Module 3: Ethical Practices
Fabrication
"making up data or results and recording or reporting them" (Office of Research Integrity, 2017, line a)
Morality
based on one's personal principles of right and wrong
Membership of IRBs
consists of at least one scientist, another member of the institution with interests outside of the sciences, a member of the community who does not have expertise on scientific methods, and members who can be advocates for vulnerable populations.
Deception
consists of presenting information to participants that is incomplete, inaccurate, or both. Deception should be avoided in research. However a Cover story can be used to avoid self-fulfilling prophecy or social desirability
Debriefing
phase, which consists of providing as much information about the study as possible, correcting any misconceptions the participants may have, and ensuring that participants have not been harmed by the study (APA Ethics Code, Standard 8.08. Debriefing). Debriefing should be available to the participants of all studies as a courtesy, but it is a requirement in studies that use deception.
Falsification
"manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record" (Office of Research Integrity, 2017, line b). Another type of fraud is the failure to disclose any conflict of interest (American Psychological Association, 2010).
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1974)
- Publisher of the Belmont Report - Was created by the National Research Act Largely in response to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study
APA Ethical Principles
1. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence endorses protection from harm, based on the welfare and rights of humans and the welfare of animals. 2. Fidelity and Responsibility suggests that psychologists build trust, conduct their business professionally, cooperate with others, and provide responsible services. 3. Integrity focuses on the importance of accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the work of psychologists. 4. Justice recognizes issues of fairness of access and benefits. 5. Respect for People's Rights and Dignity emphasizes respect, dignity, and worth of individuals, independent of their differences, guaranteeing privacy and confidentiality.
APA Ethical Standards
1. Resolving Ethical Issues 2. Competence 3. Human Relations* 4. Privacy and Confidentiality* 5. Advertising and Other Public Statements 6. Record Keeping and Fees 7. Education and Training Research and Publication* Assessment Therapy These should be consulted during the phases of research design, data collection, data analyses, & presending / publishing results.
The Milgram Obedience Studies
In the early 1960s, Yale social psychologist Stanley Milgram began a series of studies to determine how willingly people follow the order of an authority figure to hurt an innocent person.In the wake of the Nuremberg trials, Milgram sought to understand why so many Nazis followed orders to torture and kill innocent people. his demonstrations involved telling participants to administer electric shocks to an innocent person to see how far the participants were willing to go before they refused to administer any more shocks.
IRB procedures
Not all research has to undergo IRB review, however. Research may be considered exempt if no human participants are involved. If there will be human subjects, the project may be considered for one of two types of review: expedited or full review. Once the review has taken place, the IRB typically provides one of three types of responses: approved, revisions required, or not approved.
social desirability
Participants changing their responses to avoid sharing something they feel makes them look bad
Issues Addressed by the APA Standards
Privacy and confidentiality: The practice of not disclosing personal or identifying information about a participant beyond what is necessary for carrying out the study. Guaranteeing confidentiality of participants' information builds trust between researchers and their participants. Right to withdraw: Even after individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research project, they may change their minds and opt out of the project at any point with no negative consequences. Informed consent: The process of providing individuals enough information about their participation in a particular research study prior to the beginning of that study in order to allow them to make a voluntary choice to participate. Deception and debriefing: In some cases, the information initially provided to participants is incomplete or inaccurate. In other words, researchers sometimes deceive their participants in order to prevent those participants from knowing the true purpose of the study. However, by the end of the study researchers provide participants correct information during the debriefing. Institutional review boards (IRBs): Research should be reviewed by independent groups to ensure Ethical Standards are met.
Who publishes ethics codes?
Professional organizations typically publish ethics codes to guide the actions of thos who act in a disipline or industry.
American Psychological Association's Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA Ethics Code) (2017)
Provides 5 general principles and 10 standards that apply to the many roles psychologists carry out, with the ultimate goal of upholding human rights.
Why do researchers need a code of ethics?
Researchers need a code of thics to produce accurate scientific knowledge while protecting the well-being of participants.
What is the relationship between the APA Ethical Principles and Ethical Standards?
Standards are specific applications of the principles.
Resources that define, explain, and illustrate what plagiarism is and how to avoid it.
The APA Publication Manual (2010) provides information on Crediting Sources (Chapter 6). The Indiana University at Bloomington has a training program that allows students to receive a Certificate on How to Recognize Plagiarism (available at https://www.indiana.edu/~academy/firstPrinciples/certificationTests/index.html). The training illustrates different types of plagiarism and provides strategies for presenting the sources appropriately. More resources regarding how to avoid plagiarism can be found at Plagiarism.org (available at http://www.plagiarism.org/article/what-is-plagiarism).
Gene Editing
With the decoding of the full human genome, scientists gained great knowledge and began investing substantial effort into understanding how this knowledge could be used. These efforts jumped into high gear around 2014 with the development of a gene-editing tool titled CRISPR-Cas9. This tool, and a few related techniques, allow scientists to quickly and accurately target specific locations on a DNA molecule where the recipe for a specific protein can be disabled, or where a new recipe can be spliced in to produce a different protein.
Cover Story
a description of what participants will be expected to do and/or what the goal of the research is. This is different from the actual research procedure and/or goals.
informed consent form
a formal document that may require the participant's signature, but this requirement may be adjusted to the type of research.
Informed Assent
a process of asking for willingness to participate that is less formal than informed consent. Obtained from vulnerable participants along with following stricter protocols.
Ethics
a set of principles agreed upon by a group.
Right to Withdraw
after individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research project, they may change their minds and opt out of the project at any point There must be no negative consequences for participants if they withdraw from a study. The right to withdraw from the research at any point is expressed in the principle of Respect for Individual Rights and Dignity and Standards 8.02, 8.04, and 8.07.
institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs)
independent groups that review Research that involves animals These committees' membership consists of at least five members (a veterinarian, a scientist with experience in animal research, a nonscientist, someone not affiliated with the institution that houses the animals)
The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (National Research Council, 2011)
recommends three strategies for making ethical decisions regarding animal research, known as the three Rs: Replacement. This strategy suggests that researchers consider methods that avoid using vertebrate animals, such as using invertebrate ones or computer models. Refinement. This strategy suggests that researchers use procedures that minimize harm and enhance the well-being of the animals used in research. Reduction. This strategy suggests that researchers consider methods that minimize the number of animals used in the research while maximizing the information acquired.
Animal Welfare Act (1966)
regulates all nonhuman animal care and use in the United States. The act covers care and use of animals in many categories, from pets to farm animals, from education to research, and is followed by a variety of organizations, ranging from the U.S. Department of Agriculture to the American Psychological Association (APA).
Fraud
the misrepresentation of facts, or lying. fabrication and falsification are kinds of fraud.
Penalties for Plagiarism or Fraud
Colleges and universities follow their own guidelines when they are available, which often include failing an assignment, failing a course, or even being expelled from a university or fired from a job. When the American Psychological Association (APA) Ethics Office receives a complaint of ethical misconduct by one of its members, it undertakes an investigation. Depending on the results of the investigation, the Ethics Office may do one of the following: - Dismiss the charge. - Recommend supervision, education, training or tutorial, evaluation, or treatment. - Place the member on probation. - Declare a censure of the member. - Expel the researcher from membership in the APA. The Office of Research Integrity, which oversees research integrity activities for the federal government, lists the following penalties for misconduct: Correction or retraction of the report. Publication of the author's name, work, and summary of misconduct. Supervision. Disbarring or exclusion from access to resources or boards.
Conflict of Interest
Conflicts, whether potential or actual, may arise when a researcher's perspective or situation may influence the outcome of a study. Some publications now require disclosure of any conflict of interest.
Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Nonhuman Animals in Research (American Psychological Association, 2012)
Designed by The APA Committee on Animal Research and Ethics The guidelines establish that researchers must be trained in the Ethical Principles as well as on the appropriate procedures for animal care and use. Methodology is also part of the review process; the research has to be justified (for instance, based on theory) to avoid unnecessary harm to animals.
Belmont Report (1979)
The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research Created to provide a set of Ethical guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research. It consists of three comprehensive, core principles to guide ethical biomedical and behavioral research involving human participants: 1) Respect for Persons Individuals should be treated as autonomous agents (those who can determine their goals and how to pursue them). Individuals with diminished autonomy must be protected. 2) Beneficence Researchers must assure the participants' well-being. The research should cause no harm, minimize risks, and (when possible) maximize benefits to individual research participants. 3) Justice Researchers must consider the goals and impact of the research on all who stand to be affected. Participants should be selected based on the rationale for the research, and not due merely to convenience. The benefits of the research should apply equally, and not only to particular groups, such as those who can afford it.
Nuremberg Code (1947)
The first code of ethics for researchers was created after World War II as a response to the Nazi regime's unethical experimentation on concentration camp prisoners
Should we edit a persons genes?
The knowledge we gain can be used and abused. The discussion that we have and the ethical principles that we set will help guide this knowledge to productive and rewarding outcomes.
institutional review board (IRB)
The main goal of an IRB is to make sure that researchers adhere to Ethical Principles in carrying out their research, especially ensuring that there is no harm to participants. IRB reviews of research protocols are required for government research, and these guidelines have also become the standard for nongovernmental research in the United States.
informed consent
The process of providing enough information about the project, and allowing participants to make an informed, voluntary choice to participate
Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)
This study, conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service to examine the progression of syphilis, started in 1932 with 600 low-income African American men, 399 of whom had syphilis and 201 of whom did not. The study was supposed to last 6 months, but it continued for over 40 years. Only after a 1972 newspaper article brought the study to the public's attention was it discontinued. A government panel, convened in response to the newspaper article, declared the study unethical for several reasons: 1. The study was conducted without the benefit of participants' informed consent. 2. Researchers did not inform infected men that they had syphilis; rather, they told the men they were being treated for "bad blood," a local term used to describe several ailments, including syphilis, anemia, and fatigue. The men were never given adequate treatment for their disease. 3. Even when a cure (penicillin) was discovered and became the standard of care for syphilis in 1947, researchers did not tell the men about it or offer it to them. 4. The advisory panel found nothing to show that subjects were ever given the choice of quitting the study, even when penicillin became widely used. 5. Many of the participants died as a result of not receiving treatment. The panel determined that the study should be terminated due to the harm caused to the participants and their families. The study was then terminated, and the federal government made some reparations to the participants and their families.
self-fulfilling prophecy
When participants try to guess the true purpose of the study, they may change their response to what they think should be the answe
Experiment 5 (Milgram, 1974)
the most well-known version of Milgrams demonstrations In this version of the procedure, Milgram told the participants that the study's purpose was to examine the effects of punishment on learning, and that their job was to teach a learner in an adjacent room to memorize a list of word pairs. Every time the learner made an error, the participant was to punish the learner by giving him increasingly severe electric shocks by pressing levers on a shock machine. There were 30 levers whose shock values ranged from a low of 15 volts to the maximum of 450 volts. In actuality, no electric shock was involved. The "learner" was an actor who intentionally gave many wrong answers and only pretended to receive the shocks, but the participant did not know this. Despite the learner's increasingly pitiful screams and pleas to stop—and eventual failure to respond at all (implying that he had become unconscious)—a majority of participants (65%) obeyed the experimenter's commands to continue and ended up giving the maximum "shock" of 450 volts.
Confidentiality
the protection, or nondisclosure, of the information that participants provide to researchers.
Significance of Milgram's Research
the research enlightened us about the surprising strength of peoples propensity to obey authority, demonstrating that many people are willing to obey destructive orders that conflict with their moral principles and commit acts they would not carry out on their own initiative. Milgram argued that, once we have accepted the right of an authority to direct our actions, we relinquish responsibility to that person and allow him or her to define for us what is right or wrong (American Psychological Association, 2004, May 25).
Plagiarism
the use of others' words, ideas, processes, or results without appropriate recognition of the source (Office of Research Integrity, 2017). It is unethical because it violates intellectual property rights, which protect creations of the mind.
Replicability
there are enough details and enough transparency in all steps of the research process that other researchers could replicate the study on their own.
Vulnerable Participants
those who may be unable to make decisions on their own may be due to: - age or maturity - illness or disorders - particular times of their lives, as during pregnancy - conditions that may lead to coercion such as being institutionalized or incarcerated.
Why Research Ethics Is Important?
to protect all those involved in professional relationships. In the scientific realm, codes of ethics establish that researchers are responsible for: - the welfare and rights of their research participants. - the quality of the knowledge created from the studies they carry out. - the quality of the information gathered, analyzed, presented, and published.
Full IRB Review
when a study involves potential risk and/or vulnerable populations
Expedited IRB Review
when minimum risk is involved
