Minds and Brains Final- Extensive

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Advertising meets psychology. New way things are sold - to appeal to one of the "eight hidden needs" This results in a change in advertising - toothpaste ad. Pebeco advertising was first about the toothpaste, Pebeco then advertises in respect thinking. Ad #2 - produced after inclusion of psychologist, odd ad, "for a higher type of intelligence," the slogan is for "the thinking type," "wherever people do the intelligent thing they use their own thinking" they are saying it is your own hands to pick. Not talking about product but intelligence and hats but is succeeding in selling toothpaste. (1) The Power of Persuasion: Psychologists and marketing forms are converging on the same idea. That consumer made choice for reasons beyond or below rational deliberations. Shift away from something that is advertised rationally to sell something to fulfill an obvious problem. (2) Techniques of Assessment: To access consumer preferences, you cannot poll people because they will not answer honestly. In stead you must do other focus groups. - relates to art of deception

" 1. Emotional security 2. Reassurance of worth 3. Ego gratification 4. Creative outlets 5. Love objects 6. Sense of power 7. Sense of roots Sense of immortality" Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (1957)

Wilson was arguing against the blank slate in the 1960s/70s. When Pinker is still arguing agianst the blank slate, though the people who hold it and the politics are different.

"In the '60s and '70s it became almost dogma — it was a dogma — to believe that the human brain was a tabula rasa, a blank slate. I don't think scholars in this generation, even those of middle age, can appreciate how stern was the prohibition against believing that human behavior was influenced by genes in any manner whatsoever. The only acceptable view was that the brain was a blank slate and what humanity does and humanity feels and what societies end up becoming is strictly a matter of choice and is determined by our history, particularly by the culture we're born with. We can design a much more perfect society if we use our reason and train the brain accordingly" Wilson, Interview (2014)

Involved in research in Europe. She comes at Yale looking for work but she can't get a job because they already have two women in their department. She works at UCLA and becomes close with her student who is gay and his friends who are gay. She starts thinking about their homosexuality and their lives - they are well adjusted, successful, and intelligent. She realizes that the entire history of psychological research there has never been a study on a normal homosexual population - people in therapy, in the military, or in prison. She wanted to a study on gay men and women in the world. Hooker's experiment came from her experiences in her everyday life. She turned her subjective experiences into the objectivity of experimentation - similar to C. Lloyd Morgan and Tony. Personal experimentation generated new questions. Got 30 matched pairs - same age, same IQ, same education, one is homosexual and one heterosexual. She does this to see how results aren't changed by these things. First she has them read their tests, their life histories, and then rate them on a scale of one to five. They don't know the patients sexual preferences. Will we find a difference in population adjustment? She finds that Judge A finds no difference in begin well adjusted between homosexual and heterosexual. Judge B found the homosexual group was slightly better adjusted. Asked can judges figure out who is homosexual and who is heterosexual based on tests? IN rorsach test they look for these five things in rorsach tests (1) buttock sand anuses (2) feminine clothing (30 male and female sex organs (4) human figures without sexed features (5) human figures with both features. Hooker found that psychoanalysts could not distinguish between homosexual and heterosexual patients. They got it right less than or exactly to tests. These finding were shocking to psychoanalysts. Hooker says that the feelings of disgust and anger are because the feelings of the psychiatrist about their unconscious homosexual impulses. She says they are in the psychiatrists themselves and they are uncomfortable with their own homosexuality. Psychiatrist knowledge reflects psychiatrists prejudices - psychiatrists belief that certain behaviors were disease reflected particular social and cultural prejudices. Starting to look at the health care providers not the patients.

"It is well known that many people, including physicians, react in an exaggerated way to sexual deviations and particularly to homosexuality with disgust, anger, and hostility. Such feelings often table arise from the individual's own conflict centering about his unconscious homosexual impulses. These attitudes may interfere with an intelligent and objective handling of the problem."Hooker, "The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual" (1957)

Psychologists needed people like Harry Houdini to explain the science of deception to them. - Nature does not actively try to deceive Jastrow works with Houdini to unmask spiritualists.

"Nature is brutal enough, Heaven knows; but no one yet has held her non-human side to be dishonest." William James, 1909 "Nature is puzzling and evasive to a degree, but she plays fair."Joseph Jastrow, 1910

John Watson pioneers this. Watson was an academic trajectory when he was fired from his academic post and moves into the business world due to his affair. Watson is a staunch behaviorist. He approaches advertising from a behaviorist perspective. This is shown in his quote: To make you consumer react, it is only necessary to confront him with either fundamental of conditioned emotional stimuli. Behaviorist approach, also limited. Use introspection to actually sell the products. (1) The Power of Persuasion: Psychologists and marketing forms are converging on the same idea. That consumer made choice for reasons beyond or below rational deliberations. Shift away from something that is advertised rationally to sell something to fulfill an obvious problem. (2) Techniques of Assessment: To access consumer preferences, you cannot poll people because they will not answer honestly. In stead you must do other focus groups. - relates to art of deception

"To make your consumer react, it is only necessary to confront him with either fundamental or conditioned emotional stimuli" John B. Watson (1923)

Fulton thought it was difficult locate the higher faculties in apes. How can you study them as a surgeon? Luckily for Fulton, the foremost expert on animal behavior is at Yale. He begins to work with Robert Yerkes on apes.

"Turning to questions involving perception, learning, memory, and other higher intellectual faculties, objective data are far more difficult to obtain." Fulton, "Medicine and the Infra-Human Primate" (1933)

The same issues are going on that have been going on in the last two years. This was in 1968 - student movement on mental health issues : (1) wait times (2) session limits (3) stigma. For fifty years these issues have been at the frontline of mental health care resources at Yale but they haven't gone away. Yale Health is reluctant to allow weekly sessions, but there is 12 session limit often enforced. Issues of cost have to be translated out of the language of cost. They don't want to use cost as an excuse but that is part of the reality of running a university.

(16 November 1992)

Jonathan Metzl writes begins his book with this. What is means to be schizophrenic changes on the basis of what is going on in society and no other factors. This describes the patholgization of marching in the civil rights movement. Metzl's idea is that this is not a new thing - society decided medical conditions. Metzl begins with diagnosis of "drapetization" the desire to run away from slavery. Diagnostic invention of drapetization. Metzl is pointing out that the history of medicine itself is freighted in every decade by things like this. 1. Diagnosis Creates Categories: Diagnosis create the thing they are meant to define - basic pathology is a moving target. What are you looking for and why are you looking for it? In protest psychosis what is being pathologized? 2. Diagnosis Embodies Politics: Metzl's main point. As with asylums, diagnosis was away to out a political or social group by using medical language. Designed to change behavior.

2. Cartwright, "Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race" (1851)

A member of communist party is not a free man. The open mind was flexible, tolerant, and adhered to the tenants of the American Constitution. The open mind is resistant to the potential for outside control and brainwashing. Relates to communist. It is shut to certain possibilities but is open to being a liberal minded democratically regulated member of an elite society.

A member of the Communist Party is not a free man. [...] Because he has failed to be a free agent, because he is intolerant of the beliefs of others and because education cannot tolerate organized intolerance, I told the he is in neglect of his most essential duty as a teacher.Raymond Allen, "Communists Should Not Teach in American Colleges" (1949

You have certain ideas and then you find them in the world. This is how we all think. Open mind.

A scientist [...] searches through ideas as well as through objects in order to find what he seeks. And he does not look indiscriminately—always he carries an image of what he seeks [...] He is looking for something that matches up to his image of what the world must be, something that meets a test he himself imposes, something that has meaning only in terms of the standards he lives by. George Miller, "Thinking, Cognition, and Learning" (1963

Introduces the imitation game. Paragraph where he answers: can machines think. He says this is a meaningless questions. You must define machine and thing in such a colloquial way it's impossible to answer or to technical a way it evades the fact is an interesting question. What if instead if a machine can make you think it was thinking? In the bottom of the paragraph, he addresses - what is appropriate science? He defends a science of conjecture - "conjectures are of great importance since they suggest useful lines of research." Turing defends making bold conjectures, and uses ideas about AI to think about proper scientific method. Bold conjectures make us human. We can't be hemmed in by the government. We should have free time and space.

Alan Turing, "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (1950), p. 442.

One of the many arguments against sociobiology. Balance of anamorphism and athrampromorism. Wilson applies traditional metaphors ascribed to human life and applies them to ants (anthamamorphism). He is doing that in order to license a move in the other direction. Then we have made it possible to transition results from animal world to people. They say this is illegitimate. This group is a leftist scientists group. Animal comparison and anthromoprhism versus anamorphism are an important tension in the history of science. This issue of NYRB was also political. Issue where they reprint NYRB critique of Sociobiology. On the cover is the a quotation from Frederic Douglass. If science is not working for the people, tis working against the people. The strakes were raised on a politcal level. NO matter his intentions, it is the kind of the text that get taken up for variosu nefarious purposes. This produced scathing critiques.

Allen et al., "Against 'Sociobiology'," NYRB (1975)

The same issues as in 1968 - student movement on mental health issues : (1) wait times (2) session limits (3) stigma. For fifty years these issues have been at the frontline of mental health care resources at Yale but they haven't gone away. Yale Health is reluctant to allow weekly sessions, but there is 12 session limit often enforced. Issues of cost have to be translated out of the language of cost. They don't want to use cost as an excuse but that is part of the reality of running a university.

Amaka Uchegbu, "Tensions Flare at Mental Health Forum," YDN 26 February 2015

Behaviorism is also related to C. Lloyd Morgan and his dog Tony. Tony trying to carry a stick through a gate and fence can be translated into stimulus and response. Prior stimulus - desire to carry a stick. Stimulus of the successful carrying of the stick. Behaviorists call this kind of learning stimulus and response

C. Lloyd Morgan, Animal Behaviour (1900), 145.

A sham trial used to pass Harry Laughlin's sterilization law. Carrie and Emma Buck have been living at the Virginia Colony for Feeble-Minded and Epileptic. Here is the buck pedigree chart. In the first generation, an f refers to feeble-minded. Carrie Buck is the product of an illegitimate relationship. Her mother is deemed sexually promiscuous. Carrie is deemed feeble minded when she bears a child out of wed-lock, when she was raped. Carrie Buck's daughter was classified as feeble-minded at the time of birth. Justification for sterilization of Carrie. Sterilization is better for her and society. The lawsuit is brought to the supreme court, where the compulsory sterilization law is upheld.

Carrie Buck, Buck V. Bell

J. Catell: Wants to legitimize psychology. Also uses mental testing for social changes. Here is the count of the scientists in different field (math, chem, botany). He asks how many are members of special societies, doctorates in five years, etc. If you quantify it, then its true. An idea we have seen before. Use of numbers.

Cattell, "Homo Scientificus Americanus" (1903)

Catell's vision for the social and personal impact for the tests he is proposing - they are not just useful for science but for organizing society. This is coming from eugenics. When we think about testing its not sit down paper and pen test. The test Catell proposes for the social change she wants to see - pressures causing pain, reaction-time for sound. He does not mean intelligence. He means a very basic set of experimental tools that he has picked up in Germany to produce a type of social change. Catell is differentiated from German teachers because he is interested in difference. He is doing that because of his work in England. Catell worked with Galton. Galton is obsessed with what makes genius different from other people. His idea is that it is hereditary - seen in his book "Hereditary Genius." Catell makes Galton's approach scientific - what separates indivuals and what separates classes together on the basis of their mind.

Cattell, "Mental Tests and Measurements" (1890)

One of the founding figures in the history of computer science. Built Difference Engine #1. It never worked to his specification. His idea, however was important. The idea of the difference engine is that take the thing that people were doing in rooms and put it on a machine in the model of human thinking, so that it will free up the human mind. Modeling the human mind and freeing up the human mind.

Charles Babbage's "Difference Engine #1", 1824 - 1832

Charles Davenport was the leading figure in the American eugenic movement. He was a scientists at Harvard. In 1904, he became director of Harvard lab in New York. In 1910, founded the Eugenics Record office. Davenport and Laughlin produce family pedigree charts, graphs, and reports to secure scientific legitimacy and funding for Eugenics. Received funding from Kellogg's and Carnegie. Members included Thorndike and Graham Bell. Laughlin plans for eugenics were (1) immigrants from southern and eastern Europe were prone to insanity. He was responsible for immigration act of 1924, which halted immigration of the US. (2) He sought to stop reproduction of mentally unfit. These operations were safer and easier to perform in the early 20th century. At the same time, institutions were crowded and isolation of individuals for their whole reproductive life was expensive. This would make it cheaper for intuition but also made the institution appeared moral. Soon, people would not need to agree to be sterilized. State past compulsory sterilization laws. Laughlin drafted a model sterilization law impermeable to objection.

Charles Davenport and Harry Laughlin

Study drugs: Rose to take advantage of parents of their children's learning capacities and such. What hear is being offered as prospect for the future - either good or bad. What is being sold? Friendship, good grades, performance? What is the nature of this disorder and how and why has it cahgned. The diagnostic rate goes up. Why? Have we discovered more things? People changing? Over perscribing? Rise of stimulant sales. Pharms can be advertised directly to patients since 1997. This is legal in two other countries - New Zealand and Brazil. In every other country, they cannot advertise except to physicians. They begin to advertise to consumer parents. A correlation between this and the rise in the uptake of sales. Alongside this there is a boom in the attention economy - the idea is in our moment what matters is attention. The ultimate product is the ability to sustain attention. The illicit or legal use of stimulant drugs have begun in the adult population. In this economy attention is important - it is at the heart of the economy. Slide 34: Lessons of Study Drugs 1. Maintaing in Context: Maintence invites the idea what are you mainting. The question you want to ask yourself - what is that pill doing to who you are. How the scope of identity ahs shifted as this kind of practice becomes normalized. Expectation and Altered States: Incorporating pills into daily routines - or even those of others - destabilizes our notion of a baseline identity. Destabilizes in the way - I don't feel like myself or I do feel like myself again.

Children Ever Diagnosed with ADHD (2011)

Showing how language itslef is like science - it produces novelty through repeated iterations on a set of rules. Defining the difference between human and machines. You have a finite set of grammar. You have a language a computer can understand and produce. But this picture does not represent natural languages, because natural languages are endlessly permutable. The computer does not capture what is tis that human does. Boundary between machines and humans, freeing up space for human around this idea of the open mind

Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (1957), p. 19

Chomsky is describing language. How does language work? The mystery about language that behaviorists could not explain b/c as Skinner believes that language is purely imitation. This cannot explain how early speakers speak. He says language works like science - both are based on theories and rules. He is not saying that his field is science. He says language itself is like science - it produces novelty through repeated iterations on a set of rules. Boundary between machines and humans, freeing up space for human aroudn this idea of the open mind

Chomsky, Syntactic Structures (1957), p. 49.

Founding figure in mental hygiene movement and graduates from Yale. Wrote a bestselling book. Three years after graduating from Yale he was in a state mental institutions and then other institutions. Self help, memoire and expose of the inside of American asylums. Whatever we are doing for mental health Is not correct. Quote is from Adolph Meyer: Adolf says this - "work of prevention." Think of prevention with Clifford Beers. Prevention shades into treatment. Someone can get help before they have a diagnosis. There are practices that we can all engage and that we should all in engage in. Root idea of mental hygiene. Each of us can take on a set of mental pracites that can prevent that from happening. Beers founds the Clifford Beers Clinic in 1913. First fully functioning outpatient health clinic in the United States. People come in for treatment and eave that day. They come in not to get a diagnosis and they want to pursue psychotherapy. This is the model colleges like Yale pursue. There is a block on college campuses from getting mental treatment if you have to have a diagnosis - beers breaks this wall down. Organisms vs. Environment: Meyer's psychodynamic theory pitted organism against environment. It was the organisms that had to change. This idea translated to mental hygiene - you have to change, not the environment. The focus has always been on changing the individual. A Mind that Found Itself: A particular focus on the individual. There is a king of moral status afforded to individual who achieves self help rather than reaching outside one self. Mental hygiene emphasized individuals' capacity to alter their own mind sin light of prevailing norms of health

Clifford Beers and A Mind that Found Itself

Evolutionary psychology. A version of behaviorism and cognitive science. The model can't explain that complicated phenomenon of human behavior, you need evolution. Their argument is that the specific traits in the mind need to have evolved into response to specific demands.

Cosmides and Tooby (1992), p. 29

Almost every patient Cushing had, he took a photo of. This contributed to his boundary work. These are all different peoples - lifelong terrible disabilities, wealthy people, people form asylums, rich/poor. He becomes a destination doctor because he was one of the only people able to do this type of procedure. This archive was also part boundary work - he was trying to make a new scientific field

Cushing, Tumor Registry Patient Records (Various Dates)

The DSM diagnosis is that homosexuality is one type of sexual deviation. These include fetishism, pedophilia. This was taken out in 1973. This third version changed many psychiatric disorders. It was not removed, it was reworded in a significant way. It is much longer. The first was 81 words and the second is over 300. There are then diagnostic criteria. There must be a sustained pattern of homosexual arousal that is unwanted and distressing for the patient. Homosexuality is now only a disorder if you have a problem with it psychologically. Ego is not in agreement with your behaviors. Today, Sexuality is still on the table in the DSM. Including fetishes. Still a topic being discusses in DSM

DSM Categorization of homosexuality.

DSM-I published in 1952. It has 130 pages and about 100 diseases. DSM-IV has about 300 diseases and a 100 pages. The context of the creation of the DSM: Before WWII, this was where psychiatrist were working: the asylum. How were you managing overcrowding? Soldiers returning from war was a new population. Psychiatrists were treating them both on the front and at home. This context created DSM 1. Diagnosis Creates Categories: Diagnosis create the thing they are meant to define - basic pathology is a moving target. What are you looking for and why are you looking for it? In protest psychosis what is being pathologized? Diagnosis Embodies Politics: Metzl's main point. As with asylums, diagnosis was away to out a political or social group by using medical language. Designed to change behavior. DSM has never been debate free. Each instance of DSM has dissenters. Patients reject diagnosis, social groups reject them and doctors fight among one another.

DSM-1, 1952

Darwin's theory of emotion can be imagined it in the terms of stimulus and response - relates it to Behaviorism. There is some stimulus to this animal and this is the response that you get.

Darwin, Expression of the Emotions (1872), 53.

Depicts a spandrel. The idea is that you take a dome and you erect it on a square room. AS a consequences of this structure, painters learned to paint in certain ways. This has to do with biology. The argument that it is not designed, it is an accident of the architecture of cathedral. The idea in biology is the adaptations program - any trait can have an evolutionary story of how it evolved. This is a problem because certain traits are developed ways we have no idea and certain traits that are cultural. The critique of Gould and Lewontin isn't accurate because traits weren't developed in evolution. At the ending of damning review, they quoted Darwin. Darwin said natural selection was being misused and too many people were using it to explain to many things. Darwin says limit is application.

Darwin, quoted in Gould and Lewontin, "The Spandrels of San Marco" (1979)

Pills arise in society due to: In the 60s if you don't have pills, you have (1) talk therapy and (2) lobotomy (slight behavioral disturbances all the way to the chronically institionalized). Pill take over from where 1 and 2 once arranged. Pills emerge into the context of consumerized medicine, and rampant lobotomies and the rise of asylum populations. . A column from the nation. Expresses the objection of the rise of anti-anxiety medications. The author is saying what happens when medicine become part of daily routine and how do they altar the things that make humanity grea.t This is the fundmanetla thing people are arguisng.

David Cowen, ''Those Pretty Little Pills,'' Nation, April 16, 1960, 338

Asks the question: do we think these people are insane because of where they are? David Rosenhan specialized in forensic psychiatry - intersection between law and psychiatrist. He was interested in the insanity defense. In a courtroom, psychiatric experts can argue that the defendant is an insane and another will say that no they are not insane and should go to a penal institute. He thinks maybe this a phenomenon of psychiatry and people don't know the difference between sane and insane. His experiments comes at a time when scientific legitimacy of psychiatrist. Falsifiability of Psychoanalysis: Karl Popper used philosophy to argue that psychoanalysis was not a science because it was not falsifiable. You can't test the unconscious and run experiments. Physicatridc Diagnosis are Not Real: Rosehan is not using philosophy to arguing that psychiatry is not science. He is using science to test whether psychiatry was a science. His work was published in Science one of the most wide-read journals, generated a lot of interest and criticism. He wanted to study doctors, not patients (flipped). How Rosehan conducted his experiment - he and colleagues got into mental illness by saying they heard voices that said "dull, empty, thud." As soon as he was in, he abandoned symptoms and acted normally. Firstly you do not shave, shower or brush your teeth for a week. Then you go to speak to a psychiatrist. You have one symptom - an auditory hallucination. Tell truth about family and friends. They were all accepted into the institute with the diagnosis of schizophrenia, except for one with manic depressive. Asylum as a Laboratory: Rosehan turned the asylum into a laboratory where psychiatrist were the subjects and pesudo patients were the researchers. They are taken notes on all of this. Initially he said these notes needed to be hidden. What he found was that the staff found they didn't care they were taking notes - the staff interpreted that as part of their mental illness as a whole. No one detected that the pseudo patients were not sane. They left with the diagnosis of schizophrenia in remission. It means right now you don't have symptoms. Psychologically you are schizophrenia. In the hospital you are trying to act normal and get out. The average was nineteen days. It was hard to leave. When they told the psychiatrist that they were sane that the staff interpreted that as denying and resistance. The best way to get out was to reaffirm the psychiatrist and because of your treatment now I feel better. Rosenhan began to send pseduopatients to facilities with their knowledge. 193 patients were evaulted some real and some pseudopatients. The number that were confidnetly jduged by staff members - 41. Just psychiatrists - 23. Both - 19. He sent no pseduopatients during the intervening months. Psychiatrists can't tell whether sane people are sane or whether insane people are insane. Rosenhan argued that psychiatric diagnoses are clearly not useful if psychiatrists cannot tell the sane from the insane. Others wanted the complete eradication of mental illness itself.

David Rosenhan, On Being Sane in Insane Places

David Rosenhan specialized in forensic psychiatry - intersection between law and psychiatrist. He was interested in the insanity defense. In a courtroom, psychiatric experts can argue that the defendant is an insane and another will say that no they are not insane and should go to a penal institute. He thinks maybe this a phenomenon of psychiatry and people don't know the difference between sane and insane. His experiments comes at a time when scientific legitimacy of psychiatrist. Falsifiability of Psychoanalysis: Karl Popper used philosophy to argue that psychoanalysis was not a science because it was not falsifiable. You can't test the unconscious and run experiments. Physicatridc Diagnosis are Not Real: Rosehan is not using philosophy to arguing that psychiatry is not science. He is using science to test whether psychiatry was a science. His work was published in Science one of the most wide-read journals, generated a lot of interest and criticism. He wanted to study doctors, not patients (flipped). How Rosehan conducted his experiment - he and colleagues got into mental illness by saying they heard voices that said "dull, empty, thud." As soon as he was in, he abandoned symptoms and acted normally. Firstly you do not shave, shower or brush your teeth for a week. Then you go to speak to a psychiatrist. You have one symptom - an auditory hallucination. Tell truth about family and friends. They were all accepted into the institute with the diagnosis of schizophrenia, except for one with manic depressive. Asylum as a Laboratory: Rosehan turned the asylum into a laboratory where psychiatrist were the subjects and pesudo patients were the researchers. They are taken notes on all of this. Initially he said these notes needed to be hidden. What he found was that the staff found they didn't care they were taking notes - the staff interpreted that as part of their mental illness as a whole. No one detected that the pseudo patients were not sane. They left with the diagnosis of schizophrenia in remission. It means right now you don't have symptoms. Psychologically you are schizophrenia. In the hospital you are trying to act normal and get out. The average was nineteen days. It was hard to leave. When they told the psychiatrist that they were sane that the staff interpreted that as denying and resistance. The best way to get out was to reaffirm the psychiatrist and because of your treatment now I feel better. Rosenhan began to send pseduopatients to facilities with their knowledge. 193 patients were evaulted some real and some pseudopatients. The number that were confidnetly jduged by staff members - 41. Just psychiatrists - 23. Both - 19. He sent no pseduopatients during the intervening months. Psychiatrists can't tell whether sane people are sane or whether insane people are insane. Rosenhan argued that psychiatric diagnoses are clearly not useful if psychiatrists cannot tell the sane from the insane. Others wanted the complete eradication of mental illness itself.

David Rosenhan, On Being Sane in Insane Places

Shows response to critique of original experiment. David Rosenhan specialized in forensic psychiatry - intersection between law and psychiatrist. He was interested in the insanity defense. In a courtroom, psychiatric experts can argue that the defendant is an insane and another will say that no they are not insane and should go to a penal institute. He thinks maybe this a phenomenon of psychiatry and people don't know the difference between sane and insane. His experiments comes at a time when scientific legitimacy of psychiatrist. Falsifiability of Psychoanalysis: Karl Popper used philosophy to argue that psychoanalysis was not a science because it was not falsifiable. You can't test the unconscious and run experiments. Physicatridc Diagnosis are Not Real: Rosehan is not using philosophy to arguing that psychiatry is not science. He is using science to test whether psychiatry was a science. His work was published in Science one of the most wide-read journals, generated a lot of interest and criticism. He wanted to study doctors, not patients (flipped). How Rosehan conducted his experiment - he and colleagues got into mental illness by saying they heard voices that said "dull, empty, thud." As soon as he was in, he abandoned symptoms and acted normally. Firstly you do not shave, shower or brush your teeth for a week. Then you go to speak to a psychiatrist. You have one symptom - an auditory hallucination. Tell truth about family and friends. They were all accepted into the institute with the diagnosis of schizophrenia, except for one with manic depressive. Asylum as a Laboratory: Rosehan turned the asylum into a laboratory where psychiatrist were the subjects and pesudo patients were the researchers. They are taken notes on all of this. Initially he said these notes needed to be hidden. What he found was that the staff found they didn't care they were taking notes - the staff interpreted that as part of their mental illness as a whole. No one detected that the pseudo patients were not sane. They left with the diagnosis of schizophrenia in remission. It means right now you don't have symptoms. Psychologically you are schizophrenia. In the hospital you are trying to act normal and get out. The average was nineteen days. It was hard to leave. When they told the psychiatrist that they were sane that the staff interpreted that as denying and resistance. The best way to get out was to reaffirm the psychiatrist and because of your treatment now I feel better. Rosenhan began to send pseduopatients to facilities with their knowledge. 193 patients were evaulted some real and some pseudopatients. The number that were confidnetly jduged by staff members - 41. Just psychiatrists - 23. Both - 19. He sent no pseduopatients during the intervening months. Psychiatrists can't tell whether sane people are sane or whether insane people are insane. Rosenhan argued that psychiatric diagnoses are clearly not useful if psychiatrists cannot tell the sane from the insane. Others wanted the complete eradication of mental illness itself.

David Rosenhan, On Being Sane in Insane Places

As a particular mode of treatment for depression escalates, rates of success decline drastically. There are persistent, fundamentally untreatable. Sufferign under the ideal that there are drugs that cure them once and for all. ???

Declining Remission Rates: NIMH "Star D" Project Results (2007)

Imaging. Not regular mouse - mouse are optically engineered. Way to get inside of brain, is that cut away part of the brain with a Plexiglas plate. What do you see? And how do you extrapolate what you see to what you want to know about? Is there a way to produce a king of voluntary version of this study? The surgery is still involuntary. You can automatize the system. A colony of mice stick their heads through the headport and have their head images. You can essentially remove the experimenter and they become an analyst.

Dombeck et al. (2010)

Wilson publishes this and is awarded the Pulitzer Prize. He is awarded 15 prizes in total. How does this become mainstream just a few years after causing so much drama? Now we are in evolutionary psychology.

E. O. Wilson, On Human Nature, 1978.

E.O. Wilsons' Sociobiology: The New Synthesis was published initially to great acclaim and then the great debate. Wilson says he calls it this because it is "new," he brings many disciplines and sources into one book. There is an emphasis on novelty. The word "synthesis" - Wilson is not expert in many things he is talking about, he is a synthesizer. He brings in Willard S. Small's rat maze, Darwin. Wilson was a professor at Harvard. What expertise does he draw on to write this book? His primary area of expertise is ants. Wilson is an expert in the ants of Micronesia. He is extremely explicit about the fact that that expertise gives him the ability to make arguments in many other areas. The excerpt we are reading for this week is the ending, which is the only chapter that mentions humans. It is a synthetic science of behavior that only addresses humans at the end in the same way animlas are addressed. FROM SECTION: What are the arguments against sociobiology? 1. "dehumanizing" (similar to Darwin, comparison, vivisection) 2. Do the analogies make sense (an issue of comparison) 3. No actual human evidence (Freud, phrenology) 4. Un-falsifiability (Freud, mesmerism) The issues we have with social biology persist throughout science. Counterargument: "We can use it for a good." It was can be a force for economic gain, subjugation. Masking truth under medical and scientific language. Are we going to fall prey to the trap of scientific language?

E.O. Wilson Sociobiology

Relating behaviorism to Thorndike: Stimulus is that the cat is put in the box hungry and the fish is just out of reach. The local stimulus is operating the mechanism to get out of the box. Behaviorists translate into stimulus and response.

Edward L. Thorndike, "Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals," The Psychological Review 2:4 (June 1898)

Transcranial direct current stimulation - to change the mind. She has it done to her and says it works.

Elif Batuman, "Electrified," The New Yorker (6 April 2015)

Pavlov was not initially interested in psychology. He was looking at behavior. Here, he brings it back to psychology. Pavlov has realized that at this point there are things to say about psychology. Pavlov is important to us because he backs into the study of animal behavior but is already starting to hold the mind at an arms length. He gives us the opportunity to study psychology without appeal to internal mental states.

Essentially only one thing in life interests us: our psychical constitution, the mechanism of which was and is wrapped in darkness. All human resources, art, religion, literature, philosophy and historical sciences, all of them join in bringing light in this darkness. But man has still another powerful resource: natural science with its strictly objective methods. This science, as we all know, is making huge progress every day. The facts and considerations which I have placed before you at the end of my lecture are one out of numerous attempts to employ a consistent, purely scientific method of thinking in the study of the mechanism of the highest manifestations of life in the dog, the representative of the animal kingdom that is man's best friend, Pavlov, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech (1904)

Advances in prenatal screening combined with the screening of abortion incites debates about he value of human life against the affects on society. Prenatal screening can determine if a fetus has down syndrome as early as nine weeks into the pregnancy. Over 90% of pregnancies with fetuses of down syndrome are terminated. - Sarah Palin says we shouldn't abort children with down syndrome, pointing towards her own child.

Eugenics Today in the Lens of Prenatal Screening

Eugenics doubled as both a science and a reform movement, it social influence outlasted its precarious scientific standing. It drew on many branches of other movements to gain its power.

Eugenics Tree

Hitler initially pursued positive eugenics for mothers who had big healthy Aryan families (blonde hair, blue eyes). Aryans represented a pure and superior race. Germans kept many genealogical records. Hitler then pursued negative eugenics about people who created an economic burden in society. In drafting his law for hereditarily offspring, he was inspired by Laughlin's law. Nazis experimented on and murdered mentally ill people. Code-named action t4. Between 70,000 and 100,000 mentally ill individuals were murdered. German propaganda recalls eugenics. Due to Nazi racial hygiene and the holocaust, American eugenists sought to distance themselves. Eventually, anything with the name eugenics was removed.

Eugenics in Germany

Evelyn Hooker, The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexualized

A new drug that seeks to increase female sexual libido. It's called "pink viagra." Psychiatrists are excited about it because it is the viagra for women. Stephen Colbert Clip: Pharmaceutical companies call it hypoactive sexual desire disorder. That condition must be prescribed and must be for women whose relationship troubles are not due to relationship dissatisfaction. Diagnosis and Reality: Colbert argues that the psychiatric diagnosis is not real. Pathologizing the Normal: Psychiatric diagnosis pathologies normal aspects of our lives. It's a pathologization of the sexless marriage in order to sell drugs and make money and make their own niche.

Flibanserin

This is a critique of the open-mindness from 1919, but it is a value of young people. Mather is saying the editors of young. The open mind as it reeemgers is not a blank slate - earlier it is open to all comers and it will consider everything, it was no prior conviction. The new open mind has prior conviction - based on Chomsky. Chomsky's idea that the in constrains is a political and a scientific idea.

Frank Jewett Mather, "The Inside of the Open Mind" (1919)

Model organisms. The reason RYC uses birds is that the axons in birds are non mylineated. This produces a much wider array of cell bodies in images. The fatty insulation interferes with this. Using birds allow him to get this type of magnification. Fulton uses cats b/c something specific about a certain kind of animal allow certain experiments. Another model organisms produces a different kind of knowledge. 1. Model Organisms Matter; Too often, we are too eager to learn about humans that we lose track of specific limitation of animals model. Implications will be draw about experiments on rats to humans. How does that leap occur? 2. Mind the Gap: Another leap that we must necessarily make but we also must keep track of - how far are we from very local nervous physiology to the mental/emotional/cognitive/identity problems that we want to solve. How do we close that gap, even though it's a pretty wide gap.

Fulton, "The Influence of the Proprioceptive Nerves...in Decerebrate Cats," Am. J. of Phy

Methods to decerebrate cats to study its reflexes. The cat is alive during all of them and then becomes a "preparation." The time take twenty minutes. All the dominate nerves must be cut. Lowest use of anaesethisa. Emergence of neurological things. He makes his name studying the automatic things, but what he is really interested in is higher faculties. He knows you cannot assume that dogs and cats have higher faculties (thanks to Morgans). Humans and apes

Fulton, "The Influence of the Proprioceptive Nerves...in Decerebrate Cats," Am. J. of Physiology (1928)

Development adolescent psychology put on display. College students are the ideal model organisms. Grafting the psychodynamic theoriess of Hall and Meyer onto the prevailing mode of psychology in 1958 - Freudian analysis.

Gideon Gordon, "Study of Yale Mind Published," Yale Daily News (22 October 1958)

Gould and Lewontin, "The Spandrels of San Marco" (1979)

fMRI for all of its applications does not have a robust clinic applications. fMRI is used for polisci, philosophy, and other field to root particular traits in functionality in the brain. The dark bars reprsent moral/personal dilmmas. Greene uses it for his book Moral Tribes. What is happening at the is/ought boundary about what is happening and how we have to change?

Greene et al., "fMRI Investigation of Emotional Engagement" (2001)

The signature of implicit cognition that early experiences reflect on later experiences. Example: incomplete letter strains can be created into words seen on a list before even if people can't remember the words from the list they just saw. This is interesting because this is surprising and unnerving. In which Banaji and Greenwald's research to see whether or not people associate certain kinds of adjectives and images with certain images. Yes, there are implicit association made across society. *These are not evolved response that are natural and innate to certain stimuli. These implicit association comes from experience. All of the associations we have are learned (on race, poverty, class, gender) 1. Expanding the Subject Pool: She is the first to expand the subject pool by using the digital computers and the internet. The subject pool in in theory infinite. There is inability to say I wouldn't have done this or that. You can be a part of the subject pool right now. The results can be disturbing. 2. What happened to Deception: When we know what the experiment test and when it has social significant, does it affect the results? On the implicit association test, it tells you what you are being tested on but results are still being scary. 1. Language: Implicit Association tests are run digitally or on paper. Words are paired on paper. The test was for Japanese and Korean Americans. What does it mean about the value of language? How can you control for people's personal association? Language really matters in these studies. Words stand for something much deeper. Tamar G coined a new word "allief" is the corollary of belief. She uses the skywalk over the grand canyon as an example. You walk our over a thousand foot precipe where no one has died. Belief is that you are safe, no one has died. Alief is that you are in danger. Alief things are not merely cognitive. There is something here that cuts across cognitaive categories.

Greenwald and Banaji (1995), Implicit Association

Greenwald et al., "Measuring Individual Differences" (1998)

By the time we get to the 1960s, the predessecor of sociobiology is a set of mathematician working on the problem of altriusim. Altruism for the 1960s generation was the problem. The way they approach is summed up in Hamilton's graph. The idea is that we can account for certain kinds of behavior on a Darwinain model but we can't account for other types of behavior. This graph shows how the behavior individuals engage in either produce a gain or a loss. If it both causes loss, it will be selected against. It it causes gains for both, it will be selected for. Two kinds of behavior need a more complicated behavior justification - one if altruism. One example is warning calls - why will birds warn other birds while they increase the likelihood they will be eaten? Why is this being selected for? The answer is a gene-centered view of evolution. If I sacrifice my life for a relative, it only make sense to have an evolve response to save child if I have left than a 50% chance of dying. We should probably be more likely to save other humans than 50% more likely to save our child. This ramifies thorugh society. Evolution would produce a set of behaviors would explain why certain behavior sare used to preserve certain alleles. FROM SECTION: Kin altruism versus reciprocal altruism: Kin altruism is for if you are related enough. Reciprocal altruism is you scratch my back and I scratch yours. What are Implications: The family and the people who are like you benefit from kin altruism. Reciprocal altruism benefits people who are powerful and have means. This paradigm can be flipped to only help the powerful. Cultural, ritual, and religion are inherited and persist. These things are supposed to be oppressive and keep society in line and keep them in their place. This will put people in top and the bottom. The Evolution of Moral Behavior; Moral behavior itself tends to be due to evolution. Altruism in terms of evolutionary game theory means treating morality as biological if not genetics Naturalistic Fallacy, Redux: Can is and ought be separated. If, so how? If we are saying moral behaviors are evolved, what impact does that that statement have on their moral rightness of wrongness

Hamilton, "The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior" (1964)

Negative eugenics. Harry Laughlin helped draft the law that would allow people to be sterilized without their consent. He was part of the Eugenics office and he wanted to improve the eugenics of the US - helped stop immigration and wanted to stop path reproduction of the mentally unfit. Model law about sterilization that was impermeable to objection. Unfit people - deaf, blind, epileptic, insane. Laughlin eventually would join the epileptic. Laughlin needed a trial run to test his law. Buck v. Bell was this sham trial.

Harry Laughlin, Sterilization Law

Lobotomy. This painting shows the long history of cutting into the human brain. There is evidence of this of up to 10,000 years ago. The skull was born into in order to relieve pain, mental illness, and various strange behaviors. Already, in the very early renaissance, there is an idea that something can be removed from the skull, if it is causing mental illness. Bosch is also lampooning this practice - facial expression of patient, hat of surgeon, book on woman's head. But it is a common practice. The idea that manipulating the brain allows us to change the mind. Many people don't surive though many do. It is a deadly procedure.

Hieronymous Bosch, Cutting Stone, 1494

Buy books to give to your parents. You can buy book called "Psychosocial Problems of College Men." A research program around the students they are working with therapeutically and then published essay on them. These psychiatrists were still arguing for the relevance of their work in a research context not just a clinical setting. Psychiatrists in mental health do some clinical and some research. There is tension. This is not the way mental health is run today. Research was one way Mental Hygiene funded itself. When that stopped part of the funding dried up which is why there is consistent complaints about funding. This is the way the therapeutic aparatus was funded.

Holiday Book Ad, Yale Daily News, 10 December 1958

In the 60s if you don't have pills, you have (1) talk therapy and (2) lobotomy (slight behavioral disturbances all the way to the chronically institionalized). Pill take over from where 1 and 2 once arranged. Pills emerge into the context of consumerized medicine, and rampant lobotomies and the rise of asylum populations.

How did pills arise?

Before 1960: White, upper class, often female, and characterized by docility. There are hallucinations and those thigns but the primary thing is docility. After 1960: It was re-described as largely black, working-class, suually, male and characterized by rage. The condition has flipped. The patients attitude is frequently hostile and aggressive and his behavior tends to be consistent with his delusions. The patient may seem normal in all aspects of life. He is merely passing for normal and covering up his rage everywhere.

How did schizophrenia change?

1. Anaesthesia and the Chemical Mind: As anesthetic ether becomes more widespread, there is more time to poke around inside the head. It also changes the idea of how the mind are connected. The mind and brain can be turned on and off chemically in controlled way. 2. Antisepsis and Surgical Method: New practices in surgical techniques reduced fatalities and enabled more invasive procedures than ever. come together in the 19th century

How did the changing neurological landscape allow for lobotomy?

John Watson pioneers this. Watson was an academic trajectory when he was fired from his academic post and moves into the business world due to his affair. Watson is a staunch behaviorist. He approaches advertising from a behaviorist perspective. (1) The Power of Persuasion: Psychologists and marketing forms are converging on the same idea. That consumer made choice for reasons beyond or below rational deliberations. Shift away from something that is advertised rationally to sell something to fulfill an obvious problem. (2) Techniques of Assessment: To access consumer preferences, you cannot poll people because they will not answer honestly. In stead you must do other focus groups. - relates to art of deception

How do psychologists enter and sell their expertise in the business world?

The tool of the machine that allows for anew method of dealign with complex sets of inferential statistics leads to view of mind as machine for inferring statistically. The mind becomes a staticians.

How does the view of the mind as machine arise?

(1) Psychology as Observation: Demands to make psychology a science led many to focus on observable phenomena around the 1900. If someone had to postulate an interior mental state to explain something, it was necessarily true that that was going on. Behavior can be measured and quantified and observed. (2) Organisms as Experimental Subjects: Animals have needs and behavior that are subject to experimental control and quantifiable measurement. Animals need to eat and sleep and desire to procreate. There are a set of behavior in which animals always engage. The sceintists can use motivations (eating, sleeping, sex) as a way of ocnducting experiments.

How is behaviorism a method?

Postive eugenics were encouraged at state fairs. There were "better babies" and "fitter family contests" geared toward large white families. These things occurred at fairs because eugenics sprang out of breeding and botany. ools of eugenics were family pedigree charts, which were given to judges at state fair. But to have better babies and fitter families, there must be something ot compare. This leads to negative eugenics. This was meant ot curb the reproductionof those who were deemed unfit- immigration, institutional restriction, forced sterilization, abortion, euthanizing.

How was positive eugenics encouraged?

People thanked Walter Freeman by the thousand. In 1943, When Veronica Marks procedure was conducted, this was the cutting edge, this was modern medicine. On the cusp of asylum expose and it is a life sentence. Stuff has only worsened. The new system is psychopharmacology in the 1960s. In 1943, one does not want to be in asylum, so you write to Freeman you pursue lobotomy.

I still continue to improve—really I have calmed down quite a bit since my last word to you. I do my own housework—except on Fridays when someone comes in for general cleaning. Don't believe I'm 100% at yet—feel very energetic—it's hard to read or listen to TV—for I want to be on the go—I walk about 2 or 3 miles a day, and have dis-continued my sleeping pills—also lost about 10 lbs in weigh ... I believe I'm more like I should have been after the operation in 1943 ... Our very best wishes to you and to your work., Veronica Marks to Walter Freeman, 1956

Immigration, industralization, urbanization, first world war, great depression. This context was appealing for eugenics. Reformers were concerned for the fate of the United States.

In what context did Eugenics arise in America?

At the time, homosexuality is in the DSM as a one type of sexual deviation. These include fetishism, pedophilia. This was taken out in 1973. Bieber started his work in the military. He was an activist for homosexuals (referring to his concept of homosexuality at the time). In the military, his job was to identify homosexual soldiers and then report them to military authority. If you were a homosexual soldier, you would be arrested and honorably discharged. He argued that we shouldn't be punishing these soldiers - they need medical treatment. He says the heterosexual function in people is crippled like people with polio's legs. Published Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals. Collaboration with 77 psychoanalysts and material from hundreds of patients. The takeaway is that the reason a male is homosexual is that the mother is smothering with love and weak fathers.

Irving Bieber, Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals.

Intellectual context for mental hygiene. Hall and Meyer are two sides of the same coin. Bringing the issues of late adolescence in to the scientific realm and bringing mental hygiene ideas. Organisms and environment and adapting to certain circumstances that comes up again and again in mental hygiene

It proved to be much more satisfactory to speak in terms of situation, reaction and final adjustment and to describe all the facts of interaction according to their weight without excessive scruples over the systematization of what will be the last thing to reach a stage of more than logical certainty. Meyer, "The Problems of Mental Reaction-Types," Psychological Bulletin 5:8 (Aug., 1908), 254.

Behaviorism. Pavlov's operating theater.This is an operating theatre in the early 20th century. Regularized, standardized, private. A human is not on the table, it is one of Pavlov's famous dogs. Pavlov is famous as a psychologists but here he is not operating anywhere near the head. He is operating near the stomach. They look happy, but have been operated on again and again. They are dog technologies. Not pets. While we think about Pavlov working on dog psychology that's not what he up to. Slide 16: Pavlov Digestion Physiology The dog eats food but it goes out one of the two fistulae. Gastric juice is produced, which is collected. The juice is collected. And science could happen. When Pavlov is awarded the novel prize, he is awarded the prize for digestive physiology. He realizes that there are connections to psychology. Pavlov wants the dog believe so it is about to be fed in order to create gastric juice without having to feed it. It is an accident. Pavlov has realized that at this point there are things to say about psychology. Pavlov is important to us because he backs into the study of animal behavior but is already starting to hold the mind at an arms length. He gives us the opportunity to study psychology without appeal to internal mental states.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Jastrow worked with Houdini to unmask spiritualists. Psychologists relied on them to teach the science of deception b/c they were not used to be actively deceived by nature. Image shows Palladino sitting at the table with lights dimmed and she is trying to lift the table. Jastrow is trying to test and see if that's the case. There is man lying on the floor who Palladino is one the floor. The men on the floor were smuggled there. Jastrow knows that Palladino is used to be tested to he uses her methods of deception to prove her deception. He only brings in an electroscope as a decoy even though he doesn't care about it. You deceive the medium in order to prove her deception. Two levels of psychology. A diagram that is precise, almost like the set up for a psychological study. But he is also using deception as a fundamental tool (1) He calls the men "unobserved but observing observers." In his hands, psychology adopts deception to study the mind. You can't just ask opinion. You need to deceive subjects. Subjects think they are doing one thing but you are operating on another level. (2) Boundaries of Expertise: The unmasking medium involved magicians and psychologists working together, sharing their expertise.

Jastrow, "The Case of Pal[l]adino" (1910)

Writes "The Behaviorist Manifesto" --> what to study and how to study. He was from the South and goes to graduate school at Chicago, where he works with John Dewey (founder of the lab school). Watson then thinks about everything being a laboratory. He also works with James Roland Angel (the 14th president of Yale). Watson combines Dewey's approach to development and animal psychology. The most famous paragraph of Watson is his first paragraph from the Behaviorist Manifesto.

John Watson

Brain scans tell people you are not entirely at fault. If something is psychosomatic or has a mental origin, it is less real. There are also sorts of things that toggle up and down.

Joseph Wu, Interview with Joseph Dumit (Anthropologist)

Eugenics. Letter in the New Republic. Doctor euthanizes a mentally ill baby. This letter supports the euthanasia. The doctor claimed he was helping the country by preventing a drag to society. The writer was Helen Keller, though blind and death herself, was an avid eugenics. John Harvey Kelley, Margaret Zinger (Planned Parent Hood), Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and Alexander Graham Bell were all pro-eugenics. Shows negative eugenics. Idiot was a a scientific term in eugenics, that classified in terms of intelligence.

Letter: ...such an existence is not worth while...It seems to me that the simplest, wisest thing to do would be to submit cases like that of the malformed idiot baby to a jury of expert physicians... A mental defective is almost sure to be a potential criminal. The evidence before a jury of physicians considering the case of an idiot would be exact and scientific. Their findings would be free from the prejudice and inaccuracy of untrained observation.

By Lewis Menand. The first sentence is harsh. The point he is making that is if you are reading the blank slate in its entirety Pinker makes many strong claims about democracy, rule of the law, and women's reproductive freedom. Pinker argues that those are inbred into humans and we were going to enact them. How is it that something that was inbred in human nature take so long to evolve? Second critique: every single view Pinker defends is left centrist ethics. Has place in politics of period. Accuses Pinker applying his view of the world on how the mind works and how the world is. Marx and Engels say Darwin's view is an English industrialist view of how the world works. How politics and science come together. Does saying something is political invalidate it? No.

Menand, "What Comes Naturally," The New Yorker (2002)

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Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience" (1963)

Quote. But - Milgram's takes a turn. The idea for his experience derives from direct observation of a social fact. He thinks obedience is a "ubiquitous and indispensable feature of social life." His obedience is looking at how far people will go - 2/3 of people go all the way to kill a co subject simply by being obedient. he child of Jewish parents in New York. His parent are immigrants but do not flee the Nazis (though they fled fascism). Therefore his studies draw on a broader culture not his personal experience. He was very interested in obedience and obedience of the crowd - the ability to control ourselves lies in the social world. The threat we are manipulate. Milgram is drawing on this idea. Studied psychology, sociology, etc at an interdisciplinary center at Harvard. Solomon Asch, one of Milgram's advisors, did an experiment on obedience. The rise on certain strange social conformity. Each individuals shows three lines that are compared to base line. They go down the row who says which lines are on the same length. There are actors told to give the correct answer for the first couple trials and then gives an incorrect answer. The subject goes with the others though he can see with his own eyes that they are wrong. Asch is interested in when our own perceptional data. Milgrim was not satisfied by this - he wanted to go further. He wanted to make the test of conformity "more humanely significant." He explains why he conducts the experiment the way he does. Milgram isolates the individual from everything except from a single authority figure. Being subjected to a certain version of legitimate authority. Doctor has patient shock an actor. The shock machine is designed to look like a real electronic apparatus but it is not shocking anyway. It is designed to instill a sense of authority but that sense of authority is deceitful. 1. The Deception of Social Psychology: Every single element of the room - machine, exercise, victim, scientist, tow-way mirror - deceives the subject into believing that they are performing an actual task. This is crucial to Milgram. A question is whether in fact they believe it. Deception is designed to avert the yes of the subject to test what they actually want to test. 2. The One and the Many: When you think about what it's like to go through the test, what matters it s the reaction of the individuals, how would I react. To Milgram, all that matters is the aggregate. The aggregate number of psychological subjects who go all the way with the shock machine. The tension here is what makes the study so popular. Even though Milgram is focused on aggregate we can't not look at it in individual terms. *Milgram's paper is a popular account - focus on individuals and looking at the data. Why is more powerful? The data or looking at the behavior before holding the 450 volt switch You will see a different kind of deceit and a different set up. Different kind of authority structure. Milgram simplified down to the bare basics of authority and a single individual performing a test on an unseen learner. In the Stanford prism experiments, its generalized. Undergraduates are selected as guards or prisoners - the authority comes from within. The authority is all invented. The victimization is also invented. This is something that Milgram and this experiment shares. A single social situations can produce vast changes in behavior. Also think about who's funding it and why? For Milgram, most of it was internal and minimal.

Milgram, "Behavioral Study of Obedience" (1963)

Quote: He wanted to make the test of conformity "more humanely significant." He explains why he conducts the experiment the way he does. Milgram isolates the individual from everything except from a single authority figure. Being subjected to a certain version of legitimate authority The child of Jewish parents in New York. His parent are immigrants but do not flee the Nazis (though they fled fascism). Therefore his studies draw on a broader culture not his personal experience. He was very interested in obedience and obedience of the crowd - the ability to control ourselves lies in the social world. The threat we are manipulate. Milgram is drawing on this idea. Studied psychology, sociology, etc at an interdisciplinary center at Harvard. Solomon Asch, one of Milgram's advisors, did an experiment on obedience. The rise on certain strange social conformity. Each individuals shows three lines that are compared to base line. They go down the row who says which lines are on the same length. There are actors told to give the correct answer for the first couple trials and then gives an incorrect answer. The subject goes with the others though he can see with his own eyes that they are wrong. Asch is interested in when our own perceptional data. Milgrim was not satisfied by this - he wanted to go further. He wanted to make the test of conformity "more humanely significant." He explains why he conducts the experiment the way he does. Milgram isolates the individual from everything except from a single authority figure. Being subjected to a certain version of legitimate authority. Doctor has patient shock an actor. The shock machine is designed to look like a real electronic apparatus but it is not shocking anyway. It is designed to instill a sense of authority but that sense of authority is deceitful. 1. The Deception of Social Psychology: Every single element of the room - machine, exercise, victim, scientist, tow-way mirror - deceives the subject into believing that they are performing an actual task. This is crucial to Milgram. A question is whether in fact they believe it. Deception is designed to avert the yes of the subject to test what they actually want to test. 2. The One and the Many: When you think about what it's like to go through the test, what matters it s the reaction of the individuals, how would I react. To Milgram, all that matters is the aggregate. The aggregate number of psychological subjects who go all the way with the shock machine. The tension here is what makes the study so popular. Even though Milgram is focused on aggregate we can't not look at it in individual terms. *Milgram's paper is a popular account - focus on individuals and looking at the data. Why is more powerful? The data or looking at the behavior before holding the 450 volt switch You will see a different kind of deceit and a different set up. Different kind of authority structure. Milgram simplified down to the bare basics of authority and a single individual performing a test on an unseen learner. In the Stanford prism experiments, its generalized. Undergraduates are selected as guards or prisoners - the authority comes from within. The authority is all invented. The victimization is also invented. This is something that Milgram and this experiment shares. A single social situations can produce vast changes in behavior. Also think about who's funding it and why? For Milgram, most of it was internal and minimal.

Milgram, Interview with Carol Tavris, 1977

The Marshmallow experiment is initially testing how to delay gratification. Here the three alternatives of how to work on delaying gratification. Tests by: The question WM puts to his subjects is a question of delayed gratification. How much and under what conditions am I willing to sacrifice in order to gain greater rewards in the future? Young child between ages of 3 and 8 is asked to face the marshmallow for fifteen minutes alone. If eats, only gets one. If he waits, he gets two. We have a certain idea of what it's testing, but that's incorrect. It's not the difference between those who do and those who wait and that those differences spool out over the life of individuals. That's true but comes later. At this moment, however, Mischel is more interested in the cognitive mechanisms that allow the child to resist. What are ways we can give ourselves to wait longer? The answer is if your trying to not eat a marshmallow, it is the worst thing to do to think about marshmallow. Distraction is better. In the 50s and 60s theory was that attending to rewards in your mind was the best way to wait for them. Graph demonstrating that the average time of volunteering waiting is longest when you "think fun" unrelated to marshmallows. If you think about sad thoughts, the waiting time drops. But thinking of the second marshmallow creates an even shorter waiting time than thinking sad thoughts. We can imagine how we would react. 1. Children as Model Organisms: We have a different subject matter. Why does it matter that these are children. Children thoughts seemed less inhibited, which meant the effects of cognition on behavior were observable. Mischel is accessing a certain behavior that we all have inside of us but we cover up because of socialization. How do we access primal, early developmental ways of thinking? Social Meets Developmental: Mischel and his team could follow up with examine a range of difference across development. This was a result of doing a test with kids. The test is now famous for following up with various metrics. This is an accident - not baked into the plan from the start.

Mischel, "Cognitive and Attentional Mechanisms" (1972)

You are seeing place cells and grid cells. Place cells and grid cells were awarded a prize. What they are is essentially a GPS unit for the brain. When we do cognitive mapping a particular kind of cell is implicated in various versions of that process. Both are implicated in non sensory navigation. Self-movement awareness is what these cells are in part responsible for. These have no been implicated in memory (place cells). For thousands of years, something about memory is spatial.

Moser et Al. 2008

Stress is not what happens to you in a particular environment. Stress is a response that an organism brings to an environment. It's not seeing a tiger but what your body does in response. Re-articulation of relationship between individual and environment. Stress is still about changing individual and not environment. Deconstructing the Stress Test Organism vs. Environment Meyer's psychodynamic theory pitted organism against environment—it was the organism that had to change. From Hygiene to Health The shift from hygiene to health (for unrelated reasons) actually enables us to look at society as a whole.

NIMH Fact-Sheet on Stress (Accessed 2015)

Related to Herbert Simon. Simon is the most important figure in mid-20th century human sciences. He affects cognitive psychology, computer science etc. His thesis is an idea he calls bounded rationality - we are rational in certain but our rationality is fundamentally limited by our resources. The idea of bounding comes from computers - computers are bounded by our capacity to build sophisticated computers. In both cases of mind and computer, there is something that you can call a program. Program is a way for computer and psychology as a way of understanding the limitation of what minds and computers can do. "Problem -solving behavior" - computers and peoples engage in this. WE are on the boundary of behaviorism.

Newell, Shaw, and Simon. "Elements of a Theory of Human Problem Solving" (1958), p. 153.

Eugenics. Refers to sham trial of Buck V. Bell used to pass Harry Laughlin's compulsory sterilization law. Three generation are Carrie, her mother, and her daughter. Both carrie and her daughter are labeled imbeciles at birth. Vivian Buck is labeled as just "not quite right" by a nurse, but there is no concrete evidence for this. Imbecile = scientific word.

Oliver Wendell Quote: We have seen more than once that the public welfare may call upon the best citizens for their lives. It would be strange if it could not call upon those who already sap the strength of the State for these lesser sacrifices, often not felt to be such by those concerned, to prevent our being swamped with incompetence. It is better for all the world, if instead of waiting to execute degenerate offspring for crime, or to let them starve for their imbecility, society can prevent those who are manifestly unfit from continuing their kind... Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. 1927 Three generations of imbeciles are enough

Francis Galton and Franz Gall. Galton is very interested in and influenced by phrenology and Franz Gall. Francis Galton is interested in genealogy, geography, statistics and mathematics, and he is also an inventor (of the dog whistle). Francis Galton was the cousin of Charles Darwin. Galton comes up with the theory of psychometrics. It is the art of imposing measurement and number upon operation of the mind. It combined intelligence testing plus measurement of head circumference. It harkens back to phrenology.Galton looked at his mental pedigree for fun and it became his theory. Galton starts reading at the age of 2 1/2 and does arithmetic by the age of 4. In college, he was prone to lots of nervous breakdowns/neurasthenia. In his mid-life, he begins to reflect on his achievement. He determines that his family was filled with brilliant members. Genius runs in the family and he sets out to prove it. He used his own pedigree chart. He compares his chart to that of other scientific and literary celebrities at the time. He determines the nature of hereditary genius in his 1869 book Hereditary Genius. Galton and his wife do not have children which harms his theory. Galton's eugenics is not taken up immediately in Britain and it first taken up social reformers but not scientists. It is similar to social Darwinism, which Herbert Spencer termed "survival of the fittest."

Origins of Eugenics

Evolutionary psychology. Language is one such problems. This is put forward by Pinker and Paul Bloom. "Natural Language and Natural Selection" - argue against behaviorist view of phenomena. Language and grammar was selected for because it was reproductively advantageous. Grammar does not come into being all at once. Pinker makes a distinction between two kinds of mental traits. The first he calls "obvious." There are certain kinds that obviously evolved. The second is "non-obvious", like language. Darwin was adamant that emotions and thoughts and feelings were determined by evolution. This is obvious for ardent desires and drive (moderate range of temperature preference, food rich in calories, afraid of heights). Why do we get jealous? This was irrational in the 1960s. Why do we seek revenge? It's a source of violence and misery but serves no purpose. Why do we feel guilt and anger? Why do we have language? These are less obvious. There are ways to look at how evolution shaped our mind. When scientists says "of course" or "obviously" they are getting you on board for their argument. The Rhetoric of Revelation: Pinker has mastered a particular argument: presenting ideas as natural consequences of obvious principles. Track the rhetorical power n Pinker Problematic Postmodernism: Who is Pinker arguing against. Pinker is arguing against postmodernist, they are limiting the academy and America as a whole. He is arguing against The Blank Slate.

Pinker and Bloom, in The Adapted Mind (1992), p. 475.

Santiago Ramon y Cajal. He is most famous for the neuron doctrine. He is Spanish. The neuron doctrine is a doctrine about the nervous system. Ramon y Cajal believe the nervous system was a system - it was bound together by the behavior of a single neurons within the brain and the nervous system. Contiguity. He gets the Noble Prize with someone he disagreed with completely. RYC is inventing/invoking a particular standing of objectivity. That standard of objectivity is that whatever is on the plate in front of you, you have to draw. The result is an extremely complicated image and not simplified. Whatever is in front of you must be presented - this is not the ideal of digital imaging. He is the father of neuroscience, his nerves are found in the model organisms of birds. The reason RYC uses birds is that the axons in birds are non mylineated. This produces a much wider array of cell bodies in images. The fatty insulation interferes with this. Using birds allow him to get this type of magnification Fulton uses cats b/c something specific about a certain kind of animal allow certain experiments. Another model organisms produces a different kind of knowledge. 1. Model Organisms Matter; Too often, we are too eager to learn about humans that we lose track of specific limitation of animals model. Implications will be draw about experiments on rats to humans. How does that leap occur? 2. Mind the Gap: Another leap that we must necessarily make but we also must keep track of - how far are we from very local nervous physiology to the mental/emotional/cognitive/identity problems that we want to solve. How do we close that gap, even though it's a pretty wide gap.

Ramón y Cajal, Estructura de los Centros Nerviosos de los Aves (1905)

Skinner. Came after Watson. Watson ended up removing the mind completely. . Skinner reintroduced the study of animal behavior reintroduces the mind to the behavior of animals. This is radical. Looks like the boxes Watson and Thordike used. Skinner soon applied behaviorist principles - rigorous obersvation, etc - to the internal private events he had previously prohibited. Skinner was successful. Skinner rejected the label Skinner Box - level box or an operant conditioning chamber His preferred operant is the white rat, the organism he puts in the box. He is very explicit about why the white rat is appropriate - both similar to and different from the human. Defining the Operant: After Watson there is the idea that every single beahivor is the resposne to every external stimulus. If you can't find the stimulus, ou assume there was one and hypothesize - this is postulating which behaviorism was not supposed to do. Some behaivor responded to the stimulus ("respondent") but some came form within the organism ("operant"). Skinner starts going back into the mind. The Skinner box is radical because: Skinner soon applied behaviorist principles - rigorous obersvation, etc - to the internal private events he had previously prohibited. Skinner was successful. .

Skinner, Behavior of Organisms (1938), p

Behaviorism. Important is the operant: After Watson there is the idea that eveyr single beahivor is the resposne to every external stimulus. If you can't find the stimulus, ou assume there was one and hypothesize - this is postulating which behaviorism was not supposed to do. Some behaivor responded to the stimulus ("respondent") but some came form within the organism ("operant"). Skinner starts going back into the mind. The operant returns to the mind.

Skinner, Behavior of Organisms (1938), p. 21.

Behaviorism. Emphasizes importance of the white rate. Relates to choosing the proper experimental subject. Willard's rats of C. Lloyd margin's dog.

Skinner, Behavior of Organisms (1938), p. 47.

Criticism of Rosenhan's experiment. Robert Spitzer - constructing the boundaries between science and pseudoscience. He says this is pseudoscience. Spitzer says what would acting normal look like. The fundamental flaw is about tricking psychiatrists. Just because doctors can't tell that you can fake something, does not mean that they don't know about a disorder. Doctors are not trained not to be tricked. Harkens to psychologists asks Harry Houdini to teach them the art of deception - not looking to be deceived.

Spitzer, "On Pseudoscience in Science" (1957)

You will see a different kind of deceit and a different set up. Different kind of authority structure. Milgram simplified down to the bare basics of authority and a single individual performing a test on an unseen learner. In the Stanford prism experiments, its generalized. Undergraduates are selected as guards or prisoners - the authority comes from within. The authority is all invented. The victimization is also invented. This is something that Milgram and this experiment shares. A single social situations can produce vast changes in behavior. Also think about who's funding it and why? For Milgram, most of it was internal and minimal. Funded by the navy. There is a sense of which you can write a genealogy from Stanford Prism to APA helping with question. What is appropriate to ask and to answer.

Stanford Prison Experiment

It took someone like Stanley Hall to argue for a distinct category of development of adolescence. He made adolescence the subject of scientific inquiry for anew way. There was focus on developmental changes occurring late in adolescence. Happens late in 1904. Occurs in the intellectual context of the rise of mental hygiene.

Stanley G Hall and Adolescence

he child of Jewish parents in New York. His parent are immigrants but do not flee the Nazis (though they fled fascism). Therefore his studies draw on a broader culture not his personal experience. He was very interested in obedience and obedience of the crowd - the ability to control ourselves lies in the social world. The threat we are manipulate. Milgram is drawing on this idea. Studied psychology, sociology, etc at an interdisciplinary center at Harvard. Solomon Asch, one of Milgram's advisors, did an experiment on obedience. The rise on certain strange social conformity. Each individuals shows three lines that are compared to base line. They go down the row who says which lines are on the same length. There are actors told to give the correct answer for the first couple trials and then gives an incorrect answer. The subject goes with the others though he can see with his own eyes that they are wrong. Asch is interested in when our own perceptional data. Milgrim was not satisfied by this - he wanted to go further. He wanted to make the test of conformity "more humanely significant." He explains why he conducts the experiment the way he does. Milgram isolates the individual from everything except from a single authority figure. Being subjected to a certain version of legitimate authority. Doctor has patient shock an actor. The shock machine is designed to look like a real electronic apparatus but it is not shocking anyway. It is designed to instill a sense of authority but that sense of authority is deceitful. 1. The Deception of Social Psychology: Every single element of the room - machine, exercise, victim, scientist, tow-way mirror - deceives the subject into believing that they are performing an actual task. This is crucial to Milgram. A question is whether in fact they believe it. Deception is designed to avert the yes of the subject to test what they actually want to test. 2. The One and the Many: When you think about what it's like to go through the test, what matters it s the reaction of the individuals, how would I react. To Milgram, all that matters is the aggregate. The aggregate number of psychological subjects who go all the way with the shock machine. The tension here is what makes the study so popular. Even though Milgram is focused on aggregate we can't not look at it in individual terms. *Milgram's paper is a popular account - focus on individuals and looking at the data. Why is more powerful? The data or looking at the behavior before holding the 450 volt switch You will see a different kind of deceit and a different set up. Different kind of authority structure. Milgram simplified down to the bare basics of authority and a single individual performing a test on an unseen learner. In the Stanford prism experiments, its generalized. Undergraduates are selected as guards or prisoners - the authority comes from within. The authority is all invented. The victimization is also invented. This is something that Milgram and this experiment shares. A single social situations can produce vast changes in behavior. Also think about who's funding it and why? For Milgram, most of it was internal and minimal.

Stanley Milgram and his experiments

Stigma students face when they "confess" they are using the mental health services. Erving Goffman's Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity addresses this. What he means by spoiled identity: identities are always social and in society there are certain ideals and if you violated them you are stigmatized. Recently there was a video by Yale Health. Is there really no downside? Is there no social or personal downside? The fact that the video was produced and that the video needs to circulate suggests that we are not quite there in terms of the reduction of stigma. Object of research and a barrier to people taking advantage of psychiatric resources. In 1968, over your four years, you have a 30% chance of mental hygiene. In 1992, same number. In 2002, same number. In 2013, over fifty percent. What is the rise between 2002 and 2012. The majority of students use Mental Health and Conuseling at some point. The fundign has gone up a little. There is something going on that produces this change people can't figure out exactly what it is.

Stigma in Mental Hygiene

In 1968, over your four years, you have a 30% chance of mental hygiene. In 1992, same number. In 2002, same number. In 2013, over fifty percent. What is the rise between 2002 and 2012. The majority of students use Mental Health and Conuseling at some point. The fundign has gone up a little. There is something going on that produces this change people can't figure out exactly what it is. Product of forum was more therapists and more funding. Stigma has changed. Stigma might be dropping. The idea that once you go over a majority. There is a density-dependent population effect - it becomes more comfortable to talk about and it becomes a feedback loop.

Summer 2012

Describes machines that can be set up but ultimately finds them lacking. Boundary between machines and humans, freeing up space for human around this idea of the open mind.

Suppose we have a machine that can be in any finite number of different internal states [one of which] is an initial state; another is a final state. [It] begins in the initial state, runs through a sequence of states (producing a word with each transition), and ends in the final state. Then we call the sequence of words that has been produces a "sentence." Each such machine thus defines a certain language; namely, the set of sentences that can be produced in this way. Any language that can be produced by such a machine of this sort we call a finite state language; and we can call the machine itself a finite state grammar. Chomsky, Synatic Structures.

Eugenics. Theodore Roosevelt complained that immigrants have larger families than native citizens. He blamed white families, particularly women, for the imbalance and blamed them for race suicide. In civilization, women should strive to reproduce as much as they can. Efforts to promote and word large, fit, white families. P

Teddy Roosevelt Quote: The first essential in any civilization is that the man and women shall be father and mother of healthy children so that the race shall increase and not decrease. If that is not so, if through no fault of the society there is failure to increase, it is a great misfortune. If the failure is due to the deliberate and willful fault, then it is not merely a misfortune, it is one of those crimes of ease and selfindulgence, of shrinking from pain and effort and risk, which in the long run Nature punishes more heavily than any other.

Evolutionary psychology. The founding text in modern evolutionary psychology. Edited volume. This is the orthodox text for evolutionary psychology. The beginning of the text is the construction of a supposedly wide held model that they will take down - its basically cultural. Their argument that the cultural term has become so profound that you can't make non cultural arguments.

The Adapted Mind (1992)

The unusual arrangement was the concealment of observers beneath the chairs of the sitters within the closest range of the medium's person. The detectives were smuggled to their position under cover of a screen of the bystanders, while Eusapia's attention was engaged in the attempt to influence by her supposed supernormal power an electroscope brought to the séance to serve as a psychological decoy." Jastrow, "The Case of Pal[l]adino" (1910)

Quote from Magic Mountain novel. This is the kind of thing that people are using to respond to whole brain images when they become popularized int eh 1990s. There is a sense that we are seeing ourselves. Why do brain images have such a hold on the public? Phrenology brings up important ideas: ology is brought up in this context: 1) Desire to locate complex behavioral phenomenon or mental phenomenon in certain reason of the brain - there is a localization phenomena that persists 2) Popular Life of phrenology - how does the authority of brain images come about

Thomas Mann, Magic Mountain (1969 [1924]), p. 218-219

(1) Mental Illness is not Brain-based: He argued that mental illness is a myth because it is not a bodily illness like medical diseases. Without biological evidence, we can't say mental illness is real. (2) Mental Illness pathologies normal life. Psychiatrists are like police-men. Psychiatrists as a privileged class impose dominant sociocultural norms on life using medicine. He argued the psychiatry imposes dominant sociocultural norms on normal life.

Thomas Szasz and the Myth of Mental Illness

Freeman's method of lobotomy. Easiest way to access the brain. Freeman uses an ice pick, enters through the eye, and jiggles part of the brain to remove parts of the frontal lobe. This procedure took off after it was used in the early 1940s. Over a 100 of these operations per day. Locally anaesthetized and leaves them awake.

Transorbital Lobotomy, American Journal of Psychiatry 105:10 (1949)

How could moral aggression arrive in our species from evolution perspective? Moral aggression makes sense in cases of reciprocal altruism. Three benefits to being aggressive with non cooperators in order to protect yourself when the person your helping doesn't help in return. Produces self-preserving behavior. The idea that complicated moral behaviors that we ascribe to cultural learning tend to have evoltuionary reasons that relate to group cohesion. FROM SECTION: Kin altruism versus reciprocal altruism: Kin altruism is for if you are related enough. Reciprocal altruism is you scratch my back and I scratch yours. What are Implications: The family and the people who are like you benefit from kin altruism. Reciprocal altruism benefits people who are powerful and have means. This paradigm can be flipped to only help the powerful. Cultural, ritual, and religion are inherited and persist. These things are supposed to be oppressive and keep society in line and keep them in their place. This will put people in top and the bottom. The Evolution of Moral Behavior; Moral behavior itself tends to be due to evolution. Altruism in terms of evolutionary game theory means treating morality as biological if not genetics Naturalistic Fallacy, Redux: Can is and ought be separated. If, so how? If we are saying moral behaviors are evolved, what impact does that that statement have on their moral rightness of wrongness

Trivers, "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism" (1971)

Sociobiology. This painting is the result of what American people like the most in the painting - 19th century landscape, animals, children, and George Washington. This represented the sum total of Americans and then other nationalities liked - general aesthetic preferences. Steven Pinker cites this experiences showing that we have an evolved and shared set of preferences.

Vitaly Komar and Alex Melamid, America's Most Wanted (1994)

Walter Freeman goes to medical school specializing in neurosurgery and works in DC. Freeman hires James Watts and starts doing psychosurgery - surgery directly on the mind after learning about what's going on at Yale and reading an article about the Chimp results. Wants to apply the results to humans. The same year, he performs his first frontal lobotomies in 1936. A few procedures. Must rip away part of the skull and pull the frontal lobe out. He soon has an inspiration. Cranial anatomy - the easiest way to access the brain is to go in through the eye socket. Freeman uses an ice pick, enters through the eye, and jiggles part of the brain to remove parts of the frontal lobe. This procedure took off after it was used in the early 1940s. Over a 100 of these operations per day. Locally anaesthetized and leaves them awake.

Walter Freeman

Entrance of psychology into advertising. The idea that "unconscious desires that we don't give voice to" color are life is an idea that causes a shift of advertising. Consumers are unconscious of what's going on in the advertising world. The idea that you can sell someone something but you aren't aware what/how/or why they are being sold something. Idea of hidden needs - needs that are buried deep. (1) The Power of Persuasion: Psychologists and marketing forms are converging on the same idea. That consumer made choice for reasons beyond or below rational deliberations. Shift away from something that is advertised rationally to sell something to fulfill an obvious problem. (2) Techniques of Assessment: To access consumer preferences, you cannot poll people because they will not answer honestly. In stead you must do other focus groups. - relates to art of deception

Walter Scott, "The Psychology of Advertising" (1904)

Watson's first quote from the "Behaviorist manifesto". He opposed to philosophy. It is purely objective. The study of something must be controlled - in the laboratory setting and social/political control. No dividing line between man and brute. Watson means something new by this, though the sentiment itslef is not new.

Watson, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it" (1913)

Behaviorism. Shows behaviroism reliance on mazes and the history that relies on willard s. small. Watson:Writes "The Behaviorist Manifesto" --> what to study and how to study. He was from the South and goes to graduate school at Chicago, where he works with John Dewey (founder of the lab school). Watson then thinks about everything being a laboratory. He also works with James Roland Angel (the 14th president of Yale). Watson combines Dewey's approach to development and animal psychology. The most famous paragraph of Watson is his first paragraph from the Behaviorist Manifesto. Behaviorism: stimulus, response

Watson, Animal Education (1903)

This quote shows who the predecessors to behaviorism are. The predecessors to behaviorism are Morgan, Thorndike, and Small shown by the studies Watson enganges in.

Watson, Animal Education (1903)

Watson. Behaviorism. The new thing is cutting up animals. The development of the brian and how that contributes to learning. Comparative psychology in the sense of comparing across the lifespan (a new type not within species of across species). See how they learn to do thinks as developmental stages. Making the case of analogy is a key component of behaviorism. make it by saying I don't care what's going on its head. But if you just watch what animals do and measure it. The desire to blur that boundary by focusing on behavior instead of mind. In Watson's early work, he had not yet abandoned the mind. He eventually rejects the mind totally. If you get rid of the mind, you can do things you wouldn't normally do on humans.

Watson, Animal Education (1903)

Watson. Shows reliance on animals. History of use of rats that comes today. Boxes come from skinner. Watson:Writes "The Behaviorist Manifesto" --> what to study and how to study. He was from the South and goes to graduate school at Chicago, where he works with John Dewey (founder of the lab school). Watson then thinks about everything being a laboratory. He also works with James Roland Angel (the 14th president of Yale). Watson combines Dewey's approach to development and animal psychology. The most famous paragraph of Watson is his first paragraph from the Behaviorist Manifesto. Behaviorism: stimulus, response. Studying rats, Watson had to remake the rat-human analogy. Making the case of analogy is a key component of behaviorism. make it by saying I don't care what's going on its head. But if you just watch what animals do and measure it. The desire to blur that boundary by focusing on behavior instead of mind.

Watson, Animal Education (1903)

Antipsychiatry was NOT a theory of the mind, but a crisis in the scientific legitimacy of psychiatry that centered on diagnosis. It results in: Mental health is not just a form of social control. Mental health professionals realized that mental illness was as much about psychiatrists themselves as it was about patients.

What does anti psychiatry mean?

Coined in Galton's book. Eugenics come from Greek. Eu means good and genics means birth. Gene and genetics will share the same linguistic root though they are not yet defined. Together, this means well-born. Galton's term shows his focus on the positive - the desirable traits inherited in birth. Does not address negative eugenics

What does eugenics literally mean?

Memorize certain things spatially - like thousand of digits. Place cells hold where you store and recall memory. There is a connection between place and memory at the local level in places cells. How do we get from a single cell and its nature all the way to how we remember things about ourselves and our environments.

What does moon walking with Einstein address?

Defining behavior is a little unclear - where is are the lines of behavior. Behavior is anything an organism does that is observable . The words organism and observable must be defined. Can a bacteria behave? Can a human cell behave? If the human cell or system behaves, is that the cells behavior or the animals behavior? If behavior requires a mind, a cell or bacterium can't behave. Also what does it mean to observe? With your eyes? With a microscope? Can you hear or smell it? Does it matter it if it something in principle observable? Behaviorism as it comes out the in 20th century is not a theory, it is method. The focus on behavior as the object of method of study. To be scientific in the 19th century, you had to quantify, measure, and observe thing. So Freud was less taken seriously.

What is behavior?

Big Brain is 3-D model of a deceased persons brain. A 65 year old woman. Whole brain images is capable of showing us everything from the whole brain to the cellular level. The purpose is to standardize baseline comparisons across labs. You cut the brain in very thin layers with a meat slicer. The technology is slice, dye, microscope, image and create a technology from the future. This is the same technology of RCY. This is a static image because the person is dead nothing is going on with the brain.

What is big brain?

Cognition is computation steps for processing information. The key words are computational and information. This is bad definition given what we know about cognition know. However, this is the definition that people would have agreed upon between 1940s and 60s. Directly opposed to the definition of behavior. Computation will always be tied to the computer. In the late 19th century, the computer is a person or a group of people who compute arithmetic tables by hand, especially for astronomy. The charts you produce are essential for the production of views. They are produced by humans and especially by human.

What is cognition?

It is not obvious what is stimulus and response. Example: Darwin's model of the expression of emotions. Stimulus is feeling of internal feel and response of putting into your body. For James, the response is a bodily response to a conceptual stimulus, but then the bodily response because a stimulus for an internal emotional response. The same thing can be both stimulus and response.

What is confusing about stimulus and response?

Hygiene has deep roots at Yale. A term that people use for awhile. This term sticks long past its welcome. Emerges in the early 20th century along with a host of other things in the early 20h century - many people came into this movement. The first context in college campuses caused by changes going on in college campus. College administrators and professors were worried/anxious about who was coming to college. The long history of integration is not what he means. He means socieo-economic diversity. You have the rise of the lower middle class and immigration causing the new kind of Yale man. The tension was - What does it mean to be a Yalie or a Yale men? They wouldn't tell you that it was meant to be a WASP but that's how they would describe it. Administrators started to talk about next anxieties about fitting in using the language of Mental Hygiene. Arsies at university administrative level debate of students arriving at Yale who didn't feel they fit in. Intellectual: Intellectual context for mental hygiene. Hall and Meyer are two sides of the same coin. Bringing the issues of late adolescence in to the scientific realm and bringing mental hygiene ideas. Organisms and environment and adapting to certain circumstances that comes up again and again in mental hygiene Social context. Mental hygiene emergis at the same time as social/racial hygiene. Arises at the same time as eugenics. Mental hygiene was rooted in the progressive ideals about changing individuals to suit particular environments and setting up ideals of health fitness and identity that persist for a long time. Organisms vs. Environment: Meyer's psychodynamic theory pitted organism against environment. It was the organisms that had to change. This idea translated to mental hygiene - you have to change, not the environment. The focus has always been on changing the individual. A Mind that Found Itself: A particular focus on the individual. There is a king of moral status afforded to individual who achieves self help rather than reaching outside one self. Mental hygiene emphasized individuals' capacity to alter their own mind sin light of prevailing norms of health

What is mental hygiene and what is it's history? Context?

In the context of pharmaceuticals, it is the single targeted drug that addresses one particular problem in one swoop. Magical in the sense that it can target a particular problem. Happy pills are long term.

What is the difference between happy pills and magic bullets?

This is the idea that pills fundamentally changes the person who takes the pill. Idea of identity/change. An idea that many of have to live with.

What is the maintenance paradigm?

At the time, there has been a blistering expose about the state of asylums. This photo shows overcrowding. Rage at the conditions in which people are being kept in asylums is at fever pitch. People are looking for a solution in asylums. This is the landscape into which human lobotomy emerges. Lobotomy is the solution to a pressing human problem.

What medical context did lobotomy arise in?

1. Information Overload: By 1900, there was already "too much to know" for any one person - the human mind was overwhelmed. By the 16th and 17th century, people felt the same way - too many books to read. In the 19th century, there is too much data. You need a computer, some tool, to sift through the data and find what matters Anxieties About Artificiality: At the same time, we start to see early anxiety about drawing the boundaries between human and machines. The human animal boundary is also being debated, but this is anew boundary. If we become depedent on machines what is human about us - Two answers: (1) it doesn't matter at all this helps us (2) these are the things that make us humans, if we resign them to a machine, what do we have left

What was the early history of computing?

Watson was a behaviorist who came up with manifesto of behaviorism. and his assistant work with Little Albert to condition Albert to fear something he does not fear. But after conditioning, they create a fear reaction. A) Is it obvious that the behavior of LA has changed? B) How are they conducting the study Albert changes his reaction to animals. But doesn't change them in a way that is completely obvious. Behaviorists were obsessed with the ability to determine behavior with perfect accuracy. Was the behavior of Watson and his assitant the same? The Little Albert experiment shows the ambiguity of behavior. It's hard to identify that LA is more scared by certain animals than others.

What was the little albert experiment?

1. Accidental Personality Effects: Frontal lobotomy affected short-term memory - but it also surprisingly affected apes' personalities as well. Before the surgery, Becky would throw tantrums when she would fail. After the surgery, when her success dropped, she was docile. This peaked human surgeon's interest. 2. The Next Generation: Fultons' students went on to advance psychosurgery including James Watts, a leader in human lobotomy. Watts translated these techniques onto humans.

What were the legacies of animal lobotomy?

Creative Human Nature: The idea of the Open mind was rendered fundamental to human nature by Cold War scientists for political reasons. The Open Mind was a cold war object - it was basic human trait that proved resistant to brain washing

What were the origins of cognitive science?

Behaviorism. If Watosn is obsesed with beahivor at expense of mind. Skinner reintroduced the study of animal behavior reintroduces the mind to the behavior of animals. This is radical. He does this through the Skinner Box.

Who is Skinner and how does he build on Watson?

Harry Houdini was a deceiver who would escape miraculously. Houdini emphasized that he was not a magician. He had a well trained body and mind. It was about endurance and a certain version of the strenuous life - a masculine. In his second career, he unmasked supposed spiritualists because they wouldn't admit what they were doing is a skilled version of trickery. In one case, Houdini showed how spiritualists would ring a Showing how a spiritualist while being contrasted can ring a bell with his foot even with all his hands and feet held by slipping his foot out of his show. Houdini was obsessed with disproving supernatural things and deception was a skill. . Psychologists were doing the same thing, but they needed people like Houdini to unmask spiritualists because they weren't used to studying purposeful destruction. They were used to studying nature but it did not deceive.

Who was Harry Houdini?

Laid the foundations for lobotomy. Harvey Cushing goes to Harvard medial school and takes a position specializing in the brain for the removal of all sorts of things. Trains in anesthetics and antiseptics. Cushing is an expert at extracting things in the brain that aren't the brain - extracting foreign bodies impacting an anatomically perfect brain. This is the precursor to lobotomy. Cushing leads into the world of lobtomy for two reasons. (1) He was the work'd first brain surgeon. He is known for his technical skill and contributed to giving brain surgery its reputation as really hard. (2)nk Cushing was known as meticulous and neurotic which led ot success in the operating room. Crushing's careful collecting of samples and his use of them in teaching helped cement the field's status. Cushing was a collector. He is obsessed with boundary work - making an archive (part brain, part text, part image) to make a new scientific field

Who was Harvey Cushing?

The most important figure in mid-20th century human sciences. He affects cognitive psychology, computer science etc. His thesis is an idea he calls bounded rationality - we are rational in certain but our rationality is fundamentally limited by our resources. The idea of bounding comes from computers - computers are bounded by our capacity to build sophisticated computers.

Who was Herbert Simon?

Father of mental testing. Like James and Hall, He goes to Germany to do his psychological education. Unlike James and Hall, Catell loves working in Germany. He loves measuring very tiny differences in sensation using apparatus. Catell comes back to Upenn and is immediately taken by Columbia when his tenure is revoked and he is fired for protesting entry into World War I. Catell also protest the draft. He wins a huge settlement from Columbia and lives off of that for the rest of his career. Catell thinks mental testing will make psychology an exact science. -- relates to idea of legitimizing your field 1. Article from 1890: "Mental Test and Measurement": Coins the term mental test in the context of mental psychology that argued for quantifying individual mental differences. In Germany, people were comparing response across a large n and were constructing an ideal type of response. For Catell, he was interested in difference. How and why are people slightly different, now what is the sameness that underlies between them. "Homo Scientificus Americanus" Like Galton, Catell is obsessed with describing and quantifying what separated "men of genius" from others. His ideal population was scientists - difference between them and difference between them and the general public

Who was J McKeen Catell?

Fulton is a student of Cushings in the 20s. Fulton gets hired by Yale and Cushing follows him. Fulton believes that what you need to do is figure out relationship between lower and higher functions. Lower functions are things like the reflexes. He does a lot of work on the reflexes which gets him the Sterling professorship. He studies the reflexes in cats. He decerberates cats. ethods to decerebrate cats to study its reflexes. The cat is alive during all of them and then becomes a "preparation." The time take twenty minutes. All the dominate nerves must be cut. Lowest use of anaesethisa. Emergence of neurological things. He makes his name studying the automatic things, but what he is really interested in is higher faculties. He knows you cannot assume that dogs and cats have higher faculties (thanks to Morgans). Humans and apes. Fulton is a key part of making the first primatology laboratory in the United State at Yale med school in the 1920s and 30s. It is difficult to figure out where the higher functions are in these animals. Fulton finds it difficult to locate the higher faculties in apes. He then works with Yerkes

Who was John Fulton?

A profession at Stanford. Responsible for the rise of intelligence testing as we know it today. Creator to precursor of modern mental intelligence test. He has a different pool - he works with mentally ill children so he is working with child development. Same as story of processes start with mental ill, in asylums and then flourish outwards. In one test, he shows faces and ask a child to name the two prettiest of the images. They were getting at higher level aesthetic principles that are inborn. There was a certain formalization that can be tested again and again at how their progress is against the benchmark. IQ represents your place in a curve.

Who was Lewis Terman?

Cognitivists like Chomsky emerged vocally in direct opposition to behaviorists who trained them. Explicit rejection of behaviorism - that is the old-fashioned thing. Chomsky focuses on languages. Chomsky is describing language. How does language work? The mystery about language that behaviorists could not explain b/c as Skinner believes that language is purely imitation. This cannot explain how early speakers speak. He says language works like science - both are based on theories and rules. He is not saying that his field is science. He says language itself is like science - it produces novelty through repeated iterations on a set of rules. Boundary between machines and humans, freeing up space for human aroudn this idea of ht eopen mind. The way we learn language isn't behaviorism.

Who was Noam Chomsky?

This experiment is an iconic set up for behaviorist. Have designed an apparatus to test rats ability. The mind is still important to Small. You know or think you know what the natural habitat for the rat was like. It comes out of the period in which the mind matters a great.

Willard S. Small, "Experimental Study of the Mental Processes of the Rat. II," The American Journal of Psychology 12:2 (January 1, 1901)

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