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A chorus director is planning to audition exactly six singers: Kammer, Lugo, Trillo, Waite, Yoshida, and Zinn. Kammer's audition and Lugo's audition will be recorded; the other four will not be. The six auditions are to take place one after the other on a single day, in accordance with the following conditions: The fourth audition cannot be recorded. The fifth audition must be recorded. Waite's audition must take place earlier than the two recorded auditions. Kammer's audition must take place earlier than Trillos audition. Zinn's audition must take place earlier than Yoshida's audition. Which one of the following, if substituted for the condition that Waite's audition must take place earlier than the two recorded auditions, would have the same effect in determining the order of the auditions? A) Zinn's audition is the only one that can take place earlier than Waite's. B) Waite's audition must take place either immediately before or immediately after Zinn's. C) Waite's audition must take place earlier than Lugo's. D) Waite's audition must be either first or second. E) The first audition cannot be recorded.

A detective is trying to determine the order in which a criminal recruited seven accomplices - Peters, Quinn, Rovero, Stanton, Tao, Villas, and White. In addition to discovering that the suspect recruited the accomplices one at a time, the detective has established the following: Stanton was recruited neither immediately before nor immediately after Tao. Quinn was recruited earlier than Rovero. Villas was recruited immediately before White. Peters was recruited fourth. If White was recruited earlier than Rovero and if Rovero was recruited earlier than Tao, then which one of the following could be true? A) Quinn was recruited first. B) Rovero was recruited third. C) Stanton was recruited second. D) Tao was recruited sixth. E) Villas was recruited sixth.

A six-month public health campaign sought to limit the spread of influenza by encouraging people to take precautions such as washing their hands frequently and avoiding public places when they experience influenza symptoms. Since the incidence of influenza was much lower during those months than experts had predicted, the public evidently heeded the campaign. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A) The incidence of food-borne illnesses, which can be effectively controlled by frequent hand washing, was markedly lower than usual during the six-month period B) During the six-month period, the incidence of the common cold, which has many of the same symptoms as influenza, was about the same as usual C) There were fewer large public gatherings than usual during the six-month period D) Independently of the public health campaign, the news media spread the message that one's risk of contracting influenza can be lessened by frequent hand washing E) In a survey completed before the campaign began, many people admitted that they should do more to limit the spread of influenza

A tax preparation company automatically adds the following disclaimer to every e-mail message sent to its clients: "Any tax advice in this e-mail should not be construed as advocating any violation of the provisions of the tax code." The only purpose this disclaimer could serve is to provide legal protection for the company. But if the e-mail elsewhere suggests that the client do something illegal, then the disclaimer offers no legal protection. So the disclaimer serves no purpose. The argument's conclusion can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? A) If the e-mail does not elsewhere suggest that the client do anything illegal, then the company does not need legal protection B) If e-mail messages sent by the tax preparation company do elsewhere suggest that the recipient do something illegal, then the company could be subject to substantial penalties C) A disclaimer that is included in every e-mail message sent by a company will tend to be ignored by recipients who have already received many e-mails from that company D) At least some of the recipients of the company's e-mails will follow the advice contained in the body of at least some of the e-mails they receive E) Some of the tax preparation company's clients would try to illegally evade penalties if they knew how to do so

Animal feed should not include genetically modified plants. A study found that laboratory rats fed genetically modified potatoes for 30 days tended to develop intestinal deformities and a weakened immune system, whereas rats fed a normal diet of foods that were not genetically modified did not develop these problems. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument? A) Potatoes are not normally a part of the diet of laboratory rats B) The rats tended to eat more of the genetically modified potatoes at the beginning of the 30 days than they did toward the end of the 30 days C) Intestinal deformities at birth are not uncommon among rats bred in laboratory conditions D) Genetically modified potatoes have the same nutritional value to rats as do potatoes that are not genetically modified E) The researchers conducting the study were unable to explain how the genetic modifications of the potatoes would have caused the intestinal deformities or a weakened immune system in the rats

At a business symposium there will be exactly five speakers: Long, Molina, Xiao, Yoshida, and Zimmerman. Each speaker will give exactly one speech, in either the Gold Room or the Rose Room. In each room, there will be exactly one speech at 1 PM and one speech at 2 PM. In one of the rooms, yet to be determined, there will also be a speech at 3 PM. The schedule of speeches is constrained by the following: - Molina's speech must be earlier than Long's, and in the same room - Neither Xiao's speech nor Yoshida's speech can be earlier than Zimmerman's - If long's speech is in the Gold Rom, then Xiao's and Zimmerman's speeches must both be in the Rose Room Which one of the following could be the speeches given in each room, listed in the order in which they occur? A) Gold: M, L Rose: Z, X, Y B) Gold: M, Y, L Rose: X, Z C) Gold: X, M, L Rose: Z, Y D) Gold: Y, L, M Rose: Z, X E) Gold: Z, M Rose: X, Y, L

Columnist: If you received an unsigned letter, you would likely have some doubts about the truth of its contents. But news stories often include statements from anonymous sources, and these are usually quoted with the utmost respect. It makes sense to be skeptical of these sources, for, as in the case of the writer of an unsigned letter, their anonymity makes it possible for them to plant inaccurate or slanted statements without ever having to answer for them. The columnist's argument proceeds by A) Pointing out that a certain attitude would presumably be adopted in one situation, in order to support the claim that a similar attitude would be justified in an analogous situation B) Drawing an analogy between an attitude commonly adopted in one situation and a different attitude commonly adopted in another situation, and establishing that the latter attitude is better justified that the former C) Inferring that an attitude would be justified in all situations of a given type on the grounds that this attitude is justified in a hypothetical situation of that type D) Calling into question a certain type of evidence by drawing an analogy between that evidence and other evidence that the argument shows is usually false E) Calling into question the motives of those presenting certain information, and concluding for this reason that the information is likely to be false

Decentralization enables divisions of a large institution to function autonomously. This always permits more realistic planning and strongly encourages innovation, since the people responsible for decision making are directly involved in implementing the policies they design. Decentralization also permits the central administration to focus on institution-wide issues without being overwhelmed by the details of daily operations. The statements above most strongly support which one of the following? A) In large institutions whose divisions do not function autonomously, planning is not maximally realistic B) Innovation is not always encouraged in large centralized institutions C) For large institutions the advantages of decentralization outweigh its disadvantages D) The central administrations of large institutions are usually partially responsible for most of the details of daily operations E) The people directly involved in implementing policies are always able to make innovative and realistic policy decisions

Farmer: Crops genetically engineered to produce toxins that enable them to resist insect pests do not need to be sprayed with insecticides. Since excessive spraying of insecticides has harmed wildlife populations near croplands, using such genetically engineered crops more widely is likely to help wildlife populations to recover. Which one of the following is an assumption the farmer's argument requires? A) Use of the crops that have been genetically engineered to resist insect pests in place of crops that have been sprayed with insecticides will cause less harm to wildlife populations. B) Wildlife populations that have been harmed by the excessive spraying of insecticides on croplands are likely to recover if the amount of insecticides sprayed on those croplands in reduced even slightly. C) Crops that have been genetically engineered to resist insect pests are never sprayed with insecticides that harm wildlife populations. D) Use of crops that have been genetically engineered to resist insect pests is no more costly to farmers than the use of insecticides on crops that are not genetically engineered. E) If a wider use of certain crops that have been genetically engineered to resist insect pests is likely to help at least some wildlife populations to recover, it is likely to have that effect only because its use will prevent excessive and ineffective spraying of insecticides on croplands.

If future improvements to computer simulations of automobile crashes enable computers to provide as much reliable information about the effectiveness of automobile safety features as is provided by actual test crashes, then manufacturers will use far fewer actual test crashes. For the costs of designing and running computer simulations are much lower than those of actual test crashes. Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the argument? A) Apart from information about safety features, actual test crashes provide very little information of importance to automobile manufacturers B) It is highly likely that within the next 20 years computer simulations of automobile crashes will be able to provide a greater amount of reliable information about the effectiveness of automobile safety features than can be provided by actual test crashes C) If computer simulations will soon be able to provide more information about the effectiveness of automobile safety features, automobile manufacturers will soon be able to produce safer cars D) The cost per automobile of testing and designing safety features is decreasing and will continue to decrease for the foreseeable future E) For years, the aviation industry has been successfully using computer simulations of airplane crashes to test the effectiveness of safety features of airplane designs

In most of this forest, the expected outbreak of tree-eating tussock moths should not be countered. After all, the moth is beneficial where suppression of forest fires, for example, has left the forest unnaturally crowded with immature trees, and _______. The conclusion of the argument is most strongly supported if which one of the following completes the passage? A) More than half of the forest is unnaturally crowded with immature trees B) Mature trees are usually the first to be eaten by tussock moths C) Usually a higher proportion of mature trees than of immature ones are destroyed in forest fires D) The expected outbreak of tussock moths will almost certainly occur if no attempt is made to counter it E) There are no completely effective countermeasures against the moth

Journalism's purpose is to inform people about matters relevant to the choice they must make. Yet, clearly, people often buy newspapers or watch television news programs precisely because they contain sensationalistic gossip about people whom they will never meet and whose business is of little relevance to their lives. Obviously, then, the sensationalistic gossip contained in newspapers and television news programs ________. Which one of the following most logically completes the argument? A) Is at least sometimes included for nonjournalistic reasons B) Prevents those news media from achieving their purpose C) Is more relevant to people's lives now than it used to be D) Should not be thought f as a way of keeping an audience entertained E) Is of no value to people who are interested in journalism

Judicial punishment's power to deter people from committing crimes is a function of the severity of the penalty and the likelihood of one's actually receiving the penalty. Occasionally, juries decide that a crime's penalty is too severe and so refuse to convict a person they are convinced has committed that crime. Thus, increasing the penalty may decrease the deterrent power of judicial punishment. The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following arguments is most similar to the pattern of reasoning in the argument above? A) Success in attaining one's first academic job depends on the quality of one's dissertation and the amount of time spent working on it in graduate school. But sometimes, so much time is spent on a dissertation that it becomes too lengthy to be coherent and its quality suffers. So spending more time working on a dissertation can lead to less success in attaining a first academic job. B) People who drive cars having many safety features are likely to drive more aggressively than do people who drive cars having few safety features. Thus, the people who drive the safest cars are likely to be the most dangerous drivers on the road. C) A new surgical technique is developed to treat a dangerous condition. This technique enables people to live longer than does an older form of surgery. But the new surgery's mortality rate is also slightly higher. Thus, if more people choose to undergo the new surgery, more people may die from the dangerous condition than previously. D) To be attractive to tourists, it is best for a city to have both wide appeal and sufficient hotel space. Though a sufficient number of hotel rooms alone cannot attract tourists, it is much harder for city governments to affect the appeal of their city than for them to affect its amount of hotel space. Thus, governments of cities that want to increase their attractiveness to tourists should put their energies in to increasing their hotel space. E) Many young, talented artists, because they are unknown, decide to charge low prices for their work. As their reputations grow, the prices they can charge for their work increase. Thus, raising the price of an artist's work can improve that artist's reputation.

Letter to the editor: Middle-class families in wealthy nations are often criticized for the ecological damage resulting from their lifestyles. This criticism should not be taken too seriously, however, since its source is often a movie star or celebrity whose own lifestyle would, if widely adopted, destroy the environment and deplete our resources in a short time. The reasoning in the letter to the editor is vulnerable to criticism in that it A) Criticizes a characteristic of the people giving an argument rather than criticizing the argument itself B) Takes failure to act consistently with a belief as an indication of the sincerity with which that belief is held C) Presumes that a viewpoint must be unreasonable to accept simply because some of the grounds advanced to support it do not adequately do so D) Fails to recognize that evidence advanced in support of a conclusion actually undermines that conclusion E) Generalizes about the behavior of all people on the basis of the behavior of a few

On average, corporations that encourage frequent social events in the workplace show higher profits than those that rarely do. This suggests that the EZ Corporation could boost its profits by having more staff parties during business hours. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument above? A) The great majority of corporations that encourage frequent social events in the workplace do so at least in part because they are already earning above-average profits B) Corporations that have frequent staff parties after business hours sometimes have higher profits than do corporations that have frequent staff parties during business hours C) The EZ Corporation already earns above-average profits, and it almost never brings play into the workplace D) Frequent social events in a corporate workplace leave employees with less time to perform their assigned duties than they would otherwise have E) At one time the EZ Corporation encouraged social events in the workplace more frequently than it currently does, but it has not always been one of he most profitable corporations of its size

Polling data reveal that an overwhelming majority of nine-year-olds can correctly identify the logos of major cigarette brands. However, of those nine-year-olds who recognize such logos, less than 1 percent smoke. Therefore, there is little or no connection between recognition of cigarette brand logos and smoking. Which one of the following uses flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning above? A) The concern about the long-term effect on dolphins of small quantities of mercury in the ocean is unfounded. During a three-month observation period, 1,000 dolphins were exposed to small quantities of mercury in seawater, with no effect on the animals B) Many ten-year-olds dream of becoming actors. Yet it is not likely they will seriously consider becoming actors, because most parents discourage their children from pursuing such a highly competitive career C) Most dentists recommend using fluoride to reduce the incidence of cavities, but few recommend giving up candy entirely; so, using fluoride is probably more effective in preventing cavities than is avoiding sweets D) A large percentage of men exercise moderately throughout their lives, but the average life span of those who do so is not significantly greater than of those who get little or no exercise. So there is little or no correlation between moderate exercise and good health. E) Most people cannot name their legislative representatives. Nonetheless, this is insignificant, for when queries, most of them displayed an adequate command of current political issues.

Prolonged exposure to sulfur fumes permanently damages one's sense of smell. In one important study, 100 workers from sulfur-emitting factories and a control group of 100 workers from other occupations were asked to identify a variety of chemically reproduced scents, including those of foods, spices, and flowers. On average, the factory workers successfully identified 10 percent of the scents compared to 50 percent for the control group. Each of the following, if true, weakens the argument EXCEPT: A) The chemicals used in the study closely but not perfectly reproduced the corresponding natural scents B) The subjects in the study were tested in the environments where they usually work C) Most members of the control group had participated in several earlier studies that involved the identifications of scents D) Every sulfur-emitting factory with workers participating in the study also emits other noxious fumes E) Because of the factories' locations, the factory workers were less likely than those in the control group to have been exposed to many of the scents used in the study

Recently discovered bird fossils are about 20 million years older than the fossils of the birdlike dinosaurs from which the birds are generally claimed to have descended. So these newly discovered fossils show, contrary to the account espoused by most paleontologists, that no bird descended from any dinosaur. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument A) Draws a generalization that is broader than is warranted by the findings cited B) Rejects the consensus view of experts in the field without providing any counterevidence C) Attacks the adherents of the opposing view personally instead of addressing any reason for their view D) Fails to consider the possibility that dinosaurs descended from birds E) Ignores the possibility that dinosaurs and birds descended from a common ancestor

Records from 1850 to 1900 show that in a certain region, babies' birth weights each year varied with the success of the previous year's crops: the more successful the crops, the higher the birth weights. This indicates that the health of a newborn depends to a large extent on the amount of food available to the mother during her pregnancy. The argument proceeds by A) Inferring from a claimed correlation between two phenomena that two other phenomena are causally connected to one another B) Inferring from the claim that two phenomena have fluctuated together that one of those phenomena must be the sole cause of the other C) Inferring from records concerning a past correlation between two phenomena that that correlation still exists D) Inferring from records concerning two phenomena the existence of a common cause of the phenomena and then presenting a hypothesis about that common cause E) Inferring the existence of one causal connection from that of another and then providing an explanation for the existence of the two causal connections

Researcher: A number of studies have suggested that, on average, clients in short-term psychotherapy show similar levels of improvement regardless of the kind of psychotherapy they receive. So any client improvement in short-term psychotherapy must be the result of some aspect or aspects of therapy that are common to all psychotherapies - for example, the presence of someone who listens and gives attention to the client. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the researcher's argument? A) The methods by which the studies measured whether clients improved primarily concerned immediate symptom relief and failed to address other important kinds of improvement. B) On average, clients improve more dramatically when they receive long-term psychotherapy, a year or longer in duration, than when clients receive short-term psychotherapy. C) The studies found that psychotherapy by a trained counselor does not result in any greater improvement, on average, among clients than does simple counseling by an untrained layperson D) The specific techniques and interventions used by therapists practicing different kinds of psychotherapy differ dramatically. E) More-experienced therapists tend to use a wider range of techniques and interventions in psychotherapy than do inexperienced therapists

Researchers working in Western Australia have discovered the oldest fragments of the Earth's early crust that have yet been identified: microdiamonds. These microscopic crystals measure only 50 microns across and were formed 4.2 billion years ago. This discovery sheds light on how long it took for the Earth's crust to form, since this date is only 300 million years after the formation of the Earth itself. If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? A) The Earth's crust took no longer than 300 million years to start to form. B) The Earth's crust first formed in the area that is now Western Australia. C) The Earth's crust took billions of years to form. D) Microdiamonds were the first components of the Earth's crust to form. E) All naturally occurring microdiamonds were formed at the time the Earth's crust was being formed.

Secondary school students achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles and they devote significant effort to their studies. Thus, if such broad mastery is not achieved by the students in a particular secondary school, those students are not being taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles. The conclusion can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? A) As long as secondary school students are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles, they will devote significant effort to their studies B) Even if secondary school students are taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles, they will not achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they do not devote significant effort to their studies C) Secondary school students do not achieve broad mastery of the curriculum if they are not taught with methods appropriate to their learning styles D) Teaching secondary school students with methods appropriate to their learning styles does not always result in broad mastery of the curriculum by those students E) Secondary school students who devote significant effort to their studies do not always achieve broad mastery of the curriculum

Some video game makers have sold the movie rights for popular games. However, this movie is rarely good from a business perspective. After all, StarQuanta sold the movie rights to its popular game Nostroma, but the poorly made film adaptation of the game was hated by critics and the public alike. Subsequent versions of the Nostroma video game, although better than the original, sold poorly. The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism in that the argument A) Draws a general conclusion on the basis of just one individual case B) Infers that a product will be disliked by the public merely from the claim that the product was disliked by critics C) Restates as a conclusion a claim earlier presented as evidence for that conclusion D) Takes for granted that products with similar content are in different media will be of roughly equal popularity

TV meteorologist: Our station's weather forecasts are more useful and reliable than those of the most popular news station in the area. After all, the most important question for viewers in this area is whether it will rain, and on most of the occasions when we have forecast rain for the next day, we have been right. The same cannot be said for either of our competitors. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the meteorologist's argument? A) The meteorologist's station forecast rain more often than did the most popular news station in the area B) The less popular of the competing stations does not employ any full-time meteorologists C) The most popular news station in the area is popular because of its investigative news reports D) The meteorologist's station has a policy of not making weather forecasts more than three days in advance E) On most of the occasions when the meteorologist's station forecast that it would not rain, at least one of its competitors also forecast that it would not rain

The chairperson should not have released the Election Commission's report to the public, for the chairperson did not consult any other members of the commission about releasing the report before having it released. The argument's conclusion can be properly inferred if which one of the following is assumed? A) It would have been permissible for the chairperson to release the commission's report to the public only if most other members of the commission had first given their consent B) All of the members of the commission had signed the report prior to its release C) The chairperson would not have been justified in releasing the commission's report if any members of the commission had serious reservations about the report's content D) The chairperson would have been justified in releasing the report only if each of the commission's members would have agreed to its being released had they been consulted E) Some members of the commission would have preferred that the report not be released to the public

To cut costs, a high school modified its air-conditioning system to increase its efficiency. The modified system, however, caused the humidity in the school air to decrease by 18 percent. Twenty-four hours after the decrease in air humidity, a 25 percent increase in the number of visits to the school nurse was reported. This shows that a decrease in humidity can make people ill. The argument depends on assuming which one of the following? A) At least some of the visit to the school nurse after the system was modified were due to illness B) Most of the students at the high school suffered from the decrease in air humidity C) It takes 24 hours after a person is infected with a virus for that person to exhibit symptoms D) A decrease of 18 percent in air humidity causes an increase of 25 percent in one's probability of becoming ill E) Modifying the air-conditioning system proved to be an ineffective way to cut costs

The consensus among astronomers, based upon observations of the surfaces of pulsars, is that pulsars are spinning balls of neutrons compressed into a sphere some 10 kilometers in diameter with a mass roughly equal to that of our sun. However, their observed properties are also consistent with some pulsars actually being filled with quarks, the building blocks of neutrons. Because the core of a quark-filled pulsar, unlike a neutron-filled one, would have an overall positive charge, it would attract a layer of negatively charged particles that could support a crust of neutrons. The statement that the core of a quark-filled pulsar would have an overall positive charge plays which one of the following roles in the argument above? A) It helps explain how pulsars could have neutrons on their surface even if they were not entirely made up of neutrons B) It forms part of a challenge to the claim that some pulsars may be made up of quarks C) It helps explain why some pulsars would not be readily recognized as such by astronomers D) It presents a new finding that challenges the consensus view of the structure of pulsars E) It points out a problem with the view that pulsars have a mass roughly equal to that of our sun

A Answer choice D shows how the new finding CONFORMS to the consensus view, it doesn't challenge it

A carved flint object depicting a stylized human head with an open mouth was found in a Stone Age tomb in Ireland. Some archaeologists believe that the object was a weapon - the head of a warrior's mace - but it is too small for that purpose. Because of its size and the fact that an open mouth symbolizes speaking, the object was probably the head of a speaking staff, a communal object passed around a small assembly to indicate who has the right to speak. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument? A) The tomb in which the object was found did not contain any other objects that might have been weapons B) Communal objects were normally passed from one generation to the next in Stone Age Ireland C) The object was carved with an artistry that was rare in Stone Age Ireland D) The tomb in which the object was found was that of a politically prominent person E) A speaking staff with a stone head is thought to symbolize a warrior's mace

A local marsh would need to be drained before the proposed office complex could be built. Such marshes often play crucial roles in purifying groundwater and there as been no scientific assessment of the marsh's role in maintaining the quality of the city's well water. The city should therefore block the proposed office complex pending such an assessment. The principle underlying the argument above is most similar to the principle underlying which one of the following arguments? A) A new highway cannot be built in the lake district unless an environmental impact assessment is first carried out. An environmental impact assessment would cost more than the projected economic benefit of the highway. The proposal for a new highway in the lake district should therefore be rejected B) Defective products can cost an appliance manufacturer millions of dollars because of product recalls and lawsuits. Yova Corporation's new line of appliances has not yet been thoroughly tested for defects. Thus, Yova should not bring its new line to market at this time C) A laboratory safety check of a portable grill requires a week of uninterrupted testing. The new portable grill has been at the testing lab for a week, but the testing could not begin until the paperwork arrived three days later. Therefore, no report on the results of the safety check should be released at this time D) Building the new highway along the proposed northern route would inevitably damage an adjoining wilderness area. The highway would also cause environmental damage if it follows the proposed southern route, but it would not harm any wilderness areas. Thus, if the highway is built, it should be built on the southern route E) Building a light rail line to serve the downtown core could involve cost overruns and expensive delays, but traffic congestion will become intolerable within ten years without a light rail line. A light rail line should therefore be built

A new magazine is assigning photo essays to be featured in its first five monthly issues, one essay per issue. Three of the essays will have a rural theme and two will have an urban theme. Each essay will be assigned to a different one of five photographers: Fetter, Gonzalez, Howland, Jordt, and Kim. The assignment of photographers and themes to issues is subject to the following constraints: The essay featured in the first issue must have a rural theme. Kim's essay must be featured in the issue immediately preceding the issue in which Fetter's essay is featured. Fetter's essay cannot have the same type of theme as Kim's. Gonzalez's essay must be featured in the third issue. Jordt's essay must have an urban theme. Which one of the following, if substituted for the constraint that Fetter's essay cannot have the same type of theme as Kim's, would have the same effect in determining the assignment of photographers and themes to issues? A) Howland's essay must have a rural theme. B) Gonzalez's essay and Howland's essay must both have a rural theme. C) Fetter's essay cannot have the same type of theme as Jordt's. D) Jordt's essay must be featured in an issue immediately following an issue whose essay has a rural theme. E) Kim's essay must have the same type of theme as Gonzalez's essay or Howland's essay, but not both.

Although the first humans came to Australia 56,000 years ago and undoubtedly brought new diseases with them, human-borne diseases probably did not cause the mass extinction of large land animals and birds that took place over the following 10,000 years. After all, more than 55 different species disappeared at about the same time, and no one disease, however virulent, could be fatal to animals across that many different species. Which one of the following arguments exhibits flawed reasoning that is most parallel to that in the argument above? A) Even though high interest rates can lead to an economic downturn, high interest rates probably did not cause the current economic downturn. It is true that rates have been on the rise, but high interest rates are not always economically harmful. B) Even though I can fix some things and you can fix some things, the two of us will be unable to repair our apartment without outside help. The apartment has both a broken window and a broken bedroom door, and neither of us is able to fix both doors and windows. C) Even though Lena, Jen, and Mark would like to go out to dinner together after the movie tonight, they will probably go straight home after the show. Of the five restaurants that are in the immediate vicinity of the theater, there is not a single one that all three of them like. D) Even though this painting is highly regarded by critics, it cannot legitimately be deemed great art. Most art that was produced in the last hundred years is not great art, and this painting, beautiful though it is, was probably painted only 40 years ago. E) Even though the influenza vaccine does not always prevent influenza, it sometimes reduces the severity of its symptoms. Therefore it is incorrect to say that some people who receive the vaccine derive no benefit from it.

Climatologist: Over the coming century, winter temperatures are likely to increase in the Rocky Mountains due to global warming. This will cause a greater proportion of precipitation to fall as rain instead of snow. Therefore, the mountain snowpack will probably melt more rapidly and earlier in the season, leading to greater spring flooding and less storable water to meet summer demands. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the climatologist's argument? A) Global warming will probably cause a substantial increase in the average amount of annual precipitation in the Rocky Mountains over the coming century B) In other mountainous regions after relatively mild winters, the melting of snowpacks has led to greater spring flooding and less storable water, on average, than in those mountainous regions after colder winters C) On average, in areas of the Rocky Mountains in which winters are relatively mild, there is less storable water to meet summer demands than there is in areas of the Rocky Mountains that experience colder winters D) On average, in the regions of the world with the mildest winters, there is more spring flooding and less storable water than in regions of the world with much colder winters E) The larger a mountain snowpack is, the greater the amount of spring flooding it is likely to be responsible for producing

During the weeklong grand opening of a new antique shop, the antique dealer will auction exactly one antique per day for six consecutive days - June 1st through June 6th. The antiques to be auctioned are: a harmonica, a lamp, a mirror, a sundial, a table, and a vase. The following conditions apply: The sundial is not auctioned on June 1st. If the harmonica is auctioned on an earlier date than the lamp, then the mirror is also auctioned on an earlier date than the lamp. The sundial is auctioned on an earlier date than the mirror and also on an earlier date than the vase. The table is auctioned on an earlier date than the harmonica or on an earlier date than the vase, but not both. Which of the following could be true? A) The table is auctioned on June 2nd and the lamp is auctioned on June 3rd. B) The sundial is auctioned on June 2nd and the vase is auctioned on June 3rd. C) The mirror is auctioned on June 3rd and the sundial is auctioned on June 4th. D) The vase is auctioned on June 4th and the sundial is auctioned on June 5th. E) The sundial is auctioned on June 4th and the table is auctioned on June 5th.

In creating a soup recipe, a chef is deciding which of seven vegetables—garlic, jalapeño, kale, onion, potato, tomato, and yam—to include among the ingredients. The chef has decided that the vegetables she includes will be added one at a time to a pot of liquid ingredients. Each vegetable will be added only once, subject to the following conditions: If jalapeño is an ingredient, it must be added either first or last. If jalapeño is an ingredient, yam must not be an ingredient. Either potato is an ingredient or yam is an ingredient, but not both. Garlic, kale, onion, and tomato must be ingredients. Onion must be added at some time before garlic, and garlic must be added at some time before both kale and tomato. Which one of the following, if substituted for the condition that if jalapeño is an ingredient, yam must not be an ingredient, would have the same effect in determining the addition of vegetables to the pot? A) Potato is an ingredient only if jalapeño is an ingredient. B) Jalapeño is an ingredient only if potato is an ingredient. C) If jalapeño is not an ingredient, then yam must be an ingredient. D) If exactly five vegetables are ingredients, then jalapeño must not be an ingredient. E) If exactly six vegetables are ingredients, then jalapeño must be an ingredient.

Legislator: My colleague says we should reject this act because it would deter investment. But because in the past she voted for legislation that inhibited investment, this surely is not the real reason she opposes the act. Since she has not revealed her real reason, it must not be very persuasive. So we should vote to approve the act. The reasoning in the legislator's argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that the argument A) Treats a personal character trait as if it were evidence of the professional viewpoint of the person having that trait B) Fails to address the grounds on which the colleague claims the act should be rejected C) Presumes, without providing justification, that the colleague's opposition to the act is the minority position in the legislature D) Presumes, without providing justification, that voters will oppose legislation that deters investment E) Fails to consider that the colleague's opposition to the act may be a response to constituents' wishes

Manager: This company' supply chain will develop significant weaknesses unless we make changes to our vendor contracts now. Some will argue that this problem is so far in the future that there is no need to address it today. But that is an irresponsible approach. Just imagine if a financial planner offered the same counsel to a 30-year-old client: "Don't worry, Jane, retirement is 35 years away; you don't need to save anything now." That planner would be guilty of gross malpractice. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in the manager's argument? A) Some people argue that the supply-chain problem is so far in the future that there is no need to address it now B) It would be irresponsible to postpone changes to the vendor contracts just because the supply chain will not develop weaknesses for a long time C) If no changes are made to the vendor contracts, the supply chain will eventually develop significant weaknesses D) In planning to meet its future obligations, a company should follow the same practices that are appropriate for an individual who is planning for retirement E) Financial planners should advise their clients to save money for retirement only if retirement is many years away

Marketing consultant: Last year I predicted that LRG's latest advertising campaign would be unpopular with customers and ineffective in promoting new products. But LRG ignored my predictions and took the advice of a competing consultant. This season's sales figures show that sales are down and LRG's new products are selling especially poorly. Thus, the advertising campaign was ill conceived. The marketing consultant's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that A) It takes for granted that LRG's sales would not have been lower still in the absence of the competitor's advertising campaign B) It fails to consider that economic factors unrelated to the advertising campaign may h ave caused LRG's low sales figures C) It takes for granted that in LRG's industry, new products should outsell established products D) It takes for granted that the higher sales of established products are due to effective advertising E) It confuses a condition necessary for increasing product sales with a condition that will ensure increased sales

Only experienced salespeople will be able to meet the company's selling quota. Thus, I must not count as an experienced salesperson, since I will be able to sell only half the quota. the pattern of flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? A) Only on Fridays are employees allowed to dress casually. Today is Friday but Hector is dressed formally. So he must not be going to work. B) Only music lovers take this class. Thus, since Hillary is not taking this class, she apparently does not love music. C) Only oceanographers enjoy the Atlantic in midwinter. Thus, we may expect that Gerald does not enjoy the Atlantic in midwinter, since he is not an oceanographer D) As this tree before us is a giant redwood, it follows that we must be in a northern latitude, since it is only in northern latitudes than one finds giant redwoods E) Only accomplished mountain climbers can scale El Capitan. Thus, Michelle must be able to scale El Capitan, since she is an accomplished mountain climber.

Philosopher: Groups are not the type of entity that can be worthy of praise or blame. Blameworthiness implies conscience and agency. Nations do not have consciences. Families are not agents. Hence, any ascription of praise or blame to a groupmust be translated into some statement about individuals if we are to evaluate it properly. Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the philosopher's argument by the claim that nations do not have consciences? A) It is an intermediate conclusion offered as direct support for the argument's main conclusion. B) It is offered as support for an intermediate conclusion that is in turn offered as direct support for the argument's main conclusion. C) It is cited as an implication of the main conclusion drawn in the argument. D) It is cited as an instance of a general conclusion drawn in the argument. E) It is the main conclusion drawn in the argument.

Principle: Anyone who has more than one overdue book out on loan from the library at the same time must be fined if some of the overdue books are not children's books and that person has previously been fined for overdue books. Application: Since three of the books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library are overdue, Kessler must be fined. Which one of the following, if true, justifies the above application of the principle? A) Some of the books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library are not children's books, and Kessler was fined last year for returning a children's book late. B) One of the overdue books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library is a novel for adults, and Kessler was fined last year for returning this book late. C) None of the books that Kessler currently has out on loan from the library is a children's book and in previous years Kessler has returned various books late. D) Kessler was fined by the library several times in the past for overdue books, but none of the overdue books for which Kessler was fined were children's books. E) Kessler has never before been fined for overdue books, but the three overdue books that Kessler currently has out on loan form the library are months overdue

The supernova event of 1987 is interesting in that there is still no evidence of the neutron star that current theory says should have remained after a supernova of that size. This is in spite of the fact that many of the most sensitive instruments ever developed have searched for the tell-tale pulse of radiation that neutron stars emit. Thus, current theory is wrong in claiming that supernovas of a certain size always produce neutron stars. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A) Most supernova remnants that astronomers have detected have a neutron star nearby B) Sensitive astronomical instruments have detected neutron stars much farther away than the location of the 1987 supernova C) The supernova of 1987 was the first that scientists were able to observe in progress D) Several important features of the 1987 supernova are correctly predicted by the current theory E) Some neutron stars are known to have come into existence by a cause other than a supernova explosion

A florist is filling a customer's order for three bouquets - bouquet 1, bouquet 2, and bouquet 3. Each of the bouquets is to be composed of one or more of five kinds of flowers - lilies, peonies, roses, snapdragons, and tulips - subject to the following conditions: - Bouquets 1 and 3 cannot have any kind of flower in common - Bouquets 2 and 3 must have exactly two kinds of flowers in common - Bouquet 3 must have snapdragons - If a bouquet has tulips, that bouquet must also have peonies Which one of the following CANNOT be true: A) Lilies and roses are the only kinds of flowers in bouquet 1 B) Peonies and tulips are the only kinds of flowers in bouquet 1 C) Lilies, peonies, and roses are the only kinds of flowers in bouquet 2 D) Peonies, roses, and snapdragons are the only kinds of flowers in bouquet 2 E) Peonies, snapdragons, and tulips are the only kinds of flowers in bouquet 3

A positive correlation has been found between the amount of soot in the atmosphere of cities and the frequency of a certain ailment among those cities' populations. However, the soot itself probably does not cause this ailment, since in cities where there are large amounts of soot in the air, there are usually also high concentrations of many other air pollutants. Which one of the following statements, if true, most weakens the argument? A) In cities where there are high concentrations of many air pollutants but little if any soot in the air, the frequency of the ailment is just as high, on average, as it is in cities where there are large amounts of soot in the air. B) If the ailment rarely occurs except in cities in which there are large amounts of soot in the air, then the soot is probably the cause of the ailment. C) In each of the cities where there are large amounts of soot in the air but little other air pollution, the frequency of the ailment is at least as high as it is anywhere else. D) If high concentrations of many different pollutants in a city's air are correlated with a high frequency of the ailment among that city's population, then it is possible that two or more of those pollutants each casually contributes to the ailment. E) In cities in which there are high concentrations of many air pollutants, there are generally also high concentrations of other forms of pollution that are very likely to contribute causally to the ailment

Any government practice that might facilitate the abuse of power should not be undertaken except in cases in which there is a compelling reason to do so. The keeping of government secrets is one such practice. Though government officials are sometimes justified in keeping secrets, too often they keep secrets for insubstantial reasons, and in so doing they wind up enabling abuses of power. When government officials conceal from the public the very fact that they are keeping a secret, this practice opens up even greater opportunity for abuse. Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above? A) In most cases in which government officials conceal information from the public, they are not justified in doing so B) In those cases in which government officials have a compelling reason to keep a secret, doing so does not facilitate an abuse of pwoer C) A government official who justifiably keeps a secret should not conceal its existence without having a compelling reason to do so D) Government officials who conceal information without a compelling reason are thereby guilty of an abuse of power E) Government officials should keep information secret only if doing so does not make it easier for those officials to abuse their power

At a large elementary school researchers studied a small group of children who successfully completed an experimental program in which they learned to play chess. The study found that most of the children who completed the program soon showed a significant increase in achievement levels in all of their schoolwork. Thus, it is likely that the reasoning power and spatial intuition exercised in chess-playing also contribute to achievement in many other areas of intellectual activity. Which one of the following, if true, most trends to undermine the argument? A) Some students who did not participate in the chess program had learned to play chess at home. B) Those children who began the program but who did not successfully complete it had lower preprogram levels of achievement than did those who eventually did successfully complete the program. C) Many of the children who completed the program subsequently sought membership on a school chess team that required a high grade average for membership. D) Some students who did not participate in the chess program participated instead in after-school study sessions that helped them reach much higher levels of achievement in the year after they attended the sessions. E) At least some of the students who did not successfully complete the program were nevertheless more talented chess players than some of the students who did complete the program.

Between 1976 and 1985, chemical wastes were dumped into Cod Bay. Today, 3 percent of the bay's bluefin cod population have deformed fins, and wary consumers have stopped buying the fish. In seeking financial reparations from companies that dumped the chemicals, representatives of Cod Bay's fishing industry have claimed that since the chemicals are known to cause genetic mutations, the deformity in the bluefin cod must have been caused by the presence of those chemicals in Cod Bay. The answer to each of the following questions would be helpful in evaluating the representatives' claim EXCEPT: A) What is the incidence of deformed fins in bluefin cod that are not exposed to chemicals such as those dumped into Cod Bay? B) What was the incidence of deformed fins in bluefin cod in Cod Bay before the chemical dumping began? C) Has the consumption of the bluefin cod from Cod Bay that have deformed fins caused any health problems in the people who ate them? D) Are bluefin cod prone to any naturally occurring diseases that can cause fin deformities of the same kind as those displayed by the bluefin cod of Cod Bay? E) Are there gene-altering pollutants present in Cod Bay other than the chemical wastes that were dumped by the companies?

Businessperson: Because the parking area directly in front of the building was closed for maintenance today, I was late to my meeting. If the maintenance had been done on a different day, I would have gotten to the meeting on time. After finding out that I could not park in that area it took me 15 minutes to find an available parking space, making me a few minutes late. The answer to which one of the following questions would be most useful to know in order to evaluate the reasoning in the businessperson's argument? A) What were the reasons for performing maintenance on the parking area directly in front of the building on that particular day? B) Were any other of the meeting attendees also late to the meeting because they had difficulty finding parking? C) What are the parking patterns in the building's vicinity on days when the parking area in front of the building is open? D) Does the businessperson have a tendency to be late to meetings? E) Was it particularly important that the businessperson not be late to this meeting?

During the next four months, three factory sites—one in France, one in Ghana, and one in India—will be visited bya company's representatives, exactly one representative for each site in each month. The visits will be made by four representatives—Velez, Watts, Yamamoto, and Zuhur—each of whom will make exactly three visits, no more than one in a month, subject to the following constraints: Velez must visit Ghana once and India twice, with Ghana visited at some time between the visits to India. Watts must visit Ghana at least once.Yamamoto must visit Ghana in a month immediately preceding a month in which Watts visits Ghana. Yamamoto cannot visit any site in the fourth month. Any representative who visits France cannot also visit India. Which one of the following could be true? A) Watts visits Ghana in the first month. B) Yamamoto visits Ghana in the second month. C) Yamamoto visits Ghana in the third month. D) Zuhur visits Ghana in the second month. E) Zuhur visits Ghana in the third month.

Economist: Owing to global economic forces since 1945, our country's economy is increasingly a service economy, in which manufacturing employs an even smaller fraction of the workforce. Hence, we have engaged in less and less international trade. Which one of the following, if true, would most help to explain the decreasing engagement in international trade by the economist's country? A) International trade agreements have usually covered both trade in manufactured goods and trade in services B) Employment in the service sector tends to require as many specialized skills as does employment in manufacturing C) Because services are usually delivered in person, markets for services tend to be local D) Many manufacturing jobs have been rendered obsolete by advances in factory automation E) Some services can be procured less expensively from providers in other countries than from providers in the economist's country

Many bird and reptile species use hissing as a threat device against potential predators. The way these species produce hissing sounds is similar enough that it is likely that this behavior developed in an early common ancestor. At the time this common ancestor would have lived, however, none of its potential predators would have yet acquired the anatomy necessary to hear hissing sounds. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above? A) Like its potential predators, the common ancestor of bird and reptile species would have lacked the anatomy necessary to hear hissing sounds. B) The common ancestor of bird and reptile species would probably have employed multiple threat devices against potential predators. C) The production of a hissing sound would have increased the apparent body size of the common ancestor of bird and reptile species. D) The use of hissing as a threat device would have been less energetically costly than other treat behaviors available to the common ancestor of bird and reptile species. E) Unlike most modern bird and reptile species, the common ancestor of these species would have had few predators.

Party X has recently been accused by its opposition, Party Y, of accepting international campaign contributions, which is illegal. Such accusations are, however, ill founded. Three years ago, Party Y itself was involved in a scandal in which it was discovered that its national committee seriously violated campaign laws. Which one of the following contains flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning in the argument above? A) The plaintiff accuses the defendant of violating campaign laws, but the accusations are ill founded. While the defendant's actions may violate certain laws, they are not immoral, because the laws in question are unjust. B) The plaintiff accuses the defendant of violating campaign laws, but these accusations show the plaintiff to be hypocritical, because the plaintiff has engaged in similar conduct C) The plaintiff accuses the defendant of violating campaign laws, an, in the past, courts have declared such violations illegal. Nevertheless, because the plaintiff recently engaged in actions that were similar to those of the defendant, the plaintiff's accusations are ill founded D) The plaintiff accuses the defendant of violating campaign laws, but these accusations are ill founded. They are clearly an attempt to stir up controversy, because they were made just two weeks before the election E) The plaintiff accuses the defendant of voting only for campaign laws that would favor the defendant's party. This accusation is ill founded, however, because it attacks the defendant's motivations instead of addressing the arguments the defendant has put forth justifying these votes

Politician: Union leaders argue that increases in multinational control of manufacturing have shifted labor to nations without strong worker protections, resulting in corresponding global decrease in workers' average wages. Given that these leaders have a vested interest in seeing wages remain high, they would naturally want to convince legislators to oppose multinational control. Thus, legislators should reject this argument. The reasoning in the politician's argument is flawed in that the argument A) Treats the mere fact that certain people are union members as sufficient to cast doubt on all of the viewpoints expressed by those people B) Presumes, without providing justification, that anyone whose political motivations are clearly discernible is an unreliable source of information to legislators C) Treats circumstances potentially affecting the union leaders' argument as sufficient to discredit those leaders' argument D) Presumes, without providing justification, that the argument it cites in the union leaders' only argument for their view E) Presumes, without providing evidence, that leaders of all unions argue against increases in multinational control of manufacturing

For consumers, the most enjoyable emotional experience garnered from shopping is feeling lucky. Retailers use this fact to their advantage, but too often they resort to using advertised price cuts to promote their wares. Promotions of this sort might make bargain-minded consumers feel lucky, but they cut into profit margins and undermine customer loyalty. Which one of the following most accurately describes the overall conclusion drawn in the argument? A) Feeling lucky is the most enjoyable emotional experience garnered from shopping B) Retailers take advantage of the fact that shoppers enjoy feeling lucky C) Advertised price cuts are overused as a means of gaining retail sales D) Using advertised price cuts to promote retail products reduces profit margins and undermines customer loyalty E) Making consumers feel lucky is usually not a good formula for retail success

C D is the evidence the author uses in the last sentence to support the conclusion, which is "Retailers too often resort to using advertised price cuts to promote their wares"

A survey of a city's concertgoers found that almost all of them were dissatisfied with the local concert hall. A large majority of them expressed a strong preference for wider seats and better acoustics. And, even though the survey respondents were told that the existing concert hall cannot feasibly be modified to provide these features, most of them opposed the idea of tearing down the existing structure and replacing it with a concert hall with wider seats and better acoustics. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the apparent conflict in the concertgoers' views, as revealed by the survey? A) Before any of the survey questions were asked, the respondents were informed that the survey was sponsored by a group that advocated replacing the existing concert hall B) Most of the people who live in the vicinity of the existing concert hall do not want it to be torn down C) The city's construction industry will receive more economic benefit from the construction of a new concert hall than from renovations to the existing concert hall D) A well-publicized plan is being considered by the city government that would convert the existing concert hall into a public auditorium and build a new concert hall nearby E) Many popular singers and musicians who currently do not hold concerts in the city would begin to hold concerts there if a new concert hall were built

At Morris University this semester, most of the sociology majors are taking Introduction to Social Psychology, but most of the psychology majors are not. Hence, there must be more sociology majors than psychology majors enrolled in the class. The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following? A) Most of the paintings on display at the Metro Art Museum are from the twentieth century, but most of the paintings the Metro Art Museum owns are from the nineteenth century. It follows that the museum owns few if any of the twentieth-century paintings it displays B) In an opinion poll of Silver Falls residents, more said they were in favor of increased spending on roads than said they were in favor of increased spending on parks. So most Silver Falls residents must be in favor of spending more on roads but opposed to spending more on parks C) In the San Felipe city arboretum, most of the trees are of local rather than exotic species. Therefore, in the San Felipe area, there must be more trees of local species than of exotic species D) Most of the vegetables available at the Valley Food Co-op are organic, but most of the vegetables available at the Jumbo Supermarket are not. Thus, more organic vegetables are available at Valley Food than are available at Jumbo E) The Acme Reality website has photos of most of the houses, but of fewer than half of the condominiums, that Acme is offering for sale. So Acme must have more houses than condominiums for sale

Computer manufacturers and retailers tell us that the complexity involved in connecting the various components of personal computers is not a widespread obstacle to their use, but this wrong. Customers who install accessories to their personal computers have to take full responsibility for the setting of jumpers and switches to satisfy mysterious specifications. Many accessories require extra software that can cause other accessories to stop working; adding a modem, for instance, may disable a printer. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? A) Personal computer instruction manuals usually explain the purposes of the jumpers and switches B) Software for accessories can often be obtained for free C) Installing an accessory will become extremely easy in the foreseeable future D) A personal computer is usually sold as part of a package that includes accessories and free installation E) Computer manufacturers rarely take into account ease of installation when they are designing programs or accessories

Counselor: Constantly comparing oneself to those one sees as more able or more successful almost invariably leads to self-disparagement. Conversely, constantly comparing oneself to those one sees as less able or less successful almost invariably leads to being dismissive of others. So, those who for the most part refrain from comparing themselves to others will most likely be, on the whole, self-accepting and accepting of others. The counselor's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism because it A) Overlooks the possibility that one can compare oneself both to those one perceives to be more able and more successful than oneself and to those one perceives to be less able and less successful than oneself B) Overlooks the possibility that constantly comparing oneself to others may have beneficial effects that those who refrain from making such comparisons are deprived of C) Takes for granted that if one is both dismissive of others and self-disparaging, one will not be self-accepting and accepting of others D) Overlooks the possibility that self-disparagement and being dismissive of others can result from something other than comparing oneself to others E) Takes for granted that whenever one compares oneself to others one sees them as more successful and more able than oneself or less successful and less able than oneself

Critic: The criticism of the popular film comedy Quirks for not being realistic is misguided. It is certainly true that the characters are too stylized to be real people. That could be problematic, but in this case the resulting film is funny. And that is the important thing for a comedy. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the critic's argument? A) Films should be judged on how well they accurately capture the world B) Films are successful as long as they are popular C) Film comedies should find their humor in their stylistic portrayals D) Films are successful if they succeed within their genre E) Films should try to stay entirely within a single genre

Editor: the city's previous recycling program, which featured pickup of recyclables every other week, was too costly. The city claims that its new program, which features weekly pickup, will be more cost effective, since the greater the volume of recyclables collected per year, the more revenue the city gains from selling the recyclables. But this is absurd. People will put out the same volume of recyclables overall; it will just be spread out over a greater number of pickups. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the editor's argument? A) The cost of collecting and disposing of general trash has been less than the cost of collecting and disposing of recyclables, and this is still likely to be the case under the new recycling program. B) Even if the volume of collected recyclables increases, that increase might not be enough to make the recycling program cost effective. C) Because the volume of recyclables people accumulate during a week is less than what they accumulate during two weeks, the city expects a recyclables pickup to take less time under the new program. D) A weekly schedule for recyclables pickup is substantially easier for people to follow and adhere to than is a schedule of pickups every other week. E) Because of the increase in the number of pickups under the new program, the amount charged by the contractor that collects the city's recyclables will increase significantly.

Fluoride enters a region's groundwater when rain dissolves fluoride-bearing minerals in the soil. In a recent study, researchers found than when rainfall, concentrations of fluoride-bearing minerals, and other relevant variables are held constant, fluoride concentrations in groundwater are significantly higher in areas where the groundwater also contains a high concentration of sodium. Which one of the following can most reasonably be concluded on the basis of the researchers' findings? A) Fluoride-bearing minerals are not the primary source of fluoride found in groundwater B) Rainfall does not affect fluoride concentrations in groundwater C) Sodium-bearing minerals dissolve at a faster rate than fluoride-bearing minerals D) Sodium in groundwater increases the rate at which fluoride-bearing minerals dissolve E) Soil that contains high concentrations of sodium-bearing minerals also contains high concentrations of fluoride-bearing minerals

Kira: It would be unwise for you to buy that insurance policy. It's designed to make money for the company that sells it to you. They set the prices to ensure profits. Binh: Undeniably, the insurer is in business to make money. But the mere fact that an insurer draws a profit in no way implies that buying one of its policies is unwise. Binh responds to Kira's argument by doing which one of the following? A) suggesting that Kira has overlooked a fact that, although consistent with her premises, is in direct conflict with her conclusion B) denying Kira's premises while suggesting that her conclusion, although possibly true, is highly unlikely C) arguing that Kira's premises are not only inadequate to prove her conclusion but in fact point strongly toward its being false D) conceding Kira's premises without denying her conclusion, while asserting that the latter does not follow from the former E) observing that while Kira's premises each independently support her conclusion, the premises themselves are inconsistent with one another

Ethicist: Robert Gillette has argued that because a thorough knowledge of genetics would enable us to cure the over 3,000 inherited disorders that affect humanity, deciphering the human genetic code will certainly benefit humanity despite its enormous cost. Gillette's argument is not persuasive, however, because he fails to consider that such knowledge might ultimately harm human beings more than it would benefit them. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the ethicist's argument? A) Gillette's argument wrongly assumes that deciphering the genetic code will lead to cures for genetic disorders B) Deciphering the genetic code might ultimately harm human beings more than benefit them C) Because of its possible negative consequences, genetic research should not be conducted D) Gillette's claim that a thorough knowledge of genetics would enable us to cure over 3,000 disorders is overstated E) Gillette's argument is unconvincing because it ignores certain possible consequences of genetic research

Scientists have long thought that omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil tend to lower blood cholesterol and strongly suspected that a diet that includes a modest amount of fish would provide substantial health benefits. Now these views have acquired strong support from a recent study showing that middle-aged people who eat fish twice a week are nearly 30 percent less likely to develop heart disease than are those who do not eat fish. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? A) The test subjects in the recent study who did not eat fish were not vegetarians. B) The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week did not have a diet that was otherwise conducive to the development of heart disease. C) The test subjects in the recent study who did not eat fish were significantly more likely to eat red meat several times per week than were those who did eat fish. D) The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week were not significantly more likely than those who did not engage regularly in activities known to augment cardiorespiratory health. E) The test subjects in the recent study who ate fish twice a week were no more likely than those who did not to have sedentary occupations.

Some of the politicians who strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico are now refusing to support publicly the idea that free trade should be extended to other Latin American countries. If the statement above is true, which one of the following must also be true? A) Some of the politicians who now publicly support extending free trade to other Latin American countries did not support free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico B) Not all politicians who now publicly support extending free trade to other Latin American countries strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico C) Some of the politicians who strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico have changed their position on free trade D) Not all politicians who strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico now publicly support extending free trade to other Latin American countries E) Some of the politicians who strongly supported free trade among Canada, the United States, and Mexico now publicly oppose extending free trade to other Latin American countries

Specially bred aquarium fish with brilliant coloration and unusual body shapes may be popular with connoisseurs, but they are inferior to ordinary fish. Hampered by their elaborate tails or strangely shaped fins, the specially bred fish cannot reach food as quickly as can the ordinary fish that compete with them for food, and so they are often underfed. Also, they do not breed true; most offspring of the specially bred fish lack the elaborate tails and brilliant coloration of their parents. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above? A) Specially bred aquarium fish must receive special care if they are to survive B) Connoisseurs are not interested in dull-colored, simply shaped fish C) Most specially bred aquarium fish are purchased by connoisseurs D) Ordinary fish tend not to have elaborate tails or strangely shaped fins E) Strangely shaped fins and elaborate tails interfere with a fish's ability to reproduce

A company is sending its four product managers - Fan, Gleeson, Haley, and Ibañez - to visit three cities - Manila, Sydney, and Tokyo. Each manager will visit at least one of the cities, and each city will be visited by exactly two of the managers. The managers will be assigned to visit the cities according to the following conditions: Ibañez must visit exactly two of the cities. Fran and Haley cannot visit the same city as each other. If Manila is visited by Gleeson, then Tokyo must be visited by Haley. Gleeson cannot visit Sydney. Which one of the following, if substituted for the condition that Fan and Haley cannot visit the same city as each other, would have the same effect in determining the assignment of managers to cities? A) Gleeson and Ibañez cannot visit the same city as each other. B) If Sydney is visited by Fan, then Tokyo must be visited by Haley. C) Tokyo must be visited by either Fan or Haley, but cannot be visited by both. D) Any city that Fan does not visit must be visited by Haley. E) Any city that Ibañez does not visit must be visited by Gleeson.

A concert organizer is planning the order in which exactly seven musicians - Lowe, Miller, Nadel, Otero, Parker, Sen, and Thomas - will perform. The musicians will perform consecutively, one at a time. The order of the performances is constrained by the following conditions: Lowe must perform earlier than Nadel. Miller must perform earlier than Thomas. There must be exactly one performance between the performances of Lowe and Otero, whether or not Lowe performs earlier than Otero. There must be exactly one performance between the performances of Miller and Parker, whether or not Miller performs earlier than Parker. Parker must perform either first or seventh. The order in which the musicians perform is completely determined if which one of the following is true? A) Lowe performs fourth. B) Miller performs fifth. C) Nadel performs fourth. D) Otero performs third. E) Sen performs first.

Columnist: It has been noted that attending a live musical performance is a richer experience than is listening to recorded music. Some say that this is merely because we do not see the performers when we listen to recorded music. However, there must be some other reason, for there is relatively little difference between listening to someone read a story over the radio and listening to someone in the same room read a story. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the role played in the argument by the observation that attending a live musical performance is a richer experience than is listening to recorded music? A) It is what the columnist's argument purports to show B) It is the reason given for the claim that the columnist's argument is attempting to undermine C) It is what the columnist's argument purports to explain D) It is what the columnist's argument purports to refute E) It is what the position that the columnist tries to undermine is purported to explain

Exactly five students - Grecia, Hakeem, Joe, and Katya, and Louise - are to work at a campus art gallery during a special exhibit that runs for exactly five days, Monday through Friday. Each day is divided into two nonoverlapping shifts - first and second - with each student working exactly two shifts. Each shift is worked by exactly one of the students according to the following scheduling restrictions: No student works both shifts of any day. On two consecutive days, Louise works the second shift. Katya works on Tuesday and Friday. Hakeem and Joe work on the same day as each other at least once. Grecia and Louise never work on the same day as each other. If there is at least one day on which Grecia and Joe both work at the gallery, then which one of the following could be true? A) Grecia works the first shift on Tuesday. B) Hakeem works the second shift on Monday. C) Hakeem works the second shift on Wednesday. D) Joe works the first shift on Wednesday. E) Joe works the first shift on Thursday.

For several centuries there have been hairless dogs in western Mexico and in coastal Peru. It is very unlikely that a trait as rare as hairlessness emerged on two separate occasions. Since the dogs have never existed in the wild, and the vast mountainous jungle separating these two regions would have made overland travel between them extremely difficult centuries ago, the dogs must have been transported from one of these regions to the other by boat, probably during trading expeditions. Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires? A) Hairless dogs have never been found anywhere except in the regions of western Mexico and coastal Peru. B) Most of the trade goods that came into western Mexico centuries ago were transported by boat. C) Centuries ago, no one would have traveled between western Mexico and coastal Peru by boat except for the purposes of carrying out a trading expedition D) If hairless dogs were at one time transported between western Mexico and coastal Peru by boat, they were traded in exchange for other goods. E) Centuries ago, it was easier to travel by boat between western Mexico and coastal Peru than to travel by an overland route.

One is likely to feel comfortable approaching a stranger if the stranger is of one's approximate age. Therefore, long-term friends are probably of the same approximate age as each other since most long-term friendships begin because someone felt comfortable approaching a stranger. The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it A) Presumes, without warrant, that one is likely to feel uncomfortable approaching a person only if that person is a stranger B) Infers that a characteristic is present in a situation from the fact that that characteristic is present in most similar situations C) Overlooks the possibility that one is less likely to feel comfortable approaching someone who is one's approximate age if that person is a stranger than if that person is not a stranger D) Presumes, without warrant, that on never approaches a stranger unless one feels comfortable doing so E) Fails to address whether one is likely to feel comfortable approaching a stranger who is not one's approximate age

Problem: If Shayna congratulates Daniel on his award, she will misrepresent her true feelings. However, if Shayna does not congratulate Daniel, she will hurt his feelings. Principle: One should never be insincere about one's feelings, except possibly where on believes that the person with whom one is speaking would prefer kindness to honesty The principle, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in which one of the following arguments concerning the problem? A) If Shayna congratulates Daniel, she will avoid hurting his feelings, so she should congratulate him B) Daniel might prefer for Shayna to congratulate him - even if insincerely - rather than for her to express her true feelings, and so Shayna would be doing nothing wrong in insincerely congratulating Daniel C) Shayna believes that kindness should be preferred to dishonesty when speaking to others, so she should not tell Daniel her true feelings D) Daniel's feelings would be hurt if he knew that congratulations from Shayna were insincere, so Shayna should not congratulate him E) Shayna has no opinion about whether Daniel would prefer kindness to honesty, so she should not congratulate him

Professor: The number of new university students who enter as chemistry majors has not changed in the last ten years, and job prospects for graduates with chemistry degrees are better than ever. Despite this, there has been a significant decline over the past decade in the number of people earning chemistry degrees. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the decline? A) Many students enter universities without academic background that is necessary for majoring in chemistry B) There has been a significant decline in the number of undergraduate degrees earned in the natural sciences as a whole C) Many students are very unsure of their choice when they pick a major upon entering universities D) Job prospects for graduates with chemistry degrees are no better than prospects for graduates with certain other science degrees E) Over the years, first-year chemistry has come to be taught in a more routinely methodical fashion, which dampens its intellectual appeal

Roberta is irritable only when she is tired, and loses things only when she is tired. Since she has been yawning all day, and has just lost her keys, she is almost certainly irritable. The reasoning above is flawed in that it A) Infers from a correlation between tiredness and yawning that tiredness causes yawning B) Assumes the conclusion that it sets out to prove C) Generalizes on the basis of a single instance D) Takes a necessary condition for Roberta's losing things to be a sufficient condition E) Takes a necessary condition for Roberta's being irritable to be a sufficient condition

Satellite navigation systems (satnavs) for cars, in which computer voices announce directions as you drive, save fuel and promote safety. Studies show that, when assigned to novel destinations, drivers using satnavs took, on average, 7 percent fewer miles per journey than drivers using paper maps. Fewer miles driven means, on average, less fuel consumed. Also, the drivers who used satnavs drove more carefully in that they were not taking their eyes off the road to check paper maps. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? A) People who are often required to drive to novel destinations are more likely to use satnavs than people who are rarely required to drive to novel destinations. B) The more fuel a vehicle consumes, them ore motivation a driver has to find the shortest route to his or her destination. C) Drivers who do not routinely need to drive to an unfamiliar location are more likely to plan out their route carefully prior to departure. D) Drivers who own satnavs usually prefer to drive to their accustomed destinations by using their customary routes rather than by following the directions given by the satnavs. E) Drivers who are given directions as needed are less likely to change course suddenly or make other risky maneuvers.

Sometimes one reads a poem and believes that the poem expresses contradictory ideas, even if it is a great poem. So it is wrong to think that the meaning of a poem is whatever the author intends to communicate to the reader by means of the poem. No one who is writing a great poem intends to communicated contradictory ideas. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? A) Different readers will usually disagree about what the author of a particular poem intends to communicate by means of that poem B) If someone writes a great poem, he or she intends the poem to express one primary idea C) Readers will not agree about the meaning of a poem if they do not agree about what the author of the poem intended the poem to mean D) Anyone reading a great poem can discern every idea that the author intended to express in the poem E) If a reader believes that a poem expresses a particular idea, then that idea is part of the meaning of the poem

The advent of chemical fertilizers led the farmers in a certain region to abandon the practice of periodically growing a "green-manure" crop, such as alfalfa, in a field to rejuvenate its soil. As a result, the soil structure in a typical farm field in the region is poor. So to significantly improve the soil structure, farmers will need to abandon the use of the chemical fertilizers. The argument relies on the assumption that A) Most, if not all, farmers in the region who abandon the use of chemical fertilizers will periodically grow alfalfa B) Applying chemical fertilizers to green-manure crops, such as alfalfa, has no positive effect on their growth C) The most important factor influencing the soil quality of a farm field is soil structure D) Chemical fertilizers themselves have a destructive effect on the soil structure of farm fields E) Many, if not all, farmers in the region will not grow green-manure crops unless they abandon the use of chemical fertilizers

The members of a five-person committee will be selected from among three parents - F, G, and H - three students - K, L, and M - and four teachers - U, W, X, and Z. The selection of committee members will meet the following conditions: The committee must include exactly one student. F and H cannot both be selected. M and Z cannot both be selected. U and W cannot both be selected. F cannot be selected unless Z is also selected. W cannot be selected unless H is also selected. If the committee is to include exactly one parent, which one of the following is a person who must also be selected? A) K B) L C) M D) U E) X

Winston: The rules for awarding Nobel Prizes stipulate that no more than three people can share the same prize. Nobel Prizes in scientific disciplines are generally given in recognition of particular scientific results, however, and many important results are the work of four or more scientists. Sanjay: Those rules also stipulate that prize winners must be living, but some highly influential scientists died before their work was fully appreciated. The dialogue most strongly supports the claim that Winston and Sanjay agree that A) The rules that govern the awarding of Nobel Prizes should be changed so that prizes can be awarded to deceased persons B) The rules that govern the awarding of Nobel Prizes in scientific disciplines should be different from the rules for other Nobel Prizes C) Nobel Prizes in scientific disciplines should not be given in recognition of particular scientific results D) The evaluation of individual achievement in science is a highly subjective matter E) Nobel Prizes are inaccurate indicators of scientists' contributions to their disciplines

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