Micro Exam #2 Review

Cellular Respiration

- 3 Catabolic Pathways: Fermentation, Aerobic, and Anaerobic respiration - Glycolysis = first step in all types of cellular respiration and does not require oxygen - If oxygen is present, the pathway will continue on to the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. - If oxygen is not present, some organisms can undergo fermentation to continually produce ATP. If not, then continue to anaerobic respiration.

Non-competitive inhibitor

- A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate. - Overcome inhibitor through chemical means

Competitive Inhibitor

- A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics. - Competes with substrate for active site - Overcome inhibitor by increasing the substrate concentration. Substrate will reduce the availability for an inhibitor to bind, thus outcompeting the inhibitor to bind to the enzyme

Ph and classifications

- Alkalinophiles (alkalophiles) * Optimal: Ph 9 to 11 * found in alkaline soil and water - Neutrophiles * Optimal: Ph 5 to 8 * Includes most pathogens - Acidophiles * Optimal: Ph 0 to 5 * require acidic habitats * often chemoautotrophs - Ph 7= neutral - Ph < 7= acidic - Ph > 7= alkaline - Ph scale is a "Base 10 Scale" so 10 fold value for each level of Ph * Ex: -Ph6 is 10x more acidic than Ph7 -Ph5 is 100x more acidic than Ph7 - Extreme Ph affects structure of all macromolecules * Ex: -hydrogen bonds that hold together DNA break apart in high Ph levels -lipids are hydrolysed by a neutral Ph - Proteins are most sensitive to Ph levels * moderate changes in Ph modify the ionization of amino acid function groups which promotes the protein to denature - Bacteria grow best at Ph 6 to 8 - Fungi grow best at Ph 5 to 6

Contrast binary fission, mitosis, meiosis, budding and schizogony

- Binary fission where a single parent cell doubles its DNA, then divides into two cells. Usually occurs in bacteria. *prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission - Budding occurs when small growth on surface of parent breaks off, resulting in the formation of two individuals. Occurs in yeast and some animals - Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells *Eukaryotes reproduce by mitosis - Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells - Asexual - Binary fission, budding, schizogony, mitosis - Sexual - Meiosis - Some exhibit both sexual and asexual methods - Algae, fungi, and some protozoa

Meiosis

- Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms

Contrast Cysts and Trophozoites

- Cyst • non-dividing • rigid cell coat • resistant to H20 + desiccation • can survive outside of host in most ambient conditions • transmission state * Dormant, resting stage * Can be compared to endospores because cysts are formed due to unfavorable environmental conditions - Trophozoite • dividing (binary fission) • labile cell membrane . • disease causing state • cannot survive outside of host * Active, breeding stage * Needs moisture to be active * Can turn into cyst if environment isn't favorable similar to endospores being formed from B. clostridium in similar situation.

What is a lichen?

- Early colonizers of bare rocks - contribute to soil formation (make powerful acids to grip the rock, begin soil formation) - dominate landscape in extreme environments - slow growing, long-lived - sensitive to air pollution - Lichen examples: crustose, fruticose, and foliose

REDOX reaction

- Electron carriers used to transfer electrons from electron donor to electron acceptor - Oxidation = substrate donates electron donor - Reduction = substrate accepts electrons O.I.L.R.I.G

Basic Enzyme Structure

- Enzyme structure is made up of amino acids that are linked together via peptide bonds in a linear chain. - The resulting amino acid chain is a polypeptide or protein.

Pediculosis (Lice) (helminth/arthropod)

- Etiology: *Head lice - Pediculus humanus capitis or corporis *Pubic lice - Pthirus pubis (STI) - Transmission: Direct contact - Disease: Dermatitis, itching especially at hairline (neck/ears) *Nits - Animals can not spread

Acanthamoeba keratitis / Amoebic Encephalitis (protozoan)

- Etiology: Acanthamoeba spp. - Found worldwide in water and soil

Balantidiasis (protozoan)

- Etiology: Balantidium coli *Only known ciliate to be a human pathogen - Pigs = animal reservoir, rodents, primates - Transmission: fecal-oral - Disease: Dysentery

Cryptosporidiosis

- Etiology: Cryptosporidium parvum - Transmission: Fecal oral; Drinking contaminated water - Disease: Watery diarrhea, cramps, pain, dehydration, nausea/ vomiting, fever, weight loss - Treatment: Most recover without medication; supportive care

Amebiasis (Amoebic dysentery) (protozoan)

- Etiology: Entamoeba histolytica - Transmission: Fecal route. Typically transmitted through contaminated water and host drinks amoebal cyst. - Disease: Abdominal pain, cramping, diarrhea (can be bloody) * In more severe cases, swelling of the colon and perforation can occur

Enterobiasis (Pinworm Infection) (helminth/arthropod)

- Etiology: Enterobius vermicularis - Transmission: Fecal-oral (direct or indirect) - Eggs easily spread - Signs/Symptoms: Itching, irritation in perianal area - Reinfection common

Giardiasis (Hiker's Diarrhea or Beaver Fever)

- Etiology: Giardia intestinalis (lamblia) - Transmission: Fecal-oral; Ingest contaminated water - Disease: Ingest cyst --> trophozoite - Adhesive disk - Treatment: Infection may clear on its own or may require medication - 2.5 million Americans infected a year

Primary amebic meningoencephalitis (protozoan)

- Etiology: Naegleria fowleri - Acute and usually lethal CNS infection

Malaria

- Etiology: Plasmodium spp. - Transmission: Female Anopheles mosquito - Disease: Fever, chills, sweats, headache, nausea * In severe cases can cause organ failure, cardiovascular collapse, and shock - WHO estimates that in 2016 malaria caused 216 million clinical episodes, and 445,000 deaths - Many different strains of plasmodium can cause malaria, but P. falciparum is the most severe. - Genetics can increase malarial resistance (ex: sickle cell trait

Scabies (helminth/arthropod)

- Etiology: Sarcoptes scabiei - Transmission: direct contact - Sometimes indirectly by sharing clothing, towels, or bedding used by an infested person - Disease: Itchy skin condition as mite burrows in skin leads to rash (type of allergic reaction) - Treatments: Scabicides, Treat clothing/ sheets -Can not be spread by animals

Impetigo

- Etiology: Staphyloccus, Streptococcus & Corynebacterium spp. - Virulence: Hyaluronidase - Transmission: * Direct / indirect contact, break in skin, insect bites * Highly contagious (scratch) - Disease: Pustule --> ruptures --> spreading ulcer -->crusty Complication: Sepsis, internal abscesses

Staphylococcus Diseases

- Etiology: Staphylococcus aureus * MRSA - Transmission: normal flora - Virulence factors: Leukocidins, coagulase, b-hemolysins, dermonecrotic exotoxin, hyaluronidase - Disease categories: * Noninvasive - Food poisoning * Cutaneous - Wound infections /Abscesses -Scalded skin syndrome * Systemic - Sepsis -Abscesses in internal organs -Toxic shock syndrome -Bacteremia -Endocarditis -Pneumonia -Osteomyelitis

Toxoplasmosis

- Etiology: Toxoplasma gondii - Transmission: inhalation/ ingestion/ contact * Considered leading cause of death attributed to foodborne illness in U.S. *> 30 million men, women, and kids in U.S. carry Toxoplasma - Disease: most asymptomatic. * Immunocompromised at greater risk *can experience body pains * Complication - congenital defects - Can cross the placenta, making it more dangerous for pregnant women. - May resemble mononucleosis

Trichinosis/Trichinellosis (helminth/arthropod)

- Etiology: Trichinella spiralis - Transmission: Undercooked pork, and game animals *Consume cyst, stomach acid dissolves cyst covering *Worms pass into small intestine, mature, then mate *Females lay eggs that develop into immature worms, travel through arteries to muscles where they encyst - Disease: Side effects vary (depends on where worm localizes) *Initially, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, fever, and abdominal pain *Later, headache, fever, chills, cough, swelling of face/eyes, aching joints and muscle pain, itchy skin, diarrhea, or constipation - Can be fatal

Trichomoniasis

- Etiology: Trichomonas vaginalis - Transmission = Direct, STI - Disease: ~70% asymptomatic - Women - vaginitis, copious discharge with strong 'fishy' odor, itchy, strawberry appearance on cervix, dysuria - Men - Some have urethritis, discharge from penis, dysuria - Most common, curable STI - 3.7 million people have it in the US, only about 30% will have symptoms

Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness)

- Etiology: Trypanosoma brucei - Transmission: Vector - Trypanosome transmitted by Tsetse fly - Symptoms: * bite site becomes a lesion w/ dead tissue *Acute- Relapsing fever (similar Borrelia recurrentis) due to expression of different VSG -> evasion of host immune system -> parasitemia- myocarditis and immunosuppression- Winterbottom's sign = cervical lymphadenopathy *Chronic- establishment of amastigote form in tissue and invasion of CNS- Lethargy, Coma, Death - Progressive disease: *blood --> lymph nodes --> nervous system - Left untreated, patient will die within 1-3 years

Trypanosomiasis

- Etiology: Trypanosoma cruzi - Transmission: * Vector = Reduviid bug, "Kissing Bug" * Opossums & armadillos = primary reservoir - Acute Chagas' * Romaña's sign (swelling of eyelids) * Swelling at site of bite * Anemia * nervous disorder * Muscle pain - Chronic Chagas' * About 10%-30% of chronic carriers will develop Megaesophagus, megacolon & Congestive Heart Failure * Swelling of the lymphnodes - Disease is fatal - Effects 16-18 million - Can cross the placenta - Endemic in Mexico, Central and S. America

Cholera

- Etiology: Vibrio cholera - Transmission: Fecal-oral route - Disease: * Sudden onset - Dysentery - "rice water stools" --> severe dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, shock - High mortality if untreated Treatment - Supportive, antibiotics * Vaccine: Toxoid - not very effective

General features of protists

- Eukaryotes (have a nucleus) - 3 Types : - Alveolates - Amoebas - Trypanosomes *vector borne parasite - Most are unicellular - Generally lack cell wall - Lack true tissue

Regulatory Enzymes

- Exhibit increased or decreased catalytic activity in response to certain signals - Regulates pathway activity

Induced Fit Model

- Explains the protein changes in binding. - Physical interaction to find its complex structure

Platyhelminthes

- Flat worms - Primitive - Simple digestive tract with one end - Lack coelom - Internalized mouth, pharynx, digestive tube - Because the worm lacks an anus, it must expel its wastes back out of the mouth - Usually has two suckers, one near the mouth and one on the ventral side of the body - Dioecious - Proglottids - Trematodes (flukes) - Cestodes (tapeworms) • Transmitted as larvae in uncooked meat • Different species found in pork (Taenia solium), beef (Taenia saginata), and fish (Diphyllobothrium) • Composed of head and successive segments (proglottids) • May grow 2-15 meters in length

Describe how fungi reproduce.

- Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, and both types of reproduction result in the release of spores. - Some unicellular fungi, such as yeast, reproduce asexually by simple cell division. Yeast fungi reproduce asexually in a process called budding. One yeast cell simply makes a copy of its DNA and then divides, much like basic cell division — separating the two copies of the genetic information and pinching off a section of the cytoplasm, including all necessary cellular components. - Haploid and/or diploid cells

Dermatomycoses (Cutaneous mycoses)

- Fungi that infect only the epidermis hair and nails - Ex: Dermatophytes - Epidermatophyton - Microsporum - Trichophyton

Anaerobic Respiration Equation

- Glucose -> Lactic Acid + energy released - Ex: C6H12O6 -> 2C3 H6 O3 + energy released

Most abundant compound in a cell

- H2O is most abundant - Rest of cell is the 4 basic macromolecules * Lipids * Proteins * Carbs * Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

What effect would the loss of heterotrophs have on the carbon cycle and the world?

- Heterotrophs acquire the high-energy carbon compounds from the autotrophs by consuming them, and breaking them down by respiration to obtain cellular energy, such as ATP.

Metabolism

- Heterotrophs: *Heterotrophs are known as consumers because they consume producers or other consumers. *Dogs, birds, fish, and humans are all examples of heterotrophs. - 2 types: * Chemoheterotrophs * Photoheterotrophs - Autotrophs: * Known as producers because they are able to make their own food from raw materials and energy. * Examples include plants, algae, and some types of bacteria. - 2 types: * Chemoautotroph * Photoautotroph - Catabolism and Anabolism: See individual flash card.

List the essential nutrients of a bacterial cell and why they are essential

- Hydrogen: - Oxygen: - Nitrogen: - Phosphorus: - Sulfur: - Carbon:

Characteristics of Mold "Filamentous Fungi"

- Hyphae - long, thread-like cells *May be septate (most) or non-septate *Chitin -Mycelium = vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of hyphae -Reproductive (fertile) hyphae

Identify the effect of isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic conditions on an animal cells and bacteria.

- Isotonic: *Water concentration is equal inside and outside the cell, thus rates of diffusion are equal in both directions. * 0.9% Saline solution is isotonic to animal cells - Hypotonic: * Diffusion of water into the cell causes it to swell, and may burst it if no mechanism exists to remove the water. Turgid. - Hypertonic: * Water diffuses out of the cell and shrinks the cell membrane away from the cell wall; process is known as plasmolysis.

Bacterial Growth Curve

- Lag phase: *Metabolic activity w/o division - Log phase: *Rapid cell division *Bacteria is most susceptible to antibiotics - Stationary phase: *Nutrient depletion slows growth. *Spore formation in some bacteria. *Dying as fast as reproducing - Death phase: *Prolonged nutrient depletion and buildup of waste products leads to death.

Arthropods

- Make up at least 90% of all organisms in the animal kingdom - Invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton and jointed appendages - Free living or ectoparasites - Include insects and arachnids - True coelom - small brain - Typically has segmented body (distinct head, thorax, ect.)

Helmiths

- Nematodes (round worms) - Cestodes (tapeworms) - Trematodes (flukes) - Can be dioecious/hermaphroditic (most common) where both male and female reproductive parts are present or monoecious where only one sex is present. - Multicellular, macroscopic organisms *Parasitic and non-parasitic forms - Complex life cycles *Transmission of egg or larva to another host, either a different or the same species *Intermediate (secondary) host: - Host in which larval development occurs *Definitive host: - Host in which adulthood and mating occur

Classification of Fungi

- No sexual cycle observed for some fungi - Often difficult to match sexual and asexual stages - Dimorphism - fungi that can exist in the form of both mold and yeast.

Apicomplexans

- Non-motile parasites of humans and animals - Complex lifecycle *Sporozoite *Schizogony - Clinically significant apicomplexans : * Plasmodium * Toxoplasma * Cryptosporidium * Cyclospora

Cofactor

- Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.

Why is Nitrogen is a growth limiting nutrient for many organisms?

- Only a few microbes can extract it from the atmosphere - All organisms require it for amino acid and nucleotide synthesis.

List and define five terms used to express a microbe's optimal growth temperature.

- Psychrophiles: ~ * Min: 0 degrees C * Max: 20 degrees C * Optimal: 15 degrees C - Mesophiles: ~ * Min: 15 degrees C * Max: 45 degrees C * Optimal: 37 degrees C * Most bacteria are mesophillic - Thermophiles: ~ * Min: 40 degrees C * Max: 70 degrees C * Optimal: * Most are Archaea * Can be found in hot springs & decaying plant matter - Hyperthermophiles: ~ * Min: 65 degrees C * Max: 121 degrees C * Optimal: > 80 degrees C - Extremophile: * harsh conditions that would kill most other microbes . * Ex: Psycrophiles, Hyperthermophiles, & Thermophiles (picture also contains pressure, salt, and ph conditions info)

Anaerobic Respiration

- Respiration that does not require oxygen - can lead to Fermentation *How beer, alcohol, and wine are made* - Produces lactic acid - 2-36 ATP - Exclusive to Prokaryotes

Aerobic Respiration

- Respiration that requires oxygen - 36-38 ATP - Occurs in MITOCHONDRIA in Eukaryotes - Occurs in ALL heterotrophs

Endoenzymes

- Retained intracellularly and function there - Most enzymes are endoenzymes - Break down molecules inside the cell

Enzyme Structure w/ Coenzyme

- Sometimes an enzyme requires a coenzyme to properly bind the substrate. The coenzyme binds with the original enzyme in order to create the correct shape for the substrate.

Enzymes

- Substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction. - Enzymes lower the activation energy of a biochemical reaction. - Enzymes control the rate at which a biochemical reaction proceeds. - Enzymes are involved in energy transfer during a biochemical reaction. - Enzymes determine the precise arrangement of chemical bonds within a product.

What is a mycorrhizae?

- Symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship between fungi and plants/roots

Nemotodes

- Tapered ends - cylindrical - Thick protective cuticle - Pseudocoelom - Found in terrestrial environments -tubular digestive system with openings at both ends (continuous)

What can cause a protein to denature (break apart)?

- Temperature: being too hot or too cold. - pH: being too low or too high - Salinity: too low or too high - UV exposure: too much or too little

What would happen if cyanobacteria was removed from a lichen?

- The nutrients produced from the photosynthetic cyanobacteria would no longer be available for the fungal cells.

Characteristics of Yeasts

- Unicellular *Round to oval shape - Asexual reproduction *budding mainly - Pseudohyphae: chains of yeast

Characteristics of Fungi

- Unicellular (microscopic) and multicellular (macroscopic) forms - Lack chlorophyll - Cell wall - chitin, other polysaccharides - Cell membranes have ergosterol - Heterotrophic by absorption *Saprophytes (saprobe) *Parasitic

Algea

- a group of mostly aquatic plantlike protists - make food by photosynthesis - Both macroscopic and microscopic forms * Widespread inhabitants of fresh and marine water * Produce most of the earth's oxygen - Plankton - Floating community of microscopic organisms * Essential role in aquatic food web - May exhibit all common eukaryotic organelles * Chloroplasts contain green chlorophyll * Other pigments create yellow, red, and brown coloration

Constitutive Enzyme

- always present in relatively constant amounts regardless of the amount of substrate

Protozoa

- animal-like protists (Kingdom Protista) - Unicellular, eukaryotic, microbes * Generally lack a cell wall * Lack true tissues - Most are harmless, free-living inhabitants of water and soil (some parasites and pathogenic) * ~65,000 species - Size: 5 microns - 5 millimeters - Some have contractile vacuoles that aid in water balance in an aquatic environment - act as food for larger animals - Assist in recycling - Photosthetic protozoa produce O2 in aquatic environments - Most are only trophozoites

Schizogony

- asexual reproduction by multiple fission, found in some protozoa, especially parasitic sporozoans.

How are enzymes controlled?

- competitive inhibition - noncompetitive inhibition - enzyme repression - enzyme induction

Exoenzymes

- enzymes secreted by microbes that break down and inflict damage on tissues - transported extracellularly, where they break down large food molecules or harmful chemicals - Dissolve extracellular barriers and penetrates through or between cells

Superficial mycoses

- fungal diseases confined to the outer layers of the skin, nails, or hair - Localized along the shaft and in the superficial surface of the epidermal cells - Prevalent in tropical climates, effects the chest back upper arms and legs - Oval pale pink or tan spots which can fuse together to form larger areas with sharp borders. - Ex: Pityriasis versicolor - Malassezia furfur (cause of dandruff)

Systemic mycoses

- fungal diseases that spread throughout the body - Deep into the body and not restricted to any particular region of the body but can affect a number of tissues and organs - Caused by inhalation of spores in the soil which begins in the lungs and then spreads to the body - Not contagious from animal to human or human to human - Ex: Cryptococcosis - Cryptococcus neoformans - Lung infection is pneumonia like - Cryptococcal meningitis Pneumocystis pneumonia - Pneumocystis jirovecii (carinii)

Aerobic Respiration Equation

- glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy released - Ex: G6 H12 O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2 O + energy released

H. pylori

- has many virulence factors to allow it to live in extremely acidic conditions - very motile - Often cause of Gastritis & gastric ulcers - Acid coping mechanisms like producing Ammonia from Urea - 2/3 of the population carries it

Fermentation

- incomplete oxidation of glucose or other carbs in the absence of oxygen - Yields 2 ATP

Why are mycorrhizae beneficial?

- increased absorption of nutrients and water - more access to nitrogen and phosphorus protection from diseases - can grow in places they otherwise could not - join an underground social network; info from other plants about threats, nutrient sharing

Coenzyme

- organic non-protein compound that binds with an enzyme to catalyze a reaction - Cannot function alone - Can be reused several times when paired with an enzyme

Mitosis

- part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides

Activation Energy

- the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction - Enzymes lower the activation energy of chemical reactions so they will proceed - Without enzymes: activation energy is high - With enzymes: activation energy decreases. The reaction rate increases. - Lower the activation energy allows rapid conversion of reactants to products.

By-products of Fermentation

- the reactants for both fermentations are pyruvic acid and NADH Alcoholic fermentation - alcohol, carbon dioxide, and NAD+ Lactic acid fermentation - lactic acid and NAD+.

Meiosis II

- the second phase of meiosis consisting of chromatids separating, along with the two diploid cells splitting in two

Glycolysis

1. Glucose+2 ADP+2 Pi+2 NAD+ to 2. 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH After Glycolysis: 3. Intermediate step - converts pyruvate to 2 acetyl-CoA, 2 CO2 , 2 NADH 4. Krebs cycle - Oxidation of acetyl-CoA produces 2 ATP, 4 CO2 , 6 NADH & 2 FADH2 - Starts with glucose, production of 2 pyruvic acids, yields 2 ATPs and 2 NADHs

Explain the significance/importance of fungi.

1. Recycling - fungi are the main decomposers and recycle energy and nutrients from dead material back to the environment. 2. Food - many fungi are edible and are used to make things like bread, cheese, wine, and beer. 3. Medication - the fungi penicillium is used to make the antibiotic Penicillin.

Metabolic pathway...

A starting reactant molecule is converted, with the help of an enzyme, into a slightly different intermediate molecule, then changed until an end product is produced.

Krebs Cycle

A three-carbon pyruvate molecule ("A") is broken down into a two-carbon acetyl-CoA ("B") molecule. During this conversion, carbon dioxide is released, and electrons and hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+. Acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate ("D") condense to form citrate ("C") - 2 cycles of pyruvate acid , to oxaloacetate, yields 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH

Enzyme action is regulated by...

Altering the rate of enzyme synthesis, activating previously inactive enzymes, competitive and noncompetitive inhibition, and allosteric regulation which includes feedback inhibition

Contrast substrate-level phosphorylation with oxidative phosphorylation

Both processes produce ATP from ADP and Pi, but substrate level phosphorylation occurs when enzymes remove a "high-energy" phosphate from a substrate and directly transfer it to ADP, while oxidative phosphorylation is based on electrons moving through and ETC and production of a proton-motive force that drives ATP synthase.

CFU plate counting

CFU= # of colonies x dilution factor x 10 - Moving decimal to the LEFT 1 = ADD 1 to the exponent -Moving decimal to the RIGHT 1 = SUBTRACT 1 from the exponent - Dilution factor is the 10^x of the plate count between 25-300 bacteria

Cells regulate metabolic pathways by...

Controlling enzyme synthesis and activity.

2 Types of Mycorrhizae

Ectomycorrhizae -surrounds root cells -mostly trees and shrubs -mostly mushrooms and some cap fungi -modify root tips: thick mycelium covers these slow-growing short roots Endomycorrhizae -fungus is mostly within root cells -most herbaceous plants -Phylum Glomermycota -also called arbuscular mycorrhizae

Feedback inhibition...

Form of allosteric regulation. Causes a metabolic pathway to stop producing its end product when the product concentration reaches optimal level. Activity of an enzyme at the beginning of a metabolic pathway is inhibited by the end product. End product = allosteric inhibitor molecule.

What are the osmotic conditions in jellies and jams compared to the bacterial cytoplasm?

Jelly is hypertonic to the cytoplasm

Catabolism and Anabolism

Methods of Metabolism Catabolism - Macromolecules are chemically broken down into smaller molecules (amino acids, fatty acids, simple sugars) - Reactions are oxidative - Energy is released (exergonic) and transferred to ATP Anabolism - Macromolecules are synthesized from monosaccharides, fatty acids, amino acids - Reactions are reductive - Energy in ATP is transferred to biomolecules - Energy-releasing reactions (catabolism) are coupled with energy-capturing reactions (anabolism) - Ex: Sugar catabolism releases energy, which cells use to synthesize proteins - Some energy is released as heat

electron carriers

NAD+ and FADH2 (NAD AND FAD)

Allosteric regulation...

Some enzymes are controlled by allosteric regulation. An important mechanism by which cells regulate their metabolic pathways by activating or inhibiting the activity of enzymes within said pathway. Switch easily and spontaneously between configurations. Example: ADP produced by breakdown of ATP then used to synthesize more.

The metabolism of a ell is...

The sum of all its chemical reactions.

Doubling time and exponential growth

The time required for a complete fission cycle from parent cell to two new daughter cells. The cells reach the maximum rate of cell division during exponential growth

Goblet cells

a column-shaped cell found in the respiratory and intestinal tracts, which secretes the main component of mucus for the stomach.