -people have a very high tolerance towards it -can lead to feelings of guilt

Intrinsic Rewards

a natural reward associated with performing a task or activity for its own sake -immediate rewards from performing a task predicted long-term task persistence

Needs characteristics

a person's unmet need creates an uncomfortable, internal state of tension that must be resolved. According to need theory people are motivated by unmet needs A need no longer motivates once its mights Because people are motivated by unmet needs, managers must learn what those unmet needs are and address them

Extrinsic rewards

a reward that is tangible, visible to others, and given to employees contingent on the performance of specific tasks or behaviors

Intermittent reinforcement schedules

a schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred

Continuous reinforcement schedules

a schedule that requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of a behavior

Goal

a target, objective, or result that someone tries to accomplish

Equity Theory

a theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly -stresses the importance of perceptions - regardless of what level of rewards people perceive they must also perceive they are being treated fairly

Variable ratio reinforcement schedules

an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors

Fixed ratio reinforcement schedules

an intermittent schedule in which consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors

Fixed interval reinforcement schedules

an intermittent schedule in which consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed

Variable interval reinforcement schedules

an intermittent schedule in which the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average

Lower-order needs

are concerned with safety and with physiological and existence requirements

Self Actualization

challenging tasks, freedom to try new ideas

Intervene

changing the organization by using positive and negative reinforcement to increase the frequency of these critical behaviors.

Persistence of effort

concerned with the choices that people make about how long they will put forth effort in their jobs before reducing or eliminating those efforts.

Initiation of effort

concerned with the choices that people make about how much effort to put forth in their jobs.

Direction of effort

concerned with the choices that people make in deciding where to put forth effort in their jobs.

External agents

determine and control the distribution, frequency, and amount of extrinsic rewards, such as pay, company stock, benefits, and promotions.

Measure

determining the baseline frequencies of these behaviors -Find out how often workers perform them

Situational Constraints

factors beyond the control of individual employees, such as tools, policies, and resources that have an effect on job performance.

positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.

four kinds of reinforcement contingencies

Job performance

how well someone performs the requirements of the job

Belongingness

human interaction, being accepted as a team member

Job performance will suffer

if any one of these components is weak - doesn't mean motivation doesn't matter - just means that all the motivation in the world won't translate into high performance when an employee has little ability and high situational constraints

empower employees to make decisions if management really wants them to believe that their hard work and effort will lead to good performance

if managers want workers to have strong expectancies, they should empower them to make decisions.

Outcome/input (OI) ratio

in equity theory, an employee's perception of how the rewards received from an organization compare with the employee's contributions to that organization

Referents

in equity theory, others with whom people compare themselves to determine if they have been treated fairly -can be a single person (comparing yourself with a coworker), a generalized other (comparing yourself with "accountants in general," for example), or even yourself over time ("I was better off last year than I am this year").

Inputs

in equity theory, the contributions employees make to the organization -include education and training, intelligence, experience, effort, number of hours worked, and ability

Outcomes

in equity theory, the rewards employees receive for their contributions to the organization -include pay, fringe benefits, status symbols, and job titles and assignments

Performance feedback

information about the quality or quantity of past performance that indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal

ratio schedules

intermittent schedules based on behaviors

Increasing outcomes

is another way people try to restore equity. -Sometimes employee will go internally to managers or externally to organizations such as labor unions, federal agencies, or the courts for help in increase outcomes

Motivation

is effort, the degree to which someone works hard to do the job well

Safety

job security, employee benefits, safe workplace

Esteem

job status, recognition, mastering the job

Evaluate

means assessing the extent to which the intervention actually changed workers' behavior. -This is done by comparing behavior after the intervention to the original baseline of behavior before the intervention.

Analyze

means studying the causes and consequences of these behaviors -Helps managers create the conditions that produce these critical behaviors, an analyzing the consequences helps them determine if these behaviors produce the results they want

three extrinsic factors

pay, benefits, and job security/organizational financial stability

Changing the referent

people compare themselves with someone other than the referent they had been using for previous O/I ratio comparisons

Higher-order needs

re concerned with relationships (belongingness, relatedness, and affiliation), challenges and accomplishments (esteem, self-actualization, growth, and achievement), and influence (power). -will not motivate people as long as lower-order needs remain unsatisfied -difficult for managers to predict which of these needs motivate behavior

Extinction

reinforcement in which a positive consequence is no longer allowed to follow a previously reinforced behavior, thus weakening the behavior

four intrinsic factors

respectful treatment of employees, trust in senior management, relationships with immediate supervisors, and the chance to use one's skills and abilities in your work

Maslow's hierarchy

self actualization, esteem, belongingness, safety, physiological, needs are arranged in hierarchy and people are motivated by their lowest satisfied need Higher order needs do not become activities untold the current level is fulfilled

Identify

singling out critical, observable, performance-related behaviors. -Behaviors that are more important to successful job performance -Must also be easily observes so they can be accurately measured

Positive reinforcement

that strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences

Negative Reinforcement

that strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior

Valence

the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome

Ability:

the degree to which workers possess the knowledge, skills, and talent needed to do a job well.

Need for achievement

the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to stove to succeed

Goal Difficulty

the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish

Goal Specificity

the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous

Goal Acceptance

the extent to which people consciously understand and agree to goals

Distributive justice

the perceived degree to which outcomes and rewards are fairly distributed or allocated

Procedural justice

the perceived fairness of the process used to make reward allocation decisions

Expectancy

the perceived relationship between effort and performance

Instrumentality

the perceived relationship between performance and rewards

Reinforcement

the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior

Motivationn

the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal

Reinforcement Theory

the theory that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently

Goal-setting theory

the theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they accept specific, challenging goals and receive feedback that indicates their progress toward goal achievement

Expectancy Theory:

the theory that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards -Not everyone is attracted to the same rewards

interval reinforcement schedules

time based intermittent schedules

one way for managers to meet employees' higher-order needs

to create opportunities for employees to experience intrinsic rewards by providing challenging work, encouraging employees to take greater responsibility for their work, and giving employees the freedom to pursue tasks and projects they find naturally interesting.

Companies use extrinsic rewards

to motivate people to perform four basic behaviors: join the organization, regularly attend their jobs, perform their jobs well, and stay with the organization

Alder's ERG

turns Maslow's into three needs (existence, relatedness, and growth) - people can be motivated by more than one need at a time Managers must recognize his employees multiple simultaneous needs Focusing exclusively on one need at a time will not motivate your people If growth opportunities are not provided to employees they may regress to related needs, and socialize more with co-workers

continuous and intermittent

two categories of reinforcement schedules

Physiological

work hours, nourishment, air quality, temperature