Module 3- AAAE CM Body of Knowledge Airport Ops, Security and Maintenance

scheduled large unscheduled large scheduled I, II, III, IV

1. Class I: Serves all types of scheduled operations of air carrier aircraft designed for at least 31 passenger seats (large air carrier aircraft) and any other type of air carrier operations, and must comply with all Part 139 requirements. 2. Class II: Serves scheduled operations of small air carrier aircraft and unscheduled operations of large air carrier aircraft. Class II airports are not permitted to serve scheduled large air carrier operations. 3. Class III: Serves only scheduled operations of small air carrier aircraft. 4. Class IV: Serves only unscheduled operations of large air carrier aircraft.

A successful safety self-inspection program has four key components:

1. Regularly Scheduled Inspection: The airport should be inspected daily during times when aircraft activity is minimal to create the least impact on airport operations. Part of this inspection should be done during the hours of darkness at those airports that serve air carriers after dark. Inspectors should have a checklist of Part 139 inspection items for their airfield, an airport layout map, and a VHF radio; the inspectors should also have received training on how to drive in the movement areas. Inspectors must conduct at least one inspection before the beginning of air carrier flight operations during the day and at least one at night if night air carrier operations are to be conducted. 2. Continuous Surveillance Inspection: Certain airport activities such as fueling operations, construction, pedestrian and ground vehicles, snow and ice, public protection, wildlife activities, and foreign object debris (FOD), require continuous surveillance and should be inspected any time inspection personnel are in the air operations area. 3. Periodic Condition Inspection: While some hazardous airport conditions develop instantaneously, others develop gradually. Periodic condition inspection of activities and facilities should be conducted on a regularly scheduled basis. The time interval could be weekly, monthly, or quarterly, depending on the activity or facility. Periodic condition evaluation can include surveying pavement for rubber buildup; checking approach slopes and surrounding areas for obstructions such as tree growth; surveying for faded signs, lighting, or markings; overseeing fueling facilities and mobile fuelers; checking navigational aids, response times for ARFF equipment, and other activities and facilities as needed. 4. Special Inspection: Special inspections of activities and facilities should be conducted after receipt of a complaint or when an unusual condition or event, such as a significant meteorological event (rain or thunderstorm) or an aircraft accident or incident, occurs on the airport. Special inspections should also be conducted at the end of construction activity to ensure that no unsafe conditions remain. A special inspection should also be conducted prior to construction personnel leaving the airport in the event that corrective actions are necessary. Safety areas should be inspected to ensure storm water drainage is adequate after a thunderstorm. Pavement should be inspected during snow and ice conditions, and after snow removal, to provide updates on airfield conditions. Special inspections should be documented on the appropriate portions of the regularly scheduled inspection checklist.

demarcation bar

A demarcation bar distinguishes a displaced threshold from a stopway, blast pad, or taxiway that precedes the runway. The bar is three-feet wide and painted yellow. Leading up to the demarcation bar are a series of yellow chevrons indicating an unusable area for landing, takeoff, or taxiing

PAPI VASI PVASI or PLASI

A less costly and more simplified lighting system than the VASI can be found at several airports, and the FAA is phasing out VASIs. Known as a Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI), it has either two or four lights with split red and white lenses. They are installed in a row perpendicular to the runway, and each light has a slightly different angle. A pilot seeing all white is above the glideslope. An all red indication would have the aircraft below the glideslope. A pilot is on the glideslope when two red and two white lights are visible. A third type of approach guidance system, often used for heliports, is the Pulsed-Light Visual Approach Slope Indicator (PVASI or PLASI). PVASIs consist of a bright light that emits a flashing strobe if an aircraft is above or below the glide path, and a steady white light if the aircraft is on the path. If the aircraft is above or below the glideslope, the light pulsates either white or red, respectively. PVASIs are not an acceptable visual guidance system for air carrier operations because the pulsed light effect is too similar to that of a white strobe light, and a pilot can easily confuse it with other airport lights

TRCV

A modification of the PVASI is the tri-color visual approach slope indicator (TRCV) that emits a steady light from a single source. The pilot sees red when the approach is below the glideslope angle and green when on the correct angle

non precisions vs precision runway

A non-precision instrument runway will include threshold and aiming point markers; markings for a precision instrument runway include all of the previous markings plus touchdown zone stripes and runway side stripes

Accident prevention

Accident prevention involves identifying hazards and either eliminating them specifically or eliminating the chain of events leading to the hazard. Prevention efforts create safeguard defenses to reduce the possibility of the chain being completed. Accident investigations often reveal how one action led to other actions, which ultimately thwarted any safeguards in place. Each action, cause, and factor is a link in a chain of events that led to the accident. If one of the links is broken, the chain of events would not be complete, and the accident would likely not happen. Three things help prevent links in the chain of events from forming: (1) proper design of a component or system, (2) safeguards and (3) employees making correct safety decisions and actions.

Pavement Condition Index (PCI)

An industry standard for qualifying airfield pavements. rating scale from failed to excellent

Pavement Friction Measurement: Decelerometers

Decelerometers are either mechanical or electrical and are used to assess friction properties of runways. The FAA recommends using electrical decelerometers over mechanical and also recommends that airports with mechanical decelerometers upgrade to electrical as soon as possible. Mechanical decelerometers can still be used as a backup when necessary. The Bowmonk and the Tapley are examples of commonly used decelerometers at airports. They are placed or mounted inside the inspection vehicle, and the driver conducts a series of stop/starts in an airport vehicle, noting the various readings from nine different locations on the runway (first third, second third, and third third in terms of distance). Electronic decelerometers eliminate potential human error by automatically computing and recording friction averages for each one-third zone of the runway. It takes longer to conduct a friction assessment using a mechanical decelerometer (which is also less accurate) than an electronic decelerometer. Decelerometers are recommended over CFME only when the airport's operational characteristics are such that a complete, end-to-end friction survey cannot be completed due to inability to shut down an entire, long runway, during flight operations (FAA, 2016, p. 1-7). Assessing the friction properties of pavement is a difficult issue for airport operators, but it is of utmost importance to airport users. Pilot braking actions reports are the source of braking action information for most pilots. The inherent problem with these reports is they can vary significantly depending on the pilots' overall experience, the type of aircraft being operated, and where on the runway the aircraft landed. However, assessments based solely on the values generated by friction measuring equipment do not provide a consistent and usable correlation between friction measurements and aircraft braking performance. Using a truck or auto to estimate aircraft braking action is also highly subjective. Many prior methods of determining the slipperiness of a runway have been inadequate or have failed to prevent runway excursion incidents. As a result, runway excursions are the leading cause of aviation accidents worldwide (FAA, 2016, p. 5-1).

exemptions

Exemptions provide relief to an airport operator for a particular requirement of Part 139. In certain cases, the economic impact of compliance, however, may be too costly, burdensome, or impractical for smaller communities. In these cases, the FAA may grant exemptions when issuing the Airport Operating Certificate. An exemption is a legal document granting an airport relief from a regulatory requirement of Part 139. A request by an airport manager for an exemption to any requirement of Part 139 becomes a rule-making action (NPRM) and necessitates a review by the FAA legal staff. An exemption issued to an airport effectively changes the manner in which an airport complies with its AOC; as such, few exemptions are granted. An exemption to the ARFF requirements is allowed in the regulations for airports enplaning less than one-quarter of one percent of the total U.S. enplanements over the course of a year. The FAA is allowed to approve alternative ARFF safety compliance measures for Class III airports, provided comparable safety levels are maintained.

Airport Lighting

High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL), or Low Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL) pilot-controlled lighting

ASR (Alkali-Silica Reaction)

In certain areas of the country, alkali levels are extraordinarily high, resulting in a circumstance known as an Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR), which is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the alkaline cement pore solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (e.g., chert, quartzite, opal, strained quartz crystals). A gel is produced, which increases in volume by taking up water, thereby exerting an expansive pressure and resulting in failure of the concrete. In unrestrained concrete (concrete without any reinforcement), ASR causes characteristic "map cracking" or "Isle of Man cracking." ASR may be further accelerated through the use of certain aircraft and runway de-icing materials (e.g., Potassium Acetate, Sodium Acetate, and Sodium Formate).

SF- sequence flashing

Sequence Flashing (SF) lights is a series of five lights that extend past the 1,000-foot mark of the approach lights. Flashing in sequence and in one direction in order to help guide the pilot's eyes towards the runway, they are commonly referred to as "the rabbit" because they lead the aircraft towards the landing runway, just as a rabbit leads race dogs around a track

RwyCC- Runway Condition Codes

The airport operator will assess surfaces, report contaminants present, and determine the numerical Runway Condition Codes (RwyCC) based on the RCAM. The RwyCCs may vary for each third of the runway if different contaminants are present. However, the same RwyCC may be applied when a uniform coverage of contaminants exists. RwyCCs will replace Mu numbers, which will no longer be published in the FAA's NOTAM system (FAAe, 2016). Pilots can enter the reported information into their flight computers in a standard format to be able to conduct pre-landing and pre-departure assessments.

Airport Certification Manual (ACM)

The primary role of airport management is to operate the airport in a safe and efficient manner, and in accordance with industry standards and procedures. This goal is accomplished through proper safety oversight, which includes methods and activities that airport management can employ to ensure effective, safety-related standards and procedures contained in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) and the Airport Certification Manual (ACM). It also includes American Association of Airport Executives Certified Member Body of Knowledge, 2017 Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance Page 8 of 121 other general industry requirements such as best practices, National Fire Protective Association (NFPA) where appropriate, Advisory Circulars, and other requirements. Safety oversight ensures that an airport meets or exceeds national industry standards. The application of a systematic, proactive, and well-defined safety program allows an organization to strike a realistic and efficient balance between safety and productivity

"Safety is everybody's business"

The responsibility for safety (and thus accident prevention) in any organization ultimately rests with airport management. The slogan "Safety is everybody's business" means that each person must be aware of the consequences of his or her decisions, including safe and risky behaviors. However, while all personnel should be aware of safety concerns, ensuring a safe operating environment is the responsibility of airport management. Management is responsible for fostering a motivation and culture that prioritizes safety, so that each employee develops a consistent awareness of safety. To facilitate this awareness, management must provide the proper work environment, appropriate training and supervision, and well-maintained facilities and equipment. A safety conscious organization actively utilizes: (1) a set of standards; (2) investigations and resolution of incidents or hazards; (3) an internal reporting system; and (4) individuals trained to recognize unsafe conditions.

touchdown zone markings

Touchdown zone markings used for landing operations are spaced at 500-foot intervals and provide distance information according to the number of rectangular bars

Vehicle roadway

markings are intended to reduce the risk of an aircraft and vehicle accident on the AMA. Driving lanes are similar to those on highways (solid, white boundary lines with a white broken centerline). An alternative (required for SMGCS) is to use white "zippered" markings. Outside of the AMA, markings should conform to those in the Department of Transportation's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. For painting pavement markings, there are two options for paint: water-based (latex) or oilbased. Similar to the application of pavement sealers, pavement paint has less friction than the asphalt or concrete it covers. The addition of silica sand or glass bead can provide added texture to improve the friction properties of the painted surface. Glass beads, which reflect light, are required to be added to the paint to make the markings more conspicuous

Approach Lighting Systems (ALS) Approach lighting systems are designed to facilitate the pilot's transition from instrument flying to visual identification of the landing runway. Depending on the system installed, the ALS generally consists of five components:

sequence flashing lights, approach lights, crossbar lights, runway end identifier lights (REIL), and visual approach slope indicator (VASI) or precision approach path indicators (PAPI)

Runway Condition Assessment Matrix (RCAM) to use in runway condition reporting. Based on the Takeoff and Landing Performance Assessment (TALPA)

working group, the new method is believed to be a more comprehensive and standardized method of assessing and reporting surface conditions (FAA, 2016, p. 5-1). TALPA improves the way the aviation community assesses runway conditions, based on contaminant type and depth, which provides an aircraft operator with the correct information to anticipate airplane braking performance. The key tool in TALPA is the RCAM. Airport operators use the RCAM to categorize runway conditions, while pilots use it to interpret reported runway conditions. The RCAM is presented in a standardized format, based on airplane performance data supplied by airplane manufacturers, for each of the stated contaminant types and depths. The RCAM replaces subjective judgments of runway conditions with objective assessments tied directly to contaminant type and depth categories. RCAM enables the industry to tie runway contaminant types and depths to aircraft performance and have it be a functional tool for both aircraft operators and the airport operators.

Safety area inspection is considered a regular inspection item. Other items to watch for during a safety area inspection include:

1. Checking the storm sewer system to verify that inlets are not clogged and drainage channels are free of debris. Noting any standing water. Ensuring all inlet covers are in place and sewer covers are at grade level. 2. Conducting a special inspection before reopening a runway or taxiway following any construction or maintenance that has been performed in or around that safety area. 3. Checking any time an aircraft has left the pavement and entered a safety area. Check to ensure that no ruts or holes have been made by the aircraft tires or by personnel and equipment during the recovery operation. 4. Checking for construction and maintenance activities to ensure that no hazardous conditions have been created (equipment left in safety areas, unacceptable pavement lips created by ground alteration work, ruts from mowing equipment, etc.). 5. Inspecting engineered materials arresting system (EMAS), if installed, for damage or deterioration. 6. Driving or walking the safety areas to check for any discrepancies.

ACN-PCN (Aircraft Classification Number / Pavement Classification Number)

Acceptable aircraft weights are identified in the runway data table on the airport layout plan. The ACN-PCN (Aircraft Classification Number / Pavement Classification Number) system of classification provides a standardized international airplane/pavement rating system, replacing the various S (single), D (dual), T (tandem), DT (dual tandem), LCN (load classification number), and other rating systems used throughout the world. The PCN reports the relative bearing strength of an airport pavement, and the ACN expresses the relative effect of an airplane on the pavement. The ACN-PCN system only applies to pavements with bearing strengths of 12,500 pounds or higher. For pavements with lower bearing strengths, an older system using letters still applies in the United States. An aircraft having an ACN equal to or less than the PCN can operate without restriction on the pavement. Therefore, the PCN is the maximum pavement bearing strength for unrestricted aircraft operations.

aiming points

Aiming points are required on runways with visual approaches that are 4,200 feet or longer, serving approach categories C and D airplanes, and on runways that are 4,200 feet or longer on instrumented runways. Aiming points are located 1,000 feet past the approach end of the runway where a jet aircraft on a normal glide path will touch down.

Training and Record-Keeping: Part 139 requires airports to keep and maintain records on a number of training, inspection, condition, and incident and accident data

Airfield inspection records, NOTAMs, fueling inspections, and accident or incident reports are to be kept for at least 12 CCM. Records of training for personnel who are allowed to operate in the movement area and individuals trained as inspectors under the self-inspection program are required to be kept for 24 CCM. State or local record-keeping retention requirements may be longer. The term CCM, means to the end of the month - therefore, a record created on September 10th, 2015 that must be retained for 12 CCM, must be retained until September 30th, 2016. Certain software programs such as AAAE's Interactive Employee Training (IET) learning management system provide record-keeping functions

Snow and Ice Control Plan (SICP)

Airport Executives have a duty to ensure the safety of their facility operations. Part 139 requires a SICP that is current and complete to meet local conditions. Snow, ice, slush, and standing water degrade the coefficient of friction, reduce braking and directional control, and impede aircraft acceleration. Acceptable limits vary by aircraft, but some jet aircraft flight manuals limit their particular aircraft to landing with no more than one inch of slush or standing water on the runway, and to taking off with no more than one half inch accumulation. Airport operators are required to expeditiously remove snow, ice, and slush, so as to maintain runways, high-speed turnoffs, and taxiways in a "no worse than wet" condition. Although snow is an important and serious problem in airport maintenance operations, ice is the most difficult problem to cope with and presents the greatest hazard to aircraft operations. Airport operators are required to issue a NOTAM whenever contaminants exist on the runway. The Snow and Ice Control Plan (SICP) is part of the Airport Certification Manual and includes at least two separate phases. Phase #1 addresses pre and post-winter subjects that prepare the airport operator for the new winter season. This phase may include revising the existing SICP after the winter season ends. Phase #2 addresses the instruction and procedures that should be taken by the airport operator when dealing with winter storms and notifying airport users in a timely manner when less than satisfactory conditions exist. Elements in the plan include: preseason preparation, snow committee composition, snow control center (snow "desk") location, equipment, personnel training, weather reports, field condition reports, clearance criteria, clearance priorities, supervision, and communications. A snow plan needs to be flexible enough to allow snow and ice removal operations to change with weather and operational conditions. The SICP required in an ACM includes instructions and procedures for the following: 1. The prompt removal or control of snow, ice, and slush on each Airport Movement Area (AMA); 2. The positioning of snow off of AMA surfaces so that all air carrier aircraft propellers, engine pods, rotors, and wingtips will clear any snowdrift or snow bank; 3. The selection and application of approved materials for snow and ice control; 4. The timely commencement of snow and ice control operations; and 5. The prompt notification to all air carriers using the airport when there is less than a satisfactorily cleared AMA for the safe operation of aircraft—while the NOTAM process technically fulfills this requirement, faster methods may be desirable such as a briefing phone or ring-down line to the air carriers.

Airfield Clearing Priorities for the SICP: NAVAIDs, Priority 1, Priority 2

Airport operators cannot simultaneously clear all snow, slush, ice, or drifting snow from both the entire aircraft movement area and all supporting facilities necessary for flight. The airport operator can, however, limit interruption of service as much as possible by classifying the most critical portions of the aircraft movement area and supporting facilities as Priority 1. For such a system to work, the SICP should identify, at a minimum, two priority categories based on the airport's safety requirements, flight operations, visual navigation aids (VISAIDs) and Navigational Aids (NAVAIDs), and other factors deemed important by the airport operator. Priority 1: Primary runway(s) with taxiway turnoffs, access taxiways leading to the terminal, terminal(s) and cargo ramp(s), airport rescue and firefighting (ARFF) station(s) and emergency service roads, NAVAIDs, and other areas deemed essential, such as fueling areas and airport security/surveillance roads. Priority 2: Crosswind/secondary runways and their supportive taxiways, remaining aircraft movement areas, commercial ramp areas, access roads to secondary facilities, and airfield facilities not essential to flight operations or not used on a daily basis. Note: The clearing of snow from the terminal and landside infrastructure is a separate category generally not contained in the SICP because the objective of this clearing operation is public access, not airplane operational safety. Moreover, different chemicals, clearing equipment, techniques, and the possible use of municipal or service contractors, might be standard for such operations.

CCM- consecutive calendar months

Airports certificated under Part 139 must retain the regularly scheduled inspection checklist for 12 consecutive calendar months (CCM). A consecutive calendar month goes to the end of the month, so if a record was generated on September 10, 2016, and it must be kept for 12 CCM, the record must be kept until September 30, 2017. Airport personnel who conduct safety self-inspections (referred to as inspectors) should receive training in at least the following areas: 1. Airport familiarization; 2. The Airport Emergency Plan; 3. NOTAM procedures; 4. Procedures for handling pedestrians and ground vehicles in the movement area; 5. Airport inspection procedures, techniques, and discrepancy reporting procedures; and 6. Knowledge and use of correct radio communication phraseology, procedures, and techniques, as specified in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Further, inspectors should review previous self-inspection checklists to watch for continuing issues. If construction is in progress, inspectors should be familiar with the construction safety plan for each project.

NOTAMs

An effective safety self-inspection program includes procedures for reporting and correcting deficiencies. It is important to use a safety self-inspection checklist because it constitutes as a written record of conditions noted and acts as a check on follow-up actions taken. The airport operator should have a work order system in place so that deficiencies can be corrected in an expeditious manner. The operator should issue a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM), to report deficient conditions that could have an immediate and critical impact on the safety of aircraft operations.

self inspection

An effective self- American Association of Airport Executives Certified Member Body of Knowledge, 2017 Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance Page 18 of 121 inspection program enables an airport operator to conduct uninterrupted day-to-day airport operations in compliance with Part 139 standards. Primary attention in a self-inspection is given to operational items such as: • Pavement areas • Safety areas • Signs, markings, and lighting • Aircraft rescue and firefighting • Fueling operations • Navigational aids • Ground vehicles • Obstructions • Public protection • Wildlife hazard management • Construction • Snow and ice control Inspection of areas that have been assigned to individual air carriers, FBOs, or other tenants that are Part of the 139 certificated areas, can be assigned as the responsibility of the user, but airport management is required to retain overall supervision and responsibility for the inspection.

APAP

An even simpler visual approach slope indicator is made of three panels. Found at some GA airports, they are called Approach Path Alignment Panels (APAP). The panels are placed adjacent to the touchdown point of a runway with the middle panel raised and staggered from the two on the ends. From the air, a pilot on glideslope will see the panels aligned evenly across. Any deviation from the glide path and the stagger becomes evident

AFD

Any changes to the lighting systems of a public-use airport, including pilot-controlled lighting, require revision in the Airport Facilities/Directory (A/FD). In-pavement lights help to distinguish the hold-position line on Category II and III ILS runways (explained later). For airports required to have a SMGCS, the stop-bar lights are red

Pavement Type and Design The airport's paved surfaces are included in a self-inspection program. Pavement falls within two general categories: flexible or rigid. The two types of pavement, asphalt and concrete, have different characteristics

Asphalt can be laid without expansion joints and is generally less expensive and faster than concrete to install, but it requires higher maintenance. Since asphalt is primarily a petroleum product, it is susceptible to oxidation from the sun's ultraviolet rays and the solvent action of fuel or oil. Asphalt-type pavement does not necessarily wear out, but it ages through the oxidation of the asphalt binder and by water loosening the fine surface aggregates. Flexible pavements, such as asphalt, tend to compress under loads, while rigid pavement resists such compressibility. Grass, dirt, and gravel can also be surfaces for landing purposes and are considered flexible landing surfaces. These types of surfaces for air carrier aircraft are usually only found in Alaska or other remote areas in the U.S. Concrete, a rigid form of pavement, is poured into distinctive slabs that require seams or joints to allow for expansion and contraction, thus contributing to its higher cost. The advantage of concrete, however, is that it can withstand much higher aircraft loads than an equivalent thickness of asphalt. It also resists weathering and oil or fuel spillage.

asphalt

Asphalt-related deterioration includes: • Cracking (longitudinal, transverse, alligator, etc.); longitudinal cracking is more severe than transverse due to the propensity of an aircraft tire to get stuck in the crack. • Disintegration (raveling, potholes, etc.) • Distortion (ruts, depressions, swelling) • Loss of skid resistance (polished aggregate, contaminants, fuel/oil spillage)

5 types of NOTAMs- including FICON

CIVIL NOTAMS: Any NOTAM that is part of the civil NOTAM system, which includes any NOTAM that is not part of the military NOTAM system, (FAA, 2015); • FDC NOTAMS: Flight Data Center NOTAMS are NOTAMs that are regulatory in nature, such as changes to an instrument approach procedure or airway and changes that affect the air traffic control system and address flight information that is regulatory in nature, including, but not limited to: changes to IFR charts, procedures, and airspace usage, temporary flight restrictions, flight restrictions in the proximity of the United States President and other parties, snow conditions affecting glide slope operation, air defense emergencies, charting corrections, and laser display activity. Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) are also issued as FDC NOTAMs (FAA, 2015). FDC NOTAMs TFR is issued by FDC and places airspace restrictions over a particular area, for a particular event, such as a Presidential visit or a major sporting event. One of the most famous FDC NOTAMs was issued on September 11, 2001, which called all flight operations to cease in the U.S. • MILITARY NOTAMS: A Military NOTAM pertains to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy navigational aids, and/or airports that are part of the National Airspace System. • CENTER AREA NOTAMS: An FDC NOTAM is issued for a condition that is not limited to one airport; therefore, it is filed under the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC), which controls the airspace involved. TFRs, airway changes and laser light activity are examples of this type of NOTAM (FAA, 2015); • NOTAM (D): A NOTAM (D) is issued locally and/or beyond the area of responsibility of the Flight Service Station. This type of NOTAM now includes (U) NOTAMs and (O) NOTAMs. (U) NOTAMs are unverified NOTAMs which are those that are received from a source other than airport management and have not yet been confirmed by management personnel. This type is only allowed at those airports where airport management has authorized it by Letter of Agreement. (O) NOTAMs are other aeronautical information, which does not meet NOTAM criteria but may be beneficial to aircraft operations (FAA, 2015). o FICON is a keyword for a Field Condition NOTAM, and is considered somewhat of a subset of a NOTAM (D), as it is issued by the airport operator. FICON NOTAMs are used specifically to report on airfield conditions. Specific to snow or icing conditions, a FICON NOTAM should include information on the type of contaminant (wet snow, dry snow, slush) and the depth of the contaminant (whether full or partial coverage); snow banks exceeding height standards; pavement temperature (if available); type of device used to measure and friction measurement readings; braking action reports; chemical or abrasive treatments; runway closure times, and obstruction of lights or markings. o Other (D) NOTAMs may address restrictions or operating limitations of Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting (ARFF) equipment, and outages of various airport lighting and navigation aids, especially obstruction lighting outages. However, the NOTAM system is not intended to be used to impose restrictions on airport access for the purpose of controlling or managing noise or to create unjustly discriminatory practices (such as denying certain types of flight operations for reasons other than airport safety, with the support of an FAA airspace study, or to advertise data already published or charted). Because NOTAMs may not always be a complete solution for providing adequate notification, an internal communications system (such as a telephone, computer, facsimile, or handcarried written system) that directly notifies air carrier offices and airport tenants can be more timely and efficient. These alternative methods are permitted under Section 139.339, provided the procedures are identified and approved in the airport's ACM. At certain airports, NOTAM issuance may occur through the FAA air traffic control tower. If ATCT personnel are unable to contact airport management about an unsafe condition at the airport, they can issue a NOTAM publicizing the unsafe condition, but the controller must inform airport management as soon as possible. For this reason, Airport Operations personnel should routinely check the NOTAMs in effect at their airport. Airport management is, however, responsible for condition reporting and, in these cases, a Letter of Agreement should be entered into that outlines the responsibilities for the NOTAM issuance and dissemination. NOTAMs cover a variety of topic areas that fall under one of the following: movement areas, lighting aids, air navigation aids, communications, services, special data, and Flight Data Center NOTAMs. Airport management is responsible for the prompt distribution of information about any condition on or near the airport that would prevent, restrict, or otherwise present a hazard to arriving and departing aircraft. When issued, a NOTAM will include the following information: 1. Identification of the affected airport facility and component; 2. Description of the affected component condition that prompted the NOTAM; 3. The period of time the component will be affected; 4. The name, address, and phone number of the person issuing the NOTAM; 5. Who will be receiving copies of the NOTAM. Airports certificated under FAR Part 139 must describe NOTAM issuance procedures (including a list of personnel authorized to issue NOTAMs for the airport) and required documentation in the ACM. A NOTAM log is required so that a manager can quickly access the NOTAMs that are in effect and those that are not. FAA Air Traffic Organization Policy JO 7930.2P addresses the proper NOTAM formats and terms. An (FDC) NOTAM is disseminated by the NFDC. Most airports use a software program called the NOTAM Manager, which provides a tie in to the FAA's digital NOTAM system, to issue Notices to Airman. Once approved by a Flight Service Specialist NOTAMs are posted electronically in seconds.

concrete

Concrete-related deterioration includes: • Cracking (longitudinal, transverse, shrinkage, shattered slab) Disintegration (scaling, map cracking, crazing [i.e. hairline cracks throughout the upper surface of the pavement], Alkali-Silica Reaction [ASR] see below, and Spalling [slab breakdown]) • Distortion (pumping, settlement, and shoving—produced by an unstable concrete mix) • Loss of Skid Resistance (polished aggregate, contaminants, fuel/oil spillage)

deviations

Deviations occur when an airport must violate a component of Part 139 due to emergency conditions. On occasion, an airport operator is faced with a situation that may result in a deviation from the regulations. Whether or not the deviation results in a violation depends upon the circumstances. Under Part 139, a deviation requires a manager to inform the FAA within 14 days of the occurrence. Deviations are allowed for circumstances that primarily result from an aircraft emergency, such as allowing an air carrier to use a runway that does not meet the safety requirements of the ACM. However, allowing air carrier operations when firefighting equipment is off-airport (e.g. during training exercises or other planned or foreseeable event) is a not considered a "deviation," but rather is a possible violation of Part 139. Violations result in FAA administrative action, civil penalty, or the suspension/revocation of an AOC. The FAA Airport Certification Branch inspects all Part 139 airports annually; however, FAR Part 139 authorizes the FAA to inspect at any time.

specific lighting required for CAT I, CATII, and CATIII

Different types of approach lighting systems exist, depending on the needs and requirements of the airport, its users, and the FAA. ALSF-1 or ALSF-2 installations (an approach light system [ALS] with Sequence Flashers) are used on precision approach runways with ALSF-2 required for Category II and III approaches (see Figure 3). A more economical Short Simplified Approach Lighting System (SSALS) can exist for Category I approaches. SSALF are simplified short-approach light systems with SFs. SSLARs are simplified short-approach light systems with RAILs. If modified to have RAIL installed, they become an SSALR. Exact specifications for ALS are beyond the scope of the module and are provided here only as general reference. American Association of Airport Executives Certified Member Body of Knowledge, 2017 Module 3: Airport Operations, Security and Maintenance Page 32 of 121 Further maintenance and cost reductions are achieved through installation of a Medium Intensity Approach Light System with RAIL (MALSF), which is 1,400 feet in length with SFs. RAILs are Runway Alignment Indicator Lights, which are SFs installed in combination with other light systems

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)

Investigations conducted by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) show that an accident is seldom due to any single event, but rather a series of events that lead to the end result. When each factor is viewed individually, it may appear insignificant. If each minor incident is viewed in combination with other factors, it can complete a sequence of events that result in an accident. This combination and sequence of factors is called the "chain of events."

limitations

Limitations typically identify unusual operational characteristics such as when air carrier operations are limited to specific runways or load bearing weights due to pavement strength. Limitations are not frequently encountered or imposed upon airports that have an Airport Operating Certificate.

Signs: Mandatory Location Directional Destination Special Information Sign

Mandatory signs have white inscriptions on a red background and require an individual at a controlled airport to obtain clearance before proceeding or, at an uncontrolled airport, to continue only with appropriate precautions. Mandatory signs are only used in conjunction with runways with the exception of the "No Entry" sign. Location signs identify the taxiway or runway upon which the aircraft or vehicle is located. These signs have yellow inscriptions on a black background. A different type of location sign has black inscriptions on a yellow background; these signs identify the boundaries of the Runway Safety Area (RSA), Obstacle Free Zone (OFZ), and ILS critical areas. The RSA, OFZ, and ILS signs are installed only at airports with operating control towers and where pilots or vehicles are often asked to report that they are clear of a runway or critical area. • Directional signs provide information on the location and orientation of other taxiways for the pilot or ground operator. These signs always contain an arrow. Black inscriptions on a yellow background identify taxiways leaving a runway or the direction of taxi routes. • Destination signs are similar to direction signs except that they point toward a general location on the airport rather than a specific route. Sample destination signs are: APRON, FUEL, TERM (terminal area), CIVIL (aircraft area), MIL (military area), PAX (passenger handling), CARGO, INTL (international area), and FBO (fixed base operator). • Special informational signs such as noise abatement procedures are black inscriptions on a yellow background. On runways, distance-remaining signs are placed along the runway at intervals of 1,000 feet. Generally located outside of the runway safety area, the signs have single white numbers on a black background. Where signs cannot be installed and/or where there is a need for additional information, directional guidance or location indicators can be painted on the pavement.

Airport Operating Certificate

Much like a pilot, who has demonstrated they can meet the regulatory practical test standards of the FAA and is issued a pilot's certificate, commercial service airports must also demonstrate that they meet the minimum safety standards and are also issued a certificate. The Airport Operating Certificate (AOC) is issued to a commercial service airport (enplaning 2,500 or more passengers annually) when it has passed the FAA safety inspection. Once issued, the FAA conducts annual inspections to ensure the airport continues to meet federal standards. The FAA can also conduct an inspection at any other time, announced or unannounced, and regularly conducts follow up inspections to ensure certain time-sensitive items are being addressed.

Pavement deterioration generally has two causes: environmental (due to weather and aging) and structural (caused by repeated air traffic loads).

Often, these forms of deterioration work together, as they do in the formation of a pothole. Potholes are formed when water erodes the base of a pavement overlay, causing a hole to form underneath the pavement. Repeated stress loads caused by aircraft and vehicle traffic then cause the pavement to collapse into the hole. In some cases, water collects underneath the pavement, and when an aircraft load is imposed, the water shoots upwards and sometimes out of the pavement (this phenomenon is known as pumping).

Pavement Condition and Inspection: preventative maintenance

Once any type of pavement is installed, it is subject to erosions and other forms of deterioration. Title 14 Part 139 requires that airport management maintain and promptly repair any pavement surface available for air carrier use. If the airport is not certificated, any airport obligated by Grant Assurances requires a similar level of pavement care. Ultimately, the longevity of pavement is highly dependent on an airport pavement management system that focuses on preventative maintenance, which includes any regular or recurring work necessary to sustaining airport pavement in a good condition. Examples of these processes include routine cleaning, crack sealing, patching, seal coating, pavement edge grading, and restoring pavement markings. Airport pavement is traditionally engineered for a minimum of a 20- year structural life, provided that the airport operator performs regular and routine maintenance. The goal of a pavement maintenance program is to provide safe and operable pavement for the least possible cost. Effective maintenance programs will provide the owner with sufficient information to assess how to obtain the greatest return for funds expended. The FAA requires a pavement maintenance program that includes a pavement inventory, annual and periodic inspections, a recordkeeping and retrieval system and identification of maintenance program funding (FAA, 2009, p. 7-3 to 7-4). The FAA places a high priority on the upkeep and repair of all pavement surfaces in the aircraft operating areas. This ensures continued safe aircraft operations. While deterioration of pavement due to usage and exposure to the environment cannot be completely prevented, a timely and effective maintenance program can reduce this deterioration. Lack of adequate and timely maintenance is the greatest single cause of pavement deterioration and, as a result, loss of federal investment. The failure of airport pavement and drainage design is directly attributable to the absence of an inspection program (FAA, 2009, p. 7-4). Part 139 requires a daily inspection of airport pavements in the Movement Area, but the FAA requires a schedule of periodic inspections to ensure pavement is thoroughly checked and proper corrective actions are recommended, particularly for those areas that do not come under day-to-day observation. In addition to the daily inspections, periodic maintenance inspections should be conducted at least twice a year. Postponement of a minor maintenance issue can quickly develop into a major repair project (FAA, 2009, p. 7-4, 7-5)

Airport Classes

Part 139 describes rules governing the certification and operation of airports in any state in the United States, the District of Columbia, or any territory or possession of the United States, and requires the FAA to issue airport operating certificates to airports that: 1. Serve scheduled and unscheduled air carrier aircraft with more than 30 seats, or 2. Serve scheduled air carrier operations in aircraft with more than nine seats but less than 31 seats.

"sufficiently qualified personnel"

Part 139 requires airports to employ sufficiently qualified personnel to operate the airport in a safe manner. According to the FAA, "sufficiently qualified personnel" exist if all the requirements in the ACM are properly performed. Those individuals who are authorized to carry out the responsibilities of ACM compliance are specifically identified by job title and are required to be welltrained and educated in the requirements of the ACM and Part 139. Personnel with routine access and a necessity to be in the Movement Area must receive initial training and recurrent training every 12 months on operations and safety measures within the AMA.

Lighting systems include the following types:

Runway edge lights are white. On instrument runways, yellow edge lights replace the white ones in the direction of landing for the last 2,000 feet or for one-half of the runway length, whichever is less. This provides visual safety information to a pilot as he or she approaches the end of the runway. • Runway centerline lights are white in the direction of landing. On a precision instrument runway, the lights change to alternating red and white beginning at the last 3,000 feet of the runway for a 2,000-feet distance. At 1,000 feet remaining, the centerline lights switch to all red. • Taxiway edge lights have solid blue lenses, or in the case when lights are unavailable, taxiways can be marked with blue rod shaped reflectors. Taxiway centerline lights are green in color. • Taxiway Lead-on, Lead-off lights are in-pavement lights that alternate green and yellow, lead from the runway centerline onto a taxiway, or vice-versa. Some airports have the green taxiway center lights marking the complete route between the terminal and the active runway. Exact specifications vary depending on the type of instrument approach the runway is certified for, and their discussion is beyond the scope of the module. • Threshold lights, which mark the ends of the runway, are of the colored split lens type. The lens indicating the end of a runway to a departing aircraft is red, while the other lens, indicating the start of the runway for landing aircraft, is green. Runway lights are directional in focus through what is known as a Fresnel lens. This lens requires the light bases to be properly aligned with the runway and angled toward the landing approach.

AE- Accountable Executive

SMS has also introduced the concept of the Accountable Executive (AE). The AE is the designated individual responsible for the implementation and oversight of the SMS processes at airports but more so from a policy perspective. The AE is likely a director level position and can be different from the SMS Program Manager. The SMS program manager is often the individual who plans and implements the SMS programs throughout the airport, is an expert on SMS, and frequently reports to the Accountable Executive.

Safety Management Systems (SMS)

Safety oversight is best provided through an organization-wide Safety Management System (SMS). SMS helps to manage safety risk through systematic procedures, practices, and policies. In 2006, ICAO directed all member states (i.e. countries that are signatory members of ICAO, including the United States), to implement Safety Management Systems. While many other areas of the U.S. aviation industry (airlines, corporate aviation, helicopter aviation, etc.) have implemented SMS, the FAA has taken much longer in requiring its implementation in airport operations. Initial rulemaking has been proposed and in July 2016 the FAA issued a Supplemental Notice of Proposed Rulemaking which in effect proposes to require SMS at any certificated airport which: (1) is classified as a small, medium, or large hub airport in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems; (2) is identified by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection as a port of entry, designated international airport, landing rights airport, or user fee airport; or (3) is identified as having more than 100,000 total annual operations (FAA, 2016). Safety oversight and management is based on the premise that hazards and human errors will always exist. SMS establishes processes to improve communication and minimize potential risks, thereby improving the level of safety in an organization. An SMS has, at its core, a focus on four distinct elements: 1. Safety policy 2. Safety risk management 3. Safety assurance 4. Safety promotion

n Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 139 Certification of Airports

Safety standards for commercial service airports evolved from the Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 and today are embodied in Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 139 Certification of Airports. The primary objective of Part 139 is to ensure safety in air transportation by regulating the operation and maintenance of airports serving scheduled air carrier operations. Part 139 is designed to help prevent accidents and, in the event of an accident, mitigate injuries. Part 139 addresses the minimum safety and maintenance standards for airports and requires a number of accident prevention measures be followed such as a Snow and Ice Control plan; a signs, marking, and lighting plan; a wildlife hazard management program, and an Airport Emergency Plan. Accident mitigation measures include the provision of aircraft rescue and firefighting response, additional emergency response services, and safety area enhancements. While Part 139 applies to commercial service airports, some GA airports have elected to apply for a 139 certificate in order to achieve higher safety standards, and the 139 standard is considered a best practice for GA airports when able.

should stripe marking

Shoulder stripe markings are used on both runways and taxiways to provide a visual contrast between the usable and adjacent unusable pavement surface. A shoulder stripe marking is one continuous, solid white line on runways. Side stripes are required on precision instrument runways and on runways when the full runway pavement width may not be available for use as a runway

rotating beacon

The airport rotating beacon helps to identify the airport location and area to a pilot. The light emitted from a beacon is angled from two to 10 degrees above the horizon, depending on the surrounding terrain. Civil land airports have a white-green beacon. As a safety measure, beacons are designed and built so that if one bulb burns out, a backup bulb will activate. The system also provides information by a secondary light or signal that indicates a bulb has burned out. If a beacon is activated during the day, it represents conditions below those for flight under visual flight rules. It could be that the ceiling is below 1,000-feet and/or the visibility is less than three miles.

Pavement Management Programs (PMP)

The most effective means of preserving airport runways, taxiways, and other paved areas is through the implementation of a comprehensive maintenance program. AIP grant language also requires that airports develop and maintain an effective airport pavement maintenance-management program. Pavement Management Programs (PMP), usually referred to as Airport Pavement Management Systems (APMS) by airport operations, provide methods of establishing an effective repair system by creating systematic procedures for scheduling maintenance and rehabilitation. An APMS evaluates the present condition of the pavement and can be used to forecast future conditions. By projecting the rate of deterioration, an APMS can assist planning for maintenance that occurs at optimal periods. Maintenance that occurs too early results in the airport operator spending money before necessary and not benefitting from the full lifespan of the pavement. Maintenance that occurs too late results in greatly increased maintenance pavement deterioration, meaning that it will cost incrementally more money the longer the airport waits to repair the pavement. The primary metric of an APMS is the PCI rating system. The PCI is a rating of the surface condition of the pavement and provides an indication of functional capability of the surface course. By conducting periodic PCI determinations, changes can be detected in performance levels and can help indicate when optimal rehabilitation will be necessary

Pavement Friction Measurement: Continuous Friction Measuring Equipment (CFME).

The operator of any airport with jet aircraft traffic should schedule annual friction evaluations of each runway that accommodates jet aircraft. Depending on the volume and type (weight) of traffic on the runways, evaluations may become more frequent and necessary. Two basic types of frictionmeasuring equipment are available for conducting friction surveys on runways during winter operations—Decelerometers (DEC) and Continuous Friction Measuring Equipment (CFME). CFME devices provide a continuous, graphic record of the pavement surface friction characteristics with friction averages for each one-third portion of a runway length. The devices are either towed or installed in ground vehicles capable of conducting the friction test at speeds of 40 mph or 60 mph for the full length of the runway (this compares to a speed of 20 mph for decelerometers). Several CFME devices have the ability to carry water and provide self-wetting capabilities for conducting and evaluating wet pavement conditions. Both DECs and CFMEs are eligible for federal funding under the AIP program

Surface Movement Guidance and Control System (SMGCS)

To enhance taxiing capabilities in low visibility conditions and to reduce the potential for runway incursions, Advisory Circular 120-57A, Surface Movement Guidance and Control System, (SMGCS), requires a low visibility taxi plan for any airport that has scheduled air carrier takeoff or landing operations in visibility less than 1,200 feet runway visual range (RVR). For airports with SMCGS systems, inspection personnel should also inspect SMGCS that may include Stop Bar Lights, Runway Guard Lights, Taxiway Centerline Lighting, Geographic Position Markings, and Clearance Bar Lights. Each element of SMGCS that is part of the airport's SMGCS plan is required to be inspected.One component of a SMGCS is the painted taxiway markings that complement the lighted guidance and informational signs. A SMGCS also requires elevated or in-pavement runway guard lights, green centerline and lead-on lights for preferred taxi routes, taxiway and clearance bar lights, gate-designator and geographic hold-position markings ("spots"), and yellow elevated runway guard lights at hold positions ("wig-wags"), along with in-pavement lights.

Traffic and Wind Direction Indicators, Inspection Standards, and Markings: compass rose, segmented circle, wind indicator, windsock, wind tree

Two other types of markings/piloting aids found at airports are a compass rose and a segmented circle. A compass rose, typically a surface painted marking, is located in an area large enough for an aircraft to maneuver and align to the different magnetic headings indicated on the pavement. The compass rose is used to help calibrate the aircraft magnetic compass, which needs to be periodically adjusted to account for the Earth's magnetic flux. The segmented circle marking is designed to visually assist pilots in determining the airport traffic pattern while in flight. A segmented circle is a series of highly visible, white or yellow markers arranged in a circle around a surface wind indicator. The markings, in conjunction with the surface wind direction, give the pilot important landing pattern information. A segmented circle is required at airports serving air carrier operations and when no control tower is in operation. A landing strip indicator extends from the segmented circle for each runway. If a right-hand traffic pattern exists, a traffic pattern indicator extends from the landing strip indicator. Within the segmented circle is a wind indicator. Wind indicators pivot in the wind and can be a tetrahedron, a wind cone (windsock), a combination of both, or a wind tee. Depending on the model, wind cones (socks) at airports have a minimum opening diameter of 18 inches, which provides an indication of wind speeds from 5 to 50 miles per hour. The cones have a distinguishing color of white, yellow, or orange. The support structure should be orange in color. Additional wind cones are required at airports certificated under Part 139 for each runway available for air carrier use. These supplemental wind cones are installed at the end of each runway, or at least at a point visible to the pilot while on final approach and prior to takeoff. For those airports open for air carrier operations during hours of darkness, all wind direction indicators require lighting

FOD

Unpaved Areas, within Part 139, pertain only to those locations used by commercial service aircraft for takeoff, landing, and taxiing. Outside of Alaska, very few unpaved commercial landing areas exist. Where unpaved areas do exist, the airport operator must maintain and promptly repair the surface of each gravel, turf, or other unpaved runway, taxiway, or loading ramp and parking area that is available for air carrier use on the airport. Slopes from the full-strength surfaces downward to the existing terrain may be steeper than 2:1. Full-strength surfaces must have adequate crown or grade to assure sufficient drainage that will ultimately prevent pooling and must be adequately compacted and sufficiently stable to prevent rutting by aircraft or the loosening or build-up of surface material, which could impair directional control of aircraft or drainage. The full-strength surfaces must have no holes or depressions that exceed three inches in depth and are of a breadth capable of impairing directional control or causing damage to an aircraft. Foreign Object Debris (FOD) must be promptly removed from the surface.

Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Non-Precision Approach Light Systems Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) Omni Directional Approach Lights (ODAL) Lead-In lights (LDIN)

VFR approach light systems are used to help pilots distinguish runways and assist in flying navigational paths for noise, wildlife, safety, or other pertinent purposes. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) are lighting units located on both corners of a runway threshold; they provide synchronized flashing to identify the runway end. If sequential flashing approach lights are installed off the approach end of the runway, and they are visible from any direction, they are referred to as Omni Directional Approach Lights (ODAL). ODALs is an omnidirectional ALS consisting of seven flashing lights in the approach area of a non-precision approach runway. They help a pilot to locate the airport and the runway approach from any flight direction, and are commonly used for non-precision approaches. If ODALs are located away from the runway to help define a VFR path through congested or noise sensitive airspace, they are referred to as Lead-In lights (LDIN) and are designed to overcome problems associated with hazardous terrain, obstructions, or noise sensitive areas. They may be placed at intervals of 3,000 feet to highlight a curved, straight, or combination pathway to a runway threshold or ALS.

noncomplying conditions

Whenever the requirements of Part 139, Subpart D—Operations cannot be met so that uncorrected and unsafe conditions exist on the airport, the Part 139 certificate holder must confine air carrier operations to those portions of the airport that are not rendered unsafe by those conditions. This is addressed in Part 139 under the term Noncomplying Conditions.

taxiway-ending marking and/or sign

Where a taxiway ends, a taxiway-ending marking and/or sign is normally installed

Runway Visual Range (RVR) and Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (SMGCS),

With the capability of allowing air carriers to conduct operations when the visibility is less than 1,200-feet, U.S. airports implement Runway Visual Range (RVR) and Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (SMGCS), which is a system of guidance, control, and regulation of all aircraft, ground vehicles, and personnel on the movement areas during low visibility conditions. The intent of the SMGCS is to prevent collisions and to ensure that traffic flows smoothly and freely in low visibility conditions. Guidance and regulation of aircraft are accomplished through surface markings, stop-bar lights, runway status lights, clearance-bar lights, hold-position lights (i.e. Runway Guard Lights), and training.

Four Components of SMS

Written by senior management, the safety policy communicates management's commitment to safety and the assurance that safety is constantly being monitored and evaluated by all employees and other airport stakeholders. The policy addresses how the organization is structured to achieve safety goals and lays out the processes and procedures to identify and mitigate safety risks. The use of safety risk management (SRM) techniques in risk identification, assessment, mitigation, and tracking are the principal methods for enhancing or increasing an airport's safety record. The safety assurance aspect of SMS comes with internal and external audits and corrective actions providing feedback on implemented risk mitigation strategies. This information can lead to an overall assessment of whether safety objectives are being met or exceeded across the organization. The main goal of safety promotion is to create a "safety culture" that allows the SMS to succeed. This priority reinforces the basic notion that all employees, not just management, are responsible for safety in and around the airport. All personnel must therefore understand the organization's safety philosophy, policies, procedures, and practices.

Runway threshold bars

are a number of longitudinal lines (usually eight, but as many as 16, depending on runway width) that identify the beginning of a runway. Visual approach runways do not have threshold markings. In the event of construction, maintenance, or other activity causing a partial runway closure, the threshold is relocated and airport management is required to file a NOTAM. Depending upon the duration of the activity related to the partial runway closure, it may be necessary to re-paint the runway. A solid 10-foot wide white bar across the runway identifies a relocated threshold

Taxiway Edge Lines

are two parallel continuous yellow lines on taxiways edges. An exception is where a taxi lane is defined next to an apron area. The dashed taxiway edge marking is used where there is an operational need to define the edge(s) of a taxi route on or contiguous to a sizeable paved area that permits pilots to cross over this surface marking. A common application for this surface marking is a taxi route along the outer edge of a terminal apron.

Runway hold-position marking

g (often called a "stop-bar," "hold short bar," or "hold short line") are four yellow parallel lines—two dashed lines and two solid ones. The two dashed lines are closest to the runway. Aircraft or vehicles approaching the runway will encounter the two double solid lines, which require authorization from the ATCT to cross when the control tower is in operation.

the crossbar

is a series of lights positioned perpendicularly to both sides of the primary approach lights. Used as a pilot aid in leveling an aircraft's wings, they also provide distance information to the runway since they are positioned at fixed distances from the threshold. The approach lights uniformly extend from the threshold out to a point where the pilot can make a timely transition from instrument to visual reference

displaced threshold

• A displaced threshold is necessary when siting a threshold other than at the runway end. This relocation can be for obstacle clearance, obstruction in the runway approach, noise abatement, construction, or other purposes. It is a white bar, 10 feet in width across the runway. Arrows and arrowheads help to identify and locate a displaced threshold. If the arrows are used in a displaced threshold, they are white in color.